Developing students’ writing skills
There is an important connection between students’ ability to think about historical issues and
their ability to put together a written answer to an historical question. Sorting exercises that
improve students’ ability to establish relevance and deliberate on issues of sequencing, the
identification of general statements (or ‘big points’) and supporting details (or ‘little points’)
in shaping an historical argument: these and other such strategies have an important role to
play in enabling students to develop confidence and proficiency in their writing of history.
At the stage of writing, as elsewhere, the issue of differentiation needs to be considered as
students come to the task with wide variations in abilities and learning needs. Lower attaining
students may need to be explicitly taught ways of connecting related ideas or pieces of
evidence. The following table shows words and phrases that may be helpful in that regard.
Type of word or phrase
Technical term
Examples
Connecting words or phrases that
relate to causation
Causal connectives
As a result, therefore,
because of this
Connecting words or phrases that
relate to the passing of time
Temporal connectives
Until then, as time passed,
eventually
Higher attaining students tend to show fluency in the use of such connectives. They are also
likely – in their discursive writing – to make use of the following types of connectives.
Type of word or phrase
Technical term
Examples
Words or phrases that
acknowledge contradictions
Contradictive
connectives
It could also be argued, on
the other hand
Words or phrases that
acknowledge uncertainty or
differences in interpretation
Contrastive
connectives
Despite this, nevertheless
Identifying the use of ‘connectives’ as a teaching issue can be an important step towards
empowering lower attaining students to communicate their historical understanding in a more
coherent form.
The following table illustrates some types of connectives and ‘sentence starters’ that may be
helpful to students who are responding to an historical question.
© PDST, 2015
‘History Alive’ Seminar
Developing students’ writing skills
Writing about change



Writing about cause and effect
The
social/cultural/economic/political
changes that resulted were ….
Clear evidence of change can be
seen in …
The first signs of this were …
Adding to/reinforcing a point






In addition….
Furthermore
Besides…
Also….
Another important point to bear in
mind is …
Moreover
Making judgements










As a result …
This led to …
Consequently …
As expected …
Despite expectations …
Writing
about
differences








similarities
and
A similar/different approach was
taken by …
In comparison with…
By contrast …
On the other hand …
… however …
Whereas …
Likewise…
Equally …
Writing about evidence
It seems to me …
I base my view on …
It may be that …
There is evidence here that …
My reasons for … are …






This point tells us that ….
This point suggests that …
It is possible to infer that …
This might be evidence for ….
A source that supports this view is
…
Perhaps …
For many students, a helpful way in which their competence to put together an historical
argument can be improved is through the use of ‘writing frames’. A writing frame is a device
that is designed to help students structure their answer to an historical question. The use of
writing frames in history classes is based on the premise that there is a close connection
between literacy and the ability to think historically. Students need the appropriate
vocabulary if they are to make sense of historical data; they also need a stock of appropriate
sentence starters and connecting phrases if they are to be able to write with fluency and
clarity in responding to historical questions. Typically, writing frames provide a series of
paragraph prompts and/or a series of sentence starters’ and ‘connectives’ to help them
construct an answer.
© PDST, 2015
‘History Alive’ Seminar
Developing students’ writing skills
The following are advantages that may be derived from the use of writing frames:

For lower-attaining students, they provide a type of ‘scaffolding’ on which to build an
answer

They may help some students to write a more extended answer than they would be
capable of in the absence of a ‘frame’

They direct students’ writing in a purposeful way

They can be used to ensure that students address all the essential elements of an
answer

They are a proven strategy in the development of pupil literacy across a range of
subjects

Frames can be differentiated to ‘stretch’ the more able
If writing frames are to be used productively, teachers need to be aware of potential
drawbacks associated with their use:

Frames can serve to limit the thinking of some students

Frames may be off-putting for students who visual or other preferred learning styles

Over-use of frames may stifle students’ ability to think critically

Frames may generate a sameness in the responses and result in predictable and
formulaic answers
In Example 1, the emphasis is on ‘modelling’ a series of paragraphs to provide substantial
guidance to students.
Example 1: Question – Why did the issue of sovereignty remain a contentious issue in Irish
politics during the period, 1921-1949?
Paragraph 1- The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 1921, caused a split in the Sinn Féin party because …)
Paragraph 2 - Fianna Fáil was set up in 1926 in order to …)
Paragraph 3 – Once de Valera came to power in 1932, he …)
Paragraph 4 – Through the policy of neutrality, de Valera wanted to show …)
Paragraph 5 – With regard to the issue of sovereignty, the declaration of the republic in 1949
was intended to …)
Hint: Use the term, the issue of sovereignty, in every paragraph.
© PDST, 2015
‘History Alive’ Seminar
Developing students’ writing skills
In Example 2, the degree of prompting is less substantive in terms of ‘content’, but a series of
‘connectives’ and other relevant phrases is provided.
Example 2: Question – Why did fascism succeed politically in some European countries and
not in others during the period, 1919-1939?
By ‘fascism’ we mean …
Fascism was attractive to some people because …
In some European countries, such as Italy and Germany, fascism had a particular attraction
because …
Fascists in certain countries came to power because …
On the other hand we should be aware that …
Another ‘ism’ that attracted support during this period was …
As time went on, the conflict of ideologies increased …
However, we must remember that …
N.B. Remember, if writing frames are to be used, they need to be used selectively and
judiciously. Over-use runs the risk of doing too much work for the student and encouraging
dependency. Nevertheless, they can play an important role in assisting students to put
together an historical argument. Students should be encouraged to see writing frames not as
mandatory frameworks but as facilitative ‘pointers’ that they are free to amend and adapt to
their purposes.
Linking the development of students’ writing skills in history to the demands of the
examination
Higher level
The following HL question was answered by a student in examination conditions and marked
by an experienced examiner.
You are invited to read the answer, to give some thought to the ‘Points for consideration’ that
follow and to discuss the points arising with the other group members.
Question: During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth
of fascist regimes?
Answer:
Paragraph 1 - The accession of Mussolini, Hitler and to a lesser extent Franco, created an
entirely different situation in international affairs. The rise of fascism in Europe is
inextricably linked to severe social and economic problems. Furthermore, the failure of
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‘History Alive’ Seminar
Developing students’ writing skills
parliamentary democracy was another condition which gave rise to fascist regimes in Europe
during the inter-war period.
Paragraph 2 - Firstly in Germany their imminent defeat in World War I and the abdication of
the Kaiser led people to believe it was now time for democracy. A coalition government of
SDPs and centreists was formed. However there was still a residue of opinion which was
pro-imperialism. Similarly in Italy they were experimenting with democracy for the first time.
However both of these weak coalition governments were unable to cope with the severe
problems. People felt there was too much talk and too little action in the democratic system.
Fascism on the other hand offered strong government and a leader who would save them.
Paragraph 3 - The characteristics of fascism were ultra nationalism, totalitarianism of the
state, anti-communism and the cult of the leader. Fascism attracted people on an emotional
level. As the economic conditions deteriorated following the war communism became
increasingly popular and strikes became widespread. Ordinary people feared the spread of
communism, conditions resembled those of Russia in 1917. By 1920 Italy was in the middle of
a lockout and similarly in Germany the Spartacist uprising by the communists in 1919
threatened the very existence of the Weimar Republic in its first few years. In both Germany
and Italy fascism posed as the sole protector of the right as people feared the spread of
communism.
Paragraph 4 - Another aspect which gave rise to fascist regimes during the inter-war period
was the dissatisfaction with the Paris peace settlement in 1919. Both Germany and Italy felt
that they got a raw deal at this settlement. Italy had been promised North Tyrol and Dalmatia
if she entered the war in 1915 at the Treaty of London. However the allies went back on their
word and furthermore they placed a restriction on Italian expansion into Africa. This violated
Italy’s policy of self-determination. Germany also felt hard done by at the Paris peace
settlement. She was given a huge reparations bill and lost territory such as Danzig. Italians
and Germans blamed their democratic governments for signing and the “stab in the back”
was born.
Paragraph 5 - Both Mussolini and Hitler used their grievances for their own benefit. They
promised a return to former glories. Mussolini promised a return to old Roman glories and
Hitler spoke constantly about the “Third Reich” and return to former glories like the
Bismarck era.
Paragraph 6 - In both Italy and Germany World War I soldiers returned to devastated
economies. By 1920 in Italy there was 2 million people unemployed and in Germany after the
Wall Street Crash unemployment from 2 million in 1929 to 6 million in 1932. This discontent
fuelled the likes of Hitler and Mussolini. Ex-soldiers became perfect recruits for violent right
wing combat groups. In Germany Hitler formed the SA (Brownshirts), in Italy Mussolini
formed Squadristi and in Spain Franco formed the Blueshirts. Soldiers who had no
employment and felt angry enlisted in these para military groups and helped their leaders
assume full control.
Paragraph 7 - I believe that another condition which favoured the growth of fascist regimes
was the fact that each of the countries were newly united states. Both Italy and Germany had
© PDST, 2015
‘History Alive’ Seminar
Developing students’ writing skills
only just been unified in 1870-71. People in these countries wanted to assert their own
nationalism. Undoubtedly the social and economic hardships contributed to the rise of
fascism. However we must not forget the people’s frame of mind was a key factor as well.
Without the overwhelming support of the public neither Hitler nor Mussolini would have
been able to assume control of Italy and Germany.
Paragraph 8 - Undoubtedly the depressions created by World War I in Italy and the Wall
Street Crash in Germany led to the growth of fascist regimes. However I believe it was also
down to Hitler and Mussolini’s ability in manipulating and exploiting the Germans and
Italians innate sense of pride which led to the formation of fascist governments in Germany
and Italy.
Paragraph 9 - Essentially too much of the Germans and the Italians paid lip service to the
democratic governments, while at the same time yearning for a return to strong government
and Imperialism. The depression, dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles and the failure
of parliamentary democracy all crucially contributed to the growth of fascism during the
inter-war period. The frame of mind of the people was also a key factor in the emergence of
fascism.
Points to consider:
1. Do you see any evidence that the student is following a made-out plan? Is there a
sense of coherence to the argument or do you get the impression that the student is
writing down remembered points in no particular order?
2. Can you find examples from the answer of – (i) contrastive or contradictive
connectives (ii) causal connectives (iii) other useful sentence starters?
3. Can you find an example from the answer of each of the following – (i) unnecessary
repetition (ii) vagueness of expression (iii) unsubstantiated generalisation?
4. Is the concluding paragraph an adequate summary of the argument made or have any
major points been omitted?
5. What do you consider the main strengths of this answer, keeping in mind the precise
wording of the set question?
6. What weaknesses, if any, do you see in the answer? List one or more ways in which
you think the student could improve the argument made.
Ordinary level
The following answer to a Section C question from an Ordinary level examination paper was
written in examination conditions and marked by an experienced examiner.
Question – In what ways did World War II impact upon Ireland, North and South?
Answer – World War two had a massive affect on Ireland. Firstly with regards to its
neutrality Ireland’s neutrality was enforced with the removal of British naval ports in
© PDST, 2015
‘History Alive’ Seminar
Developing students’ writing skills
Berehaven Cork and Lough Swilly. The world war also gave the South a chance to prove that
it was independent by giving England the agreement of certain consideration. The
empowerment act was also passed and Ireland (south) could imprision people who
endangered its neutrality. Also after the war some alliances were set up for economic aid.
The allies had the Marshall aid and the axis had Comecon. The north of Ireland benefited
economically whereas the South did not. So basicly the impact of the war for Northern
Ireland was the loss of a port and gain in economic aid. For the South they received no aid
but they did get the removal of naval ports and the emergency powers act.
Points to consider
1. Does the student get straight to the point of the question?
2. Are the key elements of the question addressed? E.g. “ways”; “North and South”?
3. Can you identify any useful connectives that are used in the course of the answer?
Linking the development of writing skills to the promotion of reading ability
There is a danger that an over-emphasis on preparing students to write examinationappropriate answers may lead to a neglect of the reading tasks through which students
acquire new knowledge in history. If students are to be helped develop their full potential,
reading and writing should be seen as ‘two sides of the same coin’. Reading tasks need to
be purposeful and engaging, and to have a clear link with follow-on written tasks.
In phase 7 of the in-service, we exemplified how a series of lessons could be built around
an enquiry question on the arrest of Rosa Parks and its consequences. Such a question can
assist students in extracting meaning from textbook narratives, descriptions and
explanations. The following activities are helpful in promoting active reading and
engagement with the text:





Writing in the enquiry question at the beginning of the section where the issues it
raises are addressed
Writing in sub-titles for relevant paragraphs
Directed activities related to texts (DARTS) e.g. highlighting individual words
that related to causes
Using dictionaries or glossaries to develop understanding of key words
Using supplementary resources – such as an extract from another text book to
show differences in perspective or emphasis
From the points of view of the teacher, it may help to clarify the nature of the challenge
involved in promoting student reading if we focus on four roles for readers identified by
researchers [Freebody, P. and Luke, A. 1990. “Literacy Debates and Demand in Cultural
Context”. Prospect 5 (3): 7-16]: Meaning Maker, Code Breaker, Text User and Text Critic.
Meaning maker – Students can be helped to ‘make meaning’ of what they read by being
encouraged to ask questions of the text, through classroom conversations with their peers and
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‘History Alive’ Seminar
Developing students’ writing skills
their teacher and through being enabled to make connections with their own experience, their
background knowledge and earlier learning.
Code breaker – Students need help with specialist vocabulary and unfamiliar concepts. In
acquiring specialist vocabulary, it may be possible to build on their existing understanding of
related words e.g. anti-semitism and racism. This will often involve helping students to
identify the differences in meaning as well as the similarities.
Text user – Students need to ‘do things’ with a text if they are to use it as a learning tool.
They may need help in learning how to use text supports as aids to understanding. Text
supports include the following: titles and sub-titles, diagrams, pictures, maps, timelines,
glossaries, focus questions, introductory and concluding paragraphs. Frequently, student
drafting of paragraph sub-titles can make a chapter easier to read. To reinforce learning,
students may be invited to turn each sub-title into a question so that the paragraph that
follows the sub-title answers the question.
Text critic - Students become ‘text critics’ insofar as they learn to analyse, synthesise (with
data from another text or texts) and apply in a critical manner data contained in their textbook
or other texts. One way in which the teacher can assist this process is by teaching students
how to record historical data in ways that make the data memorable and accessible.
To briefly illustrate the four roles, let us examine the following extract from a textbook:
At first, European states did not know how to react to Hitler. Before he came to power in
1933 he expressed his ambitions in speeches and in ‘Mein Kampf’. If these were to be
believed, he proposed to revise the Versailles settlement in Germany’s favour, to give his
country its rightful place as master of central and eastern Europe, to unite all Germans in a
strong Third Reich and to implement a policy of racial discrimination particularly against
Jews. Hitler’s oft repeated assertion that Germany needed more Lebensraum (living space)
in the east implied the destruction of a state like Poland and his idea of a pan-German union
implied unity with Austria and the return to Germany of lands taken by other states in 1919.
Attitudes to Hitler varied from those who simply thought he was the leader of a lunatic fringe
to those who felt he would moderate his actions and language if he attained power. After he
became Chancellor in 1933 views about him were still divided. Some like Sir Horace
Rumbold, the British ambassador in Berlin, thought he was a sinister figure with dangerous
expansionist ambitions, while others felt that his economic successes were admirable and
that the ‘Night of the Long Knives’ in 1934 had removed the extremist elements from the Nazi
Party.
Conflict and Change, Europe 1870-1966: Jim Byrne (Educational Company, 1987) pp.332333
© PDST, 2015
‘History Alive’ Seminar
Developing students’ writing skills
Questions that students might discus with each other as ‘meaning makers’: What was ‘Mein
Kampf’? What was the ‘Versailles settlement’? What does ‘oft repeated assertion’ mean?
What’s meant by a ‘pan-German union’? What’s a ‘lunatic fringe’? What does ‘moderate his
actions’ mean? What are ‘expansionist ambitions’? What’s meant by ‘the extremist
elements’?
Words or phrases that students may need help with as ‘code breakers’(and whose meaning
may need to be explored rather than merely defined): Third Reich, racial discrimination,
Lebensraum, pan-German union/unity.
As ‘text users’, students might suggest the following sub-titles for the paragraphs above:
Paragraph 1 – What Hitler wanted to do once he came to power
Paragraph 2 – Different attitudes towards Hitler
Each question might be turned into a question as follows:
Paragraph 1 - What changes did Hitler say he wanted to bring about if he came to power?
Paragraph 2 – What sort of different attitudes did people at the time have towards Hitler?
As ‘text critics’, students might devise/fill in a table such as the following to clarify
different attitudes towards Hitler:
Most positive
His economic
successes are
admirable
Somewhat positive
He will moderate
his actions and
language if he
attains power
Somewhat negative
He’s the lunatic
leader of a fringe
party (not a serious
threat)
Most negative
He is a sinister
figure with
dangerous
expansionist
ambitions
The ‘Night of the
Long Knives’ has
removed the
extremist elements
from the Nazi Party
The identification of a range of attitudes towards Hitler could provide a useful basis for an
exploration of the policy of ‘appeasement’ and its impact on European politics.
The element of sorting involved here echoes the sorting exercises that have been
recommended to develop students’ thinking skills and, as a consequence, their writing skills.
To conclude, the continuous interplay of reading, questioning, discussion and purposeful
writing is essential to the development of students’ ability to think historically and, in the
process, to be prepared in a very positive and practical way for the demands of the
assessment arrangements – both the RSR and the terminal examination.
© PDST, 2015
‘History Alive’ Seminar