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Meta-Commentary for Sustainability Research Paper
In this second draft, I went into great detail regarding the different species of algae and its
possible solutions, which required lots of research again. I also added in as much in-text citations
as possible and created a through list of the sources I used. Although, I only have 5 pages right
now I am hoping that after we peer edit I will have more ideas on where to expand. I worked
really hard and long on this draft in hopes that it will be bring me very close to my final draft.
Authorship
My authorship in this draft I feel is on point. I know exactly what I want to discuss and I
discuss just that. I have much more scholarly sources and regular than I had before making my
work much more credible and reliable. Now, I just have to add in a few more in-text citations.
Audience
My audience in this draft has changed from the previous draft, in that I don’t want it to
read by anyone. I would like my audience to be particularly people from HawaiʻI because I do
use terms that only a person from Hawaiʻi would know. I would like everyone in Hawaiʻi to
know about invasive algae and the harm it causes and ways they can prevent it from spreading
further. That way, we can have our beautiful coral reefs for generations.
Aim
The purpose of this paper is to inform, raise awareness, and sort of argue that reserach
shows that invasive algae is a problem. But, it is a problem that can be solved through various
reserached methods.
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Kiani Ballao
J. Henry
ENG100: Composition I
13 November 2013
Reviving the Reef: Taking On the Invasive Algae in Kāneʻohe Bay
Set out to the windward side of Oʻahu and visit the waters of Kāneʻohe Bay. You will be
likely to see many patches of coral reef. According to The Nature Conservancy, "Kāneʻohe Bay
is the only bay in Hawaiʻi containing fringing, patch and barrier reef systems" (Reef Revival).
The bay has been known to be the home to some of the greatest and highest numbers of diverse
fish and corals on Oʻahu. But over time these populations have fell steeply, due to invasive algae
(Reef Revival). Today, invasive algae "form thick, tangled mats that are destroying the bay's
ecology and turning its reefs into an algae-smothered wasteland" (Reef Revival). Invasive algae
spread prolifically and do much damage. No one wants to see Kāneʻohe Bay's coral reef fall ill to
the chokehold of invasive algae. So, in order to return the coral reefs to health, we can learn
about the different varieties of invasive algae, ways we can extract invasive algae, and why
extraction of invasive algae is so important.
The coral reefs in Kāneʻohe Bay, being near to about 34, 597 people, have shifted in
recent decades from "coral dominance to macroalgal dominance" just like many other coral reefs
near large human populations (Stimson, Larned, and Conklin). These "phase shifts" have been
ascribed to "increased anthropogenic nutrient input, and to reductions in the abundance of
herbivores" (Simon, Larned, and Conklin).
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The green macroalga Dictyosphaeria cavernosa or "green bubble algae" is one of the
many invasive algae that has been covering Kāneʻohe Bay's coral reef since the 1960's and
possibly earlier. Although invasive, Dictyosphaeria cavernosa is native to Hawaiʻi. It is
essentially invasive in "overfished, high nutrient reef communities." The initial expansion of
Dictyosphaeria cavernosa and its endurance on Kāneʻohe Bay reefs particularly, has been due to
nutrient-rich sewage discharge in the bay (Stimson, Larned, and Conklin). Dictyosphaeria
cavernosa productively trap nutrients, sediments, and infaunal (animals) inside the chambers of
the plant. It uses living corals and limestone outcrops as a mainstay and then proceeds to cover
them and to kill the corals. "Young plants may form small clusters of "bubbles" scattered among
turfs on hard substrate. Older plants can form large convoluted mats from one to ten centimeters
thick that may cover large areas subtidally to 59 meters." This species has a firm, tough texture
and is usually grass green but sometimes has a bluish color. It is found attached to rocks or coral
rubble on shallow, calm reef flats and in tidepools.
Several species of Kappaphycus are also found in Kāneʻohe Bay. Kappaphycus species
are amid the largest tropical red algae. This species has been highly successful at Kāneʻohe Bay,
dominating the sandy spur and grooves where it does not compete with native algal on the reef
flat. It has a high growth rate due to it being able to double in 15 to 30 days. Kappaphycus is a
tough, firm, and fleshy algae that can grow up to 2 meters tall. It can vary in colors from being
shiny green to yellow orange. Kappaphycus is usually found on flat reef or on the reefs edge,
loosely attached to broken coral, or floating in shallow and deep waters in unattached fragments.
It was first introduced to Kāneʻohe Bay in 1974 for commercial cultivation and has spread at the
rate of 260 m/yr.
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Last but not least, Gracilaria salicornia or gorilla orgo is one of the most successful
invasive algae on reef flats. It was first found in 1971 in Hilo Bay and was first introduced to
Kāneʻohe Bay and Waikiki in the 1970's. It has spread over 5 kilometers from its point of
introduction on Oahʻu since it was introduced in 1978. "Its widespread dispersal is accomplished
primarily through fragmentation." Gorilla orgo sucessfully competes with other macroalgae by
forming large, intricate mats that cover the surface of coral reefs and inhibts settlement of other
algae. It is extremely variable in Hawaiian waters, but normally, it looks cylindrical with its
branches flattened and sometimes there are little plants compressed throughout its branches.
Gracilaria salicornia is often yellow in sunny areas and greenish brown in shaded areas.
Although, one plant can have both colors, from yellow nearest the surface where it gets most
light to greenish brown near the holdfast where it is most shaded.
The Super Sucker, a 13-foot-by-25-foot pontoon barge, can remove well over 1,000
pounds of algae an hour. "The pump, which transports ocean water and algae from the bay to the
barge's deck, was adapted from use in gold mining, said Brian Parscal, University of Hawaiʻi
operations supervisor for the project" (Daranciang). Divers gently remove the invasive algae
from reefs and feed it into a long hose attached to the pump. The pump sucks the algae back to
the barge and onto a sorting table where it is bagged (Division of Aquatic Resources – Aquatic
Invasive Species). The bags of algae are then delivered to local farmers who use the nutrient rich
algae as fertilizer on crops such as taro and sweet potatoes. The water and algae do not pass
through any blades, so any marine life like crabs or sea cucumbers that get caught in the suction
tubes can be returned to the bay. The pump also keeps the algae in tact because the plant can
regenerate from broken fragments. The whole process of the Super Sucker is very sustainable, in
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that, it removes invasive algae from harming the reef and then it is turned into something
beneficial for crops.
Another way we can extract invasive algae in Kāneʻohe Bay is through Tripneustes
gratilla or sea urchins. Sea urchins serve as a biological control after most of the invasive
seaweed is removed by the Super Sucker. The sea urchins are put down on the reef as juveniles
or when they are about 15 millimeters and four to five months old and grow to maturity to eat
whatever is left of the alien seaweed (Kubota). The State Division of Aquatic Resources raises
the sea urchins in captivity at its Anuenue Fisheries Research Center on Sand Island. The State
Division of Aquaic Resources are not only raising the sea urchins to help control invasive algae
but to increase their population back up to previous levels because over past decades their
popultaion has dropped dramatically (Gutierrez). This sea urchin solution along with the Super
Sucker have been making a great long-term solution in keeping invasive algae off the reef for the
past four years. But, lots of sea urchins are needed. Specifically, what is desired is four sea
urchins per square meter. This vast amount of sea urchins being put back in water put the urchins
in danger of becoming food for puffer fish, octopus, and humans (Shikina).
Reducing the flow of sediment and nutrients into the bay is another solution. There are
three types of sediment found in Kāneʻohe Bay. These include: reef derived material, sewage
derived material, and stream derived material (Sinai). Reef derived material come from the
calcarious muds obtained from the entrance to Kāneʻohe Bay. This sediment is white or gray in
color and consists mainly of broken down reef material in the form of calcium carbonate.
Sewage derived material comes from dredging near the Kāneʻohe Sewage Treatment Plant (STP)
and is described as black, highly anoxic mud that contains mainly organic material. Stream
derived material are obtained near the Keahala Stream and come in as red mud extracted from
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volcanic soils (Sinai). There are many ways to halt and reverse the decline in water quality from
these sediments. For example, the government could first raise awareness on how land-based
activities can negatively impact the marine environment. Then, we could "design national and
international policies for integrated coastal and watershed management, carefully planning the
sustainable use and management of natural resources, and using community-based voluntary
self-regulatory and regulatory frameworks to implement these plans" (The Effects of Terrestrial
Runoff of Sediments). Thereafter, to prevent habitat destruction and the loss of biodiversity
educational measures could be taken, as well as, institutional and economic enforcement
measures. The fourth thing that can be done is restoring and protecting the banks of the Keahala
Stream, the plants found in that area, its wetlands, and other areas of the watersheds that actively
filter out sediments and nutrients. This will minimize the physical restructuring of the shoreline
and maintain coastal setbacks. After that, we can develop options for advanced wastewater
treatment and "monitor and scientifically evaluate the ecological status and functions of riparian,
coastal and marine habitats" (The Effects of Terrestrial Runoff of Sediments). All of these
solutions, if done, can significantly reduce the flow of sediment into the bay.
In conclusion, there are many things that can be done to stop and prevent the spread of
invasive algae. We can learn about the different varieties of invasive algae, ways we can extract
invasive algae, and why extraction of invasive algae is so important. Kāneʻohe Bay's coral reefs
are important in that it supplies food and wave protection for the entire town. It is also home to
many reef associated plants and animals that cannot be found on offshore reefs. In addition, it is
an important for source of tourism and other economic income in Hawaiʻi. For instance,
snorklers, divers, bathers, fishermen, and boaters all frequent Kāneʻohe Bay. Kāneʻohe Bay's
coral reef is very valuable and shouldn't have to become ill or barren due to invasive algae.
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Works Cited
Abbott, I.A., 1999. Marine Red Algae of the Hawaiian Islands. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu,
Hawai‘i.
Daranciang, Nelson. "Super Sucker Slurps Alien Algae." Honolulu Star - BulletinApr 12 2006.
ProQuest. Web. 13 Nov. 2013 .
"Division of Aquatic Resources - Aquatic Invasive Species." Auw.galaxydigital.com. Aloha
United Way, 2013. Web. 12 Nov. 2013.
Doty, M.S. 1986. Experiments With Gracilaria in Hawai‘i, 1983-1985. Hawai‘i Botanical
Science Paper, No. 46, University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu, Hawai‘i.
The Effects of Terrestrial Runoff of Sediments, Nutrients and Other Pollutants on Coral Reefs.
Rep. N.p.: International Society for Reef Studies, 2004. Briefing Paper 3. Coralreefs.org.
'ISRS, 2004. Web. 12 Nov. 2013.
Egerod, L.E, 1952. An Analysis of the Siphonous Chlorophycophyta. University of California
Publications in Botany, V. 25 (5): 325-454.
Gary, Kubota T. "Sea Urchin Protection Plan Helps Kāneʻohe Reef Thrive." Honolulu StarAdvertiser [Honolulu, Hawaii] 15 Aug. 2013, Hawaii News Premium sec.: n. pag.
Proquest.com. Oahu Publications Inc., 16 Aug. 2013. Web. 11 Nov. 2013.
Gutierrez, Ben. "State Growing Urchins to Fight Invasive Seaweed in Kaneohe Bay." Hawaii
News Now [Honolulu, HI] 14 Aug. 2013: n. pag. Hawaiinewsnow.com. WorldNow and
KHNL, 14 Aug. 2013. Web. 12 Nov. 2013.
Larned, S.T., 1998. Nitrogen- versus Phosphorus-limited Growth and Sources of Nutrients for
Coral Reef Macroalgae. Marine Biology, 132: 409-421.
Magruder, W.H, and JW. Hunt, 1979. Seaweeds of Hawai‘i. Oriental Publishing Company,
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Honolulu, Hawai‘i.
Nishimura, N.J. 2001. Assessment of Genetic Variability in the Invasive Red Alga, Gracilaria
Salicornia (C. Agardh) Dawson. Using Multi-locus DNA Fingerprinting. Masters Thesis,
University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i.
"Reef Revival." Nature.org. The Nature Conservancy, n.d. Web. 5 Nov. 2013.
Rodgers, S.K, and E.F. Cox, 1999. Rate of Spread of Introduced Rhodophytes Kappaphycus
Alvarezii, Kappaphycus Striatum, AndGracilaria Salicornia and Their Current
Distributions in Kane‘ohe Bay, O’ahu, Hawai’i. Pacific Science 53: 232-241.
Russell, D.J. 1983. Ecology of the Imported Red Seaweed Eucheuma Striatum Schmitz on
Coconut Island, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. Pacific Science 37: 87-107.
Shikina, Rob. "Sea Urchins Bred to Clean Up Reef." Honolulu Star - AdvertiserJan 30 2011.
ProQuest. Web. 13 Nov. 2013 .
Sinai, Joann. Sediment Study in Kāneʻohe Bay. Scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu. N.p., 17 May
1977. Web. 12 Nov. 2013.
Stimson, J., S.T. Larned, and E. Conklin. Effects of Herbivory, Nutrient Levels, and Introduced
Algae on the Distribution and Abundance of the Invasive Macroalga Dictyosphaeria
Cavernosa in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii. Rep. N.p.: Springer-Verlag, 2001. Google Scholar.
Web. 7 Nov. 2013.
Woo, M.M.L., 2000. Ecological Impacts Interactions of the Introduced Red Alga, Kappaphycus
Striatum, in Kane‘ohe Bay, O‘ahu, Masters Thesis, University of Hawai‘i at Manoa,
Honolulu, Hawai‘i.
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Sustainability Research Paper Effort Chart
Task and Brief Details
Time Put In
1 hour
Brainstorming—I sort of already had an
idea in mind of what I wanted to do but, I
wanted to do just a little pre-searching to see
if it was something I was really interested in.
I pre-searched by going to the Nature
conservancy website and reading more about
the Reef Revival.
Researching—Using the UH Manoa
library website I searched for articles and
books, both scholarly and not, to find things
related to my topic. I first went to the
Honolulu Star Advertiser website and
searched "Kaneohe Bay Reef." I then went to
EBSCO and typed in "Kaneohe Bay Coral
Reef," "Invasive Algae in Kaneohe Bay," and
"Super Sucker Hawaii." Lastly, I went to
Google scholar and CQ Researcher and
inserted the same keywords I did on EBSCO.
Scatter Draft for 11/4/13— I used the
sources I had previously found while
researching to create my scatter draft. This
was a short draft of me just putting down
ideas for each paragraph. But, for the next
draft more paragraphs and information will
be added.
Researching for First Draft—I
2 hours
2 hours
2 hours
revisited the sites I did in my initial research
and looked on multiple pages of results to see
if there was anything I could really use. I had
trouble finding scholarly sources. But,
thankfully I changed the focus of my paper
and found a few scholarly sources I could use
pertaining to just invasive algae and not the
Super Sucker.
First Draft for 11/7/13—I used my
newly found scholarly sources to help me
add in information and I changed the topics
of all my paragraphs.
2.5 hours
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Second Draft for 11/13/2013—I
researched a great deal for this draft to add
much more detail to each paragraph. I
actually found a very useful website with
each invasive algae species not using the UH
Manoa Library but just by using regular
Google and it just so happened to be a
scholarly source also. I researched more
about the sea urchin protection plan and read
many different newspaper articles pertaining
to it. Moreover, I researched controlling
sediment as a solution and found two very
good project reports. I included a full works
cited page with all sources I used and in-text
citations. This draft took me quite a while,
but now I am one step closer to the final
product.
8 hours