Mann 1
Molly Mann
Professor Gieseking
Final Research Paper
18 December 2015
Hartford’s New Mentality of Go with the Flow
Let’s go back to a hundred years ago when driving a Model T through a major
intersection where one would likely encounter a policeman directing traffic. After a decade,
that officer has been replaced by a traffic light. As the number of cars on the road increased,
cities need a way to keep cars from crashing into each other. With the invention of the
procession of green, yellow, and red the automated traffic light did the trick. A few
adjustments were made since then, but the basic concept remained the same. However, as
time progressed opinions and the structure of traffic lights became more complicated.
Anyone who has ever driven a city street having to stop again and again for red lights knows
the frustration. Traffic congestion has become a major problem throughout cities; Hartford is
no exception. The traffic congestion is costly; driver’s time is wasted, the environment is
harmed by pollutants emitted from idling engines, the congestion often provokes dangerous
behavior. While finding my mental maps, I met a woman, Freddie, who works in downtown
Hartford at Theaterworks. She brought up the idea how traffic lights in Hartford are off the
radar but make a huge impact. She lives in Glastonbury, only eleven miles away from
Hartford, in which she explains, “is a fifteen minute commute, but ends up being a twenty to
twenty-five minute commute to work everyday just because I am sitting in red lights.” There
are many other commuters, like Freddie, who experience the same problem. In this paper, I
intend to propose a re-design of the infrastructure of the traffic lighting system of downtown
Hartford in order to improve the flow of traffic through the streets. Ultimately, providing the
ability to move through Hartford with more of ease for motorists, but also pedestrians.
Through David Harvey’s piece, Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban
Revolution, he highlights “the right to the city” is a “right to change and reinvent the city
Mann 2
more after out hearts’ desire. It is, moreover, a collective rather than an individual right, since
reinventing the city inevitably depends upon the exercise of a collective power…”1 It is one
of the most cherished, yet most neglected of our human rights. By means of Harvey’s
definition, citizens of Hartford have the freedom to make and remake the city, so they feel
most comfortable in their own space. Nevertheless, part of this liberty is limited by other
factors throughout a city. In Hartford’s case, its traffic light system influences the people’s
right to the city by affecting their ability to move around in the streets. As Harvey explains,
“to claim the right to the city…is to claim some kind of shaping power over the processes of
urbanization…and to do so in a fundamental and radical way”2 reflecting Hartford’s need to
claim its right of the city. By doing so, it proves that the work of the people in Hartford make
the urban life, thus giving them the opportunity to make the change they want. Furthermore,
Michael Sorkin’s, “Traffic in Democracy” emphasizes the definition of traffic in order to
understand traffic light’s responsibility in affecting the right to a city.
The desire to enhance the flow of traffic in Hartford has been a goal for a while. Flow
looks to increase speed and save time. In a city, flow is one of the most valued
characteristics. Traffic holds an undeniable accountability towards the motion of a city. From
Sorkin’s assertion, “traffic-at whatever scale- is defined by the relationship between speed
and flow…the circulation of traffic is most perfectly efficient when it attains the status of a
constant—perpetual motion”3 a sense of awareness is placed on the relationship between
traffic and its impact through a city. Traffic today is approached as simply a technological
problem and consequently associated with beliefs of technology held between controllability
and autonomy resulting in traffic engineers to seek innovative solutions. Sorkin states,
1
David Harvey, Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution
(New York: Verso, 2012) 4.
2
David Harvey, Rebel Cities… 5.
3
Michael Sorkin “Traffic in Democracy,” para 20.
Mann 3
“traffic lights are meant to increase the efficient utility of the street”4 which further supports
the notion of how improving downtown Hartford’s traffic lights will impact the movement of
vehicles in the streets. In addition, Deboarh Cowen through her book, The Deadly Life of
Logistics helps to suggest a specific purpose for flow throughout a city.
The importance of flow in a city is mentioned previously, but the flow of what?
People or things? For my proposal, the flow of both people and things is the end hope.
Cowen underlines the paradox of containment and flow. She points out,
“the standardization of space, movement, and infrastructure is guiding design logic…this
urban form is not only material; it is also centrally political. Efficient movement becomes
antipolitics. The replacement of objectives with efficiency is the tyranny of techne”5
presenting the distinctiveness between objects and humans. The means of the logistics will be
beneficial to think about when changing the infrastructure of Hartford. The infrastructure of
traffic lights in Hartford should not be neglected. It has been a topic of discussion for some
time, but nothing has been done.
First, one must understand Hartford’s status in relation to traffic to realize the issue at
large. Connecticut has some of the worst traffic in the nation that cost drivers gallons of
wasted fuel and dozens of hours of lost time. Ana Radelat’s article, “The High Cost of Traffic
Jams” in The Hartford Courant presents that The Urban Mobility Scorecard released,
“Hartford was the fifth most congested medium-sized city in the nation, with drivers
spending an average of 45 hours a year in traffic delays.”6 There is no hiding the fact that
traffic congestion is an issue in Hartford. Radelat explains “because there are so many more
commuters, total delay has increased by almost 1 billion hours,” an astonishing statistic.
Michael Sorkin, “Traffic in Democracy,” in The People, Place, and Space Reader,
edited by Gieseking, Mangold, Katz, Low, Saegert. (New York: Routledge, 2014). Para 22.
5
Deborah Cowen, “Logistics Cities: The Urban Hear of Empire” in The Deadly Life
Of Logistics: Mapping Violence in Global Trade (Minneapolis: Univ of Minnesota Press,
2014), 193.
6
Ana Radelat “The High Cost of Traffic Jams,” The Hartford Courant, 2015
http://digitaledition.courant.com/tribune/article_popover.aspx?guid=981488aa-17154047-9d8b-9f9349ab2ed3
4
Mann 4
However, Thomas Gutman writes an article in response to “The High Cost of Traffic”
describing that Hartford-area traffic jams are fixable at a minimum cost and without pouring
more concrete. He says, “Specifically, the flow of traffic along Farmington Ave, Asylum
Avenue and New Park Avenue can be improved by timing lights (at least in one direction) to
the posted speed limits rather than penalizing compliant drivers as is now the case.”7 Perhaps
this aspect of Hartford’s traffic lights could be improved at minimal expense, which I want to
further explore in this paper.
It is no secret that traffic exists in downtown Hartford. In the past Hartford has
attempted to relieve the traffic congestion downtown. According to the Eyewitness News, in
2013, “the city of Hartford is pushing for $7 million in grants to fix traffic problems
downtown that would be used to improve traffic light systems and rebuilding intersections on
Asylum Street to make them safer for pedestrians.”8 The mentality behind these actions is to
renovate systems, which are outdated in order for things to run more smoothly. Rich Palmer,
of Hartford comments, “it gets clogged up so it would be better have a better traffic flow, a
better pedestrian flow.”9 He not only stresses the advantages that would result from these
improvements, but also who it will affect linking the connection of drivers and pedestrians.
The relationship between the two will later be discussed in aim of creating a happier and
safer city environment for both. The flow of the streets includes the vehicles driving but also
incorporates the people walking. Hartford has put forth plans to remake the structure of
intersections, such as Asylum Avenue at Trumbull Street, Ford Street and Union Place and to
upgrade out-of-date traffic lights in order to make a difference in the flow of streets but the
Thomas Gutman “ Better Light Timing Would Ease Hartford-Area Traffic,” The
Hartford Courant, September 2, 2015. http://www.courant.com/opinion/letters/hc-ugcarticle-re-the-high-cost-of-traffic-jams-hartford-2015-09-01-story.html
8
WFSB Staff “Hartford Looks to Improve Traffic Flow with Grants,” Eye Witness
News, September 11, 2013. http://www.wfsb.com/story/23132830/hartford-looks-to-improvetraffic-flow-with-grants
9
Ibid.
7
Mann 5
problem still remains. NBC Connecticut reports, “In 2014, traffic congestion in Hartford
increased 2 percent… the worst weekly commute during peak period is on Wednesday and
Thursday morning and on Friday evening.”10 It seems as though traffic is only getting worse.
Through my redesign of infrastructure in the lighting system in downtown Hartford, change
is possible. Many people are unaware of the significant role in which traffic lights play in
controlling the movement throughout streets.
It is hard to think of a technology so widely adopted, so ever-present, and so
influential. Nonetheless, traffic lights are used by billions on a daily basis. The traffic light
has evolved from electro-mechanical objects to smarter, networked ones adaptable to the
environment in complex ways. The U.S. Department of Transportation in “Improving Traffic
Signal Operations” declares, “when the first traffic signal was installed at a Cleveland
intersection in 1914, the objective was to prevent accidents by assigning the right of way. Not
much thought was given to minimizing traffic delay and fuel consumption.”11 However, since
then, as traffic volumes have increased, the objectives have broadened to include maximizing
capacity of the streets and improving traffic flow. By the statistic, “today there are more than
300,000 traffic signals in North America”12 the influence of traffic lights is apparent. Despite
their importance, at times, once installed, they are often neglected. If signals are not properly
designed, motorists will likely, “spend more time delayed in traffic, increasingly disobey
signal indications, experience higher accident rates.”13 But it doesn’t have to be this way,
which I will prove in this paper. In order to do so, the basics of traffic flow theory should be
discussed.
“Hartford is Among the Worst Cities for Traffic”, NBC Connecticut. March 31,
2015. http://www.nbcconnecticut.com/news/local/Hartford-Is-Among-the-Worst-Cities-forTraffic-298146761.html
11
“Improving Traffic Signal Operations,” US Department of Transportation. 1995,
http://www.trafficwareuniversity.com/sites/default/files/13466_0.pdf , 5 (accessed 15
December).
12
Ibid.
13
“Improving Traffic Signal Operations, 6”
10
Mann 6
Additionally to Sorkin’s piece, the Introduction to the Theory of Traffic Flow by
Wilhelm Leutzbach lays down the groundwork of the flow of traffic. There is no doubt that in
most cases traffic does not move the way people want. Leutzbach argues, “the ultimate
application of traffic flow theory is to provide ways of improving traffic safety, traffic
operation and traffic control.”14 The theory demonstrates a clear explanation of how vehicle
motion is key to the flow. His book is intended to describe the process of vehicle motion as
seen by an observer. This theory will be used as support to help explain traffic lights as
essential to the traffic flow of downtown Hartford. And finally, by means of an article called,
“Influence of Traffic Signal Timing on Red-Light Running and Potential Vehicle Conflicts at
Urban Intersections,” the examination of red-light behaviors justifies advancements in traffic
lights.
Many crashes are because of vehicles entering the intersection after start of a red
light, an example of a traffic violation, which may be affected by the duration of the change
interval of the traffic light. In a study by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration,
they found that “56 percent of crashes occurred at intersections and that 22 percent involved
driver who ran traffic controls.”15 A cause of this is due to the change intervals between
yellow and red lights. Previous research discovered this “ ‘dilemma zone’ in which some
drivers are going too fast when the signal changes to yellow either to enter the intersection
before the on set of red or to stop without hard braking.”16 There are many safety hazards,
which are as a result from people’s red-light driving actions. A cause shown to influence the
14
Wilhelm. Leutzbach, Introduction to the Theory of Traffic Flow, 1998,
http://trincoll.worldcat.org/title/introduction-to-the-theory-of-trafficflow/oclc/802330867?ht=edition&referer=null, 84(accessed 15 December 2015).
15
Richard Retting and Michael Greene “Influence of Traffic Signal Timing on RedLight Running and Potential Vehicle Conflicts at Urban Intersections,” Transportation
Research Record, http://trrjournalonline.trb.org/doi/abs/10.3141/1595-01, 1, (accessed 15
December 2015).
16
Ibid.
Mann 7
risk of red-light violations is the length of the change interval because running red lights is
more common than one would think due to the yellow and red light timing gaps. However,
this paper will offer plans to redesign traffic lights makes this situation avoidable in
downtown Hartford.
To begin my process in figuring out what issue in Hartford I wanted to focus upon, I
went out and collected data from people in Hartford. My first task in this approach was to
collect mental maps of Hartford from both commuters and residents. The purpose of this was
to acquire how people of Hartford see and experience the city. I found various volunteers to
draw their own maps in coffee shops, in stores I knew, and other places in downtown
Hartford. Their mental maps provided me with abundant and very diverse information. This
included streets I never heard of, awareness where crimes occur, popular or personal favorite
hangout spots, restaurants, routes to works, a focus on specific highways and more. After
gathering mental maps, I used the QGIS system to create my own maps. In inventing my own
maps I chose the space, the data, and the design in which I wanted record, so I could expose
certain information to the viewers of my map. I took open source data from Hartford that
exhibited a month’s worth of hazardous traffic incidents and placed these figures onto my
map of Hartford to track as indication where accidents occurred. With this data I added
buffers 1/3 a mile away from the traffic incidents. In addition, from open census data, I
grabbed the total population and integrated this evidence into my map to separate sections of
Hartford based on population of people. Lastly, I enhanced my map even more by adding
roads from the roadrailhydroct shapefile shared with us by our Professor. For extra
information, through Hartford.Gov, I contacted Jeffrey Allen for traffic data on specific
known busy streets in Hartford on peak hours and turning movement counts (TMC) at
intersections.
Mann 8
The mental maps that I received did not reveal or indicate any traffic, or traffic lights.
However what the majority of the maps did illustrate was the popularity in commuting. The
image below features a map drawn by a white male in his mid 50’s. He works at MacDermid,
Reynolds, & Glissman Law Firm on Farmington Ave and commutes to work from West
Hartford. Out of all my maps, his was definitely the most spread out, meaning covering the
largest surface area of Hartford and full of labels of streets and landmarks. I also think that
his map was one of the most details, so it would be most beneficial in illustrating the streets
and intersections in Hartford. While he did include highways such as I-84 and 91, his main
focus was on the streets of Hartford. His map highlights the busiest streets such as
Farmington Avenue, Main Street, and Franklin Avenue, but also smaller streets as Trumbull
Street, Pearl Street, Washington Street, Albany Avenue, and Bloomfield Avenue. By great
chance, Michael’s map coincides well with the GIS map that I created. The traffic accidents
tracked on the GIS map can be located and exhibited through Michael’s map.
Mental Map: Michael, MRG Law Firm, Caucasian, Mid 50’s
For my final proposition, I found my GIS maps to be extremely insightful. The yellow dots
on the GIS map below represent the hazardous traffic accidents. Behind the marked spots,
there is a clear dotted buffer around the areas which measures a 1/3 mile away from the
Mann 9
accidents. I added this in attempt to demonstrate that the accidents occur all within the same
area but it did not show to be that effective. Additionally, the shades of blue each signify the
population concentration. The range consists of the darkest blue: 5,000-6,501 (highest
population) to the lightest blue at 0-1,000 (lowest population). I included the population data
to explore the idea that traffic accidents might occur in areas with a higher population
density. This could be as a result of more people walking around or crowded neighborhoods
with more going on, however based on what is depicted, this did not seem to be a factor in
the location of these accidents. While my thoughts in displaying certain attributes affecting
traffic accidents did not confirm any patterns I was hoping, my GIS map did expose
something I did not even think of before.
GIS Map 1: created by Molly Mann at Trinity College in Digital Image of the City an American
Studies course
The most surprising and most telling information in which my map below demonstrates is
that the traffic accidents happened on the outskirts and outer edges. To make this easier to
see, I added the roads in symbolized by the red lines. From this information, I concluded that
Mann 10
the accidents do not occur on the main highways or main streets like Farmington Avenue or
Capitol Avenue rather on streets like Trumbull Street and Pearl Street.
GIS Map 2: created by Molly Mann at Trinity College in Digital Image of the City an American
Studies course
The data Jeffrey Allen sent to me shared the turning movement counts on the intersection
between Columbus Blvd and Font Street. The statistics include: The peak hour analysis from
6:00 AM to 8:45 Am found the peak hour for entire intersection begins at 7:00 AM. The total
TMC is 5,140. To give an example of an data at intersection results at Columbus Blvd going
north- Out: 626, In:1367 and total:1,993. Right:0, Thru:1091, Left:73, and Peds:203. The rest
of data will be attached.
Based on my research and findings, I have concluded that traffic congestion is a major
problem in cities… cities of all sizes, even smaller cities like Hartford. In fact, Hartford has
become a city of commuters and as consequence more people are coming in and out of the
city, which means more vehicles throughout the streets. It is costly for wasting time, polluting
the city with engine fumes, and provoking more accidents. For such reasons, I plan a
Mann 11
redesigning in the infrastructure of traffic lighting system in downtown Hartford as a
solution.
First and foremost the new traffic lights will install LED lights, which is becoming
more and more popular of traffic lights in other states. There are many advantages in using
LED lights, such as use of less energy, and they are more reliable. By replacing old
incandescent light bulbs with light emitting diodes (LED) energy costs are significantly
reduced. Not only do LEDs provide energy savings, they also work longer without having
issues or the need to be replaced. This greatly reduces cities’ maintenance, which in return
increases safety of the traffic signals because of the less likely accidents due to traffic signals
being out of commission. Additionally, I believe because LED lights are also brighter, which
allows people to see the lights from further away and preparing for their next move. This
potentially could prevent the issue of running through red lights by not seeing the color of
lighting change, mentioned previously as the “dilemma zone” from the article, “Influence of
Traffic Signal Timing…” The LED lights have proved to be effective in other cities that are
known for the busy streets, for example, New York City. According to nyc.gov,
“Department of Transportation (DOT) maintain over 250,000 street lights throughout
New York City… and is currently retrofitting all of NYC’s street lights with energy-efficient
LEDs. The new lighting will save approximately $6 million in energy and $8 million in
maintenance a year.17
As the LED lights have made sustainable street lights throughout New York City, I
have no doubt that changing to the new lights will have successful results in Hartford as well.
Another part of improving the traffic signal system in Hartford will be by adjusting the
timing of the traffic lights.
Optimizing the timing of the traffic signals can reduce delays at traffic lights. By
collecting real time data from traffic lights and intersections in Hartford the data collected
The City Of New York, “Infrastructure: Street Lights” NYC DOT. 2015.
http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/infrastructure/streetlights.shtml.
17
Mann 12
can be analyzed on a regular basis. As there are already sensors and cameras in the roads in
Hartford, they are not always effective in their job of changing the lights or recording
pictures of people running lights. Instead the cameras and sensors in the traffic lights
themselves can be used to calculate certain specifics that would certainly improve the flow of
traffic such as peak hours, amounts of cars that pass by, and the speed at which the cars drive.
With this real time data the traffic light systems can be programmed for specific time
intervals instead of waiting on sensors (that do not always work) to initiate change in the
lighting. Essentially the traffic lights throughout Hartford would be synched. An example of
this technological infrastructure where is has been shown to be effective is in one of the most
known “gridlock” city, Los Angeles. Steve Hymon in The Source in 2013 reported, “Mayor
Antonio Villaraigosa today flipped the switch on the final traffic intersection in the city wide
signal synchronization program. All of Los Angeles’ 4,398 traffic signals are not part of the
Automated Traffic Surveillance & Control (ATSAC) system.”18 He also describes how
“the completion of this program decreases average travel time for commuters
throughout Los Angeles and improves air quality by reducing greenhouse emissions…as a
result of signal synchronization, our system increases travel speed y 16% and reduces travel
time by 12%”19
These are powerful statistics, which Hartford could also benefit from. The outcomes
in switching to ATSAC system has left progressive advantages for the flow of the streets for
the city of LA, the same is achievable in Hartford with the new system of traffic lighting
system in which I propose. However, one limitation to this infrastructure of using preprogrammed schedules, they cannot adjust to unpredictable situations, such as an accident.
But, when presenting this idea to the class, a listener suggested going to a specific
Steve Hymon, “City of Los Angeles Says All Its Traffic Signals Are Now Part of
Synchronization Program” The Source. February 19, 2013.
http://thesource.metro.net/2013/02/19/city-of-los-angeles-says-all-its-traffic-signals-are-nowpart-of-synchronization-program/.
19
Steve Hymon, “City of Los Angeles Says…”
18
Mann 13
intersection, one that is the busiest or the most influential intersection in terms of timing and
flow of the streets.
This is a very smart idea, in which the city of Hartford can focus upon one
intersection leading to affect others as an outcome. In addition to switching the timing of the
traffic signal because of being limited by irregular variables, the city will also go to a specific
intersection for additional efforts to increase the flow of traffic. I took the information from
the turning movement counts given by Hartford.gov, which demonstrate Columbus Blvd
intersections as a place of high movement resulting as a place to increase the movement of
people and motorists at the intersection there. I am using these findings as evidence to prove
that paying attention to just one intersection could produce improvements in traffic flow.
Spending time in one area first, and then moving towards the bigger scheme of synchronizing
the traffic lights would be bring the most effective results to this city. Both solutions will in
effect improve the flow of traffic in Hartford based on Sorkin and Leutzbach’s explanation
on how the flow of traffic marks the efficiency of a city. While the new redesign of the traffic
lighting system is an advantage to the flow of traffic, it questions the existence of pedestrians
throughout the city of Hartford.
With the flow of traffic being my main concern as a problem in Hartford offering a
solution to this problem evokes other questions in regards to other elements of the city. For
instance, by increasing the flow of vehicles on the streets, how does this affect the
pedestrians? Or how would this improve the walkability of Hartford with cars being able to
fly by?” These questions are all practical and worthwhile to think about. In changing the
traffic light system I in vision it improving the traffic flow but also benefiting pedestrians as
well. By synchronizing the traffic lights, it will also result in synchronizing the pedestrians
improving the flow of people. Comparable to New York, as soon as the traffic signals change
to red, a swarm of pedestrians cross the street. I hope the same will occur in Hartford because
Mann 14
as the traffic lights are synched as they switch to red, then a platoon of people have not only
the ability to walk, but also doing so in a safer manner. As the “Hartford Looks to Improve
Traffic Flow with Grants ”piece relates pedestrians and vehicles together in a positive mutual
way, the new infrastructure will optimistically do the same. This also alludes to Cowen’s
notion of the logistics of a city as she states, states, “Logistics is ostensibly about efficient
movement and undisrupted flow.”20 Cowen discusses Dubai Logistics its most strategically
important infrastructure development, but in reference to zones for transport modes and
services. However, as she focuses on the logistics of a city for the flow of things, but her
interpretations are easily applied to flow for people. For example she brings it all together by
saying, “in each place and time, the ordering of urban space and the remaking of the city
through spectacular megaprojects are a vital part of a supranational geopolitical economy of
moving people and things.”21 Urban space has been implicated in the politics of circulation,
which remains true today in regards to both people and things. In my proposal of refining the
traffic lights, I had the idea of improving the flow for people (through pedestrians and people
in vehicles), but could it not be doing it for things too? A city that flows for people as a result
also flows for things. Both rely on the power to remake the city by innovative concepts and
both produce visions for urban space. The logistics of the city set plans to execute control
over people and place, thus creating space which are important tools for ordering life—
ordering life for the flow of people and things (in the case of my proposition).
In conclusion, it is Hartford citizens’ right to the city in having the opportunity to
redesign traffic light infrastructure throughout Hartford to improve the movement throughout
downtown Hartford. By installing LED lights, collecting real time data with cameras and
sensors in order to optimize time of the traffic lights by means of synchronizing the lighting
system (and to make the city as efficient as possible), and concentrating on one specific
20
21
Cowen, The Deadly Life Of Logistics, 172.
Cowen, The Deadly Life Of Logistics, 190.
Mann 15
intersection the goal is promising. If effective, people will be more likely to obey laws, such
as not running through a red light, increases safety leading to a lower amount of accidents.
The idea of not having to wait at a red light sounds pleasant, not only for elevating
annoyance, but also reducing fuel and gas emission in the air. If people are waiting less at red
lights this lessens delays making traveling more efficient, thus making happier commuters
and happier pedestrians.
Mann 16
Bibliography
Three sources from the course:
Cowen, Deborah “Logistics Cities: The Urban Hear of Empire” in The Deadly Life Of
Logistics: Mapping Violence in Global Trade, Minneapolis: Univ of Minnesota Press,
2014.
Harvey, David. Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution New York:
Verso, 2012.
Sorkin, Michael. “Traffic in Democracy” in The People, Place, and Space Reader, edited by
Gieseking, Mangold, Katz, Low, Saegert. 411-415, New York: Routledge, 2014.
2 sources of local Journalism
Gutman, Thomas. “ Better Light Timing Would Ease Hartford-Area Traffic,” The Hartford
Courant, September 2, 2015. http://www.courant.com/opinion/letters/hc-ugc-articlere-the-high-cost-of-traffic-jams-hartford-2015-09-01-story.html
Radelat, Ana. “The High Cost of Traffic Jams,” The Hartford Courant, 2015
http://digitaledition.courant.com/tribune/article_popover.aspx?guid=981488aa-17154047-9d8b-9f9349ab2ed3
2 Media Sources
Hartford is Among the Worst Cities for Traffic”, NBC Connecticut. March 31, 2015.
http://www.nbcconnecticut.com/news/local/Hartford-Is-Among-the-Worst-Cities-forTraffic-298146761.html
WFSB Staff “Hartford Looks to Improve Traffic Flow with Grants,” Eye Witness News,
September 11, 2013. http://www.wfsb.com/story/23132830/hartford-looks-toimprove-traffic-flow-with-grants
3 Scholarly Sources
“Improving Traffic Signal Operations,” US Department of Transportation. 1995,
http://www.trafficwareuniversity.com/sites/default/files/13466_0.pdf. (accessed 15
December 2015).
Leutzbach, Wilhelm. Introduction to the Theory of Traffic Flow, 1998,
http://trincoll.worldcat.org/title/introduction-to-the-theory-of-trafficflow/oclc/802330867?ht=edition&referer=null. (accessed 15 Decemeber 2015).
Richard Retting and Michael Greene “Influence of Traffic Signal Timing on Red-Light
Running and Potential Vehicle Conflicts at Urban Intersections,” Transportation
Research Record, http://trrjournalonline.trb.org/doi/abs/10.3141/1595-01, 1,
(accessed 15 December 2015).
Mann 17
2 apps, websites, or technological infrastructal Suggesions
Steve Hymon, “City of Los Angeles Says All Its Traffic Signals Are Now Part of
Synchronization Program” The Source. February 19, 2013.
http://thesource.metro.net/2013/02/19/city-of-los-angeles-says-all-its-traffic-signalsare-now-part-of-synchronization-program/.
The City Of New York, “Infrastructure: Street Lights” NYC DOT. 2015.
http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/infrastructure/streetlights.shtml.