Vitruvian Perspectives on Achitectural Quality
Developing a Vitruvian discussion on green architecture – a starting point for an upcoming
research project
Claus Bech-Danielsen, Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University
Vitruvius’ triade - utilitas, firmitas, venustas
For more than 2000 years ago Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote the book De Architectura, the
oldest extant book on architecture. In the book Vitruvius expressed the ancient thinking for
the development of architectural quality, and he set out a series of precise rules for
different building types. Vitruvius' book was rediscovered in the Renaissance as part of the
contemporary renewed interest in ancient architecture, and with the modernist search for
timeless and universal ideals of beauty, parts of Vitruvius' book had a revival again in the
20th century.
The book is still valid. This applies not least its description of architectural quality as
stemming from a close interaction between firmitas (durability), utilitas (convenience) and
venustas (beauty) (Morgan 1960, p.17). The three concepts are only mentioned in a single
paragraph in the book (book 1, chapter 3, section 2). However, it is this part of the book's
content that are constantly referred to. The three concepts put focus on the following
partial aspects of architecture:
Firmitas is about the building's durability. As an example Vitruvius describes the
importance of having the foundations carried down to solid ground, and the selection of
good materials that are suited for the purpose are also pointed out as important. In the
current use of Vitruvius' concept, this has been expanded to address all the issues that are
of importance to the physical durability of the architecture. Are the building materials and
the building constructions solid? Are they assembled wisely and safely? Can the materials
withstand the climatic conditions on the locality? Are the building materials and the building
constructions are resistant to the wear and tear they suffer in the dayly use etc.?
Utilitas addresses the issues that are of importance to the functionality of architecture.1 In
the current understanding of the concept it address the buildings' ability to respond to the
needs from the actual users and from the surrounding community. Are users' needs met in
the building? Are the building organized and arranged to form an efficient framework for its
In Morgan's translation of Vitruvius, the concept is explained as follows: “convenience, when the arrangement of the apartments is faultless and
presents no hindrance to use, and when each class of building is assigned to its suitable and appropiate exposure (Morgan 1960, p.17).
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intended purpose? Thus, it also becomes crucial whether the building responds to current
ideals of 'the good life'.
Venustas is about architectural beauty, which in Vitruvius' classical universe ment the
building's ability to mime (from the Greek: 'mimesis') natural cosmic order. Vitruvius
believed that nature is an expression of cosmic order based on universal laws, and he
believed, that architectural quality is achieved when the architectural design based on
these laws - and when architecture thereby 'mimic' natural cosmic order. In a more
contemporary understanding of the concept, it is about architecture's spatial and aesthetic
conditions - proportions, the play between light and shadow, the contrasts between
heaviness and lightness, textural qualities, structural patterns, rhythm, etc.
Venustas
Firmitas
Utilitas
Figur. The Vitruvian triade explaining architectural quality as a wholeness consisting of an interplay
between firmitas (durability), utilitas (convenience) and venustas (beauty).
The three concepts have been used again and again when architecture is described and
analyzed. Each of the three corners in the Vitruvian triad sets up different demands and
ideals, that must be met in the architecture - and it is vital in the creation of architectural
quality, that the requirements of the three corners interact and creates a wholeness. In the
assessments of architecture one partial aspect belonging to one corner of the triade (eg.
durability) may well be addressed. Other assessments may address the qyality of the
building constructions. One description is no more true than the other, they are just
focusing on different aspects of the whole architectural quality.
In the following I will exemplify the aspects of each corner of the Vitruvian Triade by
focusing on the modernist architecture concept
Case: The modernist architecture in the light of 'firmitas'
A description of modernist architecture, that is based on Vitruvius' concept 'Firmitas', will
emphasize the modernists enthusiastic development of new materials, building
constructions and forms of production. Focus will be on the use of materials such as
concrete, glass and steel as groundbreaking for modernist architecture. For instance that
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the reinforced concrete allowed large spans without constructive supports, that new types
of glass allowed the large glass panels and the new construction types set architecture
free from traditional building materials and constructions.
In this light, it would appear that the new materials and construction types led to new formguiding principles in architecture - such as Le Corbusier expressed in its 'Cinq points
d'Architecture Nouvelle'. Here Le Corbusier pointed out, how new experiential and spatial
qualities could occur as a result of the new building constructions. He showed, for
example, how the reinforced concrete can be used in bar / plate assemblies, which gave
new spatial possibilities compared to the traditional constructions. The design of spacecreating elements - eg. thickness and location of walls - was no longer dictated by
constructive relationship, and as clearly stated by Le Corbusier's sketches (see figure
below) this gave rise to explore the conformational possibilities. For example the horizontal
window bands were a showdown with the traditional division of facades, where the
rhythmic division of the facades had been dictated by constructive demands. The
architectural possibilities of the new materials were explored, and Le Corbusier
demonstrated, that this led to new architectural forms and to a freedom in the design
process - in line with the modernity he wanted to give expression to.
Figure: Le Corbusier 'Cinq points d'Architecture Nouvelle' can be seen as the development of new
form guiding principles, which among other things is developed on the basis of the new materials
and nye kinds of building constructions.
Regarding the actual production of construction, a similar description will focus on the
major changes that occurred with the transition from traditional construction to
industrialized construction. The description might also focus on the fact, that the modernist
pioneers were inspired by engineers and their rational approach to construction - having
knowledge of the new materials and mechanical production methods the engineers had
taken the lead in shaping the industrialization of new products like cars, airplanes, bridges,
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ocean liners, factories etc. The architectural design should spring from logical reasoning
and rational calculation.
These descriptions will sometimes point out that the architects' interest in engineers'
rational products and contemporary new materials and structures (Firmitas) did not imply a
depreciation of architecture's spatial and aesthetic qualities (venustas). In that case the
description will stress, that the modernistic architects considered the logical perspectives
and the rational calculations as expression of universal laws, which also mathematical and
scientific formulas were seen as expression of. ”The Engineer, inspired by the law of
Economy and governed by mathematical calculation, puts us in accord with universal law.
He achieves harmony”, wrote Le Corbusier (1923, p.1). He portrayed thus the technical
and rational calculations as a basic foundation for the development of aesthetic quality which Vitruvius had described as expressions of the same universal laws.
When the modernistic architecture later in the century became the object of criticism, part
of the critique concerned the durability of the buildings - 'Firmitas'. For example a problem
was related to the flat roofs of modernism, unfortunately not suitable for the Nordic climate.
This became obvious in in post-war industrialized construction, where major problems with
leaking roofs occured. The durability-aspect of architectural quality - firmatas - was not
good enough.
Case: The modernist architecture in the light of ‘utilitas’
A description of modernist architecture can also be performed with a special focus on the
part of the architecture, as Vitruvius describes 'utilitas'. Such a description will typically
start with Louis Henry Sullivan's famous doctrine: "Form follows function” 2 - architectural
design should arise as a logical consequence of the building functional content. ”No design
is anything in itself”,3 Gropius pointed out, and thus he argued that the architectural form
should spring from functional analyzes of actual needs. The architecture should achieve its
importance and its semantic content by covering the human needs, nicht weider.
In that light, the forming principle of modernism was primary connected to its functionality.
Technical and constructive conditions was less essential, and contemporary development
of new materials, building constructions and building technology are described as the
means to achieve the primary goal - the creation of a modern welfare. There will be an
emphasis on the architects' efforts to develop the physical framework for the modern ways
of life that was developing in the early 20th century. Modernism architecture should reflect
and materialize the contemporary vision of 'the good life'.
Sullivan expressed this in an essay in 1896. He wrote: "Whether it be the sweeping eagle in his flight or the open apple-blossom, the toiling workhorse, the blithe swan, the branching oak, the winding stream at its base, the drifting clouds, over all the coursing sun, form ever follows function,
and this the law ... It is the pervading law of all things organic, and inorganic” Louis Henry Sullivan: The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered.
3 Nils-Ole Lund: Nordisk arkitektur. København, Arkitektens Forlag, 1993, side 47.
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These descriptions will focus on the modernists' functional analyzes as essential for the
development of modernist architecture. For example, that kitchen design were based on
rational analysis of workflow and space requirements in the kitchen. And the fact, that the
modernistic design objects were based on thorough measurements of human
physiognomy are emphasised. This was the case in the Scandinavian version of
modernism (functionalism), and led to a golden age of Danish furniture design - Kaare
Klint, Mogens Koch, Børge Mogensen and Arne Karlsen based their furniture on strict
measurements of sitting height, working height, reach, eye level etc.
Other descriptions will focus on other scales in architecture, for example at the city level.
Planners focused on urban functionality – efficiency, and this led to the functional zoning of
cities. The same ideal are expressed on the scale of settlements. Here it led to monofunctionallity of residential areas located away from polluting industries. Also in each
house, the same ideal are expressed, with each room optimized for one single function.4
Also these descriptions will sometimes point out that the modernists' interest in
architecture's functionality (utilitas) does not mean a depreciation of architecture's spatial
and aesthetic qualities (venustas). It is stressed, that the formalist principle that had
prevailed in the previous period were simply replaced by functionalism principle - partly
because functionalism as form-giving principle was seen as a way to secede from tradition
and assume new aesthetic forms, which corresponded to a new spirit of time.
Figure: Christine Frederick was among the first to base kitchen design on functional analysis –
she demonstrated how cooking could be implemented by time- and step-saving devices.
Christine Fredericks work on kitchen design had great impact in the development in the
Bauhaus Shhool.
For instance in kitchens, no longer used for laundry and the family's weekly baths, but
solely designed for cooking.
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When modernist architecture later in the century became the object of criticism, some of
the criticism was directed against the part of modernist architecture and planning concept
that emphasizes the functionality (utilitas). By way of example there has been a
comprehensive critique of the mono-functional residential areas - the result of the zoned
cities. They are certainly effective and quiet, but lacks the diversity that characterizes the
historical centers.
Modernismen som case - venustras
Finally, a description of modernist architecture can also put a special focus on its aesthetic
ideals, and thus the corner of Vitruvius' triad termed venustas. A focus in this description
could for example be, that modernist architects expressed an artistic idea of establishing
an 'architectural reset' - according to the modernist architects the traditional view on
architecture had failed, and was out of step with developments in the industrialized society.
Modernists therefore believed, that there was a need to start afresh. ”Our diagnosis is that,
to begin at the beginning. (…) Architecture of today is no longer conscious of its own
beginnings”, Le Corbusier claimed (1923, p. 16).
This became important on a variety of areas, including the way modernists considered
geometry. They rejected the meaning that the geometric and symmetrical forms had in the
previous period, however they did not reject the geometric forms totally, they just related
them to new meaning. The modernists considered the geometric forms as the original
starting point of desing in the civilized worlds, as a zero point from which a new culture
could develop new architectural forms.
Figure: Le Corbusiers scetch of ancient architecture. He saw the geometric forms as basic
architectural elements.
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Thus, there was a showdown with the the classicism of the previous period, not by
rejecting the classic totally, but by developing a new understanding of ‘classical’. In ancient
architecture modernist architects searched a number of universal and eternal laws on the
aesthetic area. Through the exploration of classical masterpieces (among ancient Greeks
and Egyptians, and with artists such as Michelangelo and Blondel) Le Corbusier found the
basis for 'Le Modulor' - an aesthetic principle for the design.
It was also reflected in the modernist rediscovery of 'the golden ratio', which they
considered to be an ancient aesthetic rule that could form the basis for the development of
a new and everlasting architecture. The basic foundation for a new understanding of
architectural quality was sought in the kind of universal laws which, according to Le
Corbusier were fundamental to man as well as its surroundings in nature. When man could
experience the universal laws of the surroundings, a sense of harmony occured, he said.
According to Le Corbusier the architectural design this way expressed harmony and order.
Harmony was an important goal of the modernist design - as a reaction towards the
experience of contemporary cities as confusing, noisy and full of chaotic impression. Also
the bustle of industrial factories and the pace of the urban and social tranformations could
be experienced stressful. One only has to see Charles Chaplin film 'Modern Times' to get
an idea of how the little man was confused in modernity's new reality. In the midst of this
confusion modernist architects would create a universe of order and harmony - a place in
which modern man could find meditative calm to achieve a new level of consciousness.
This was expressed through the architectural ideals of simplicity. Stucco and other types of
decoration was banned, the architecture should arise in the dynamic interaction between
spaces, so qualities of a fundamental nature could emerge. At the same time architectural
expressions without historical roots were developed. Modernism turned its back to
tradition, and created a tabula rasa on which a new culture could be developed.
This had spatial impact. Since the Renaissance, architecture had been experienced and
arranged in relation to one particular point - the eyepoint of the King. From here the viewer
had perspective view and control over the architectural space. The architecture had thus
been designed in line with view of the central perspective, and the result was a hierarchical
architecture where something was in the center, while the other objests was peripheral.
Modernists broke with this view form (Bech-Danielsen 2001; Bek 2003). They did not focus
on the individual, well-defined space, but on relationships between spaces. They rejected
the classic and clearly delimited space - such as Frank Lloyd Wright started in the late
19th century and Le Corbusier consummated it subsequently.
Part of the subsequent criticism of modernistic architecture have focused on ideals
concerning the aesthetical qualities (venustas). For example, it has been critisized that
parts of the architectural ideals of modernism has been too abstract. Thus, it was only a
cultural elite that was able to experience nature in the form of cirkles, squares and cones -
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and thus the architecture ended in disharmony with its own ideals of creating design to the
average people.
The interplay between firmitas, utilitas and venustas.
In the above I have described the architectural concept of modernism in the light of
Vitruvius' triad. However, it is important to recall that Vitruvius' three aspects of
architectural quality should never be in isolated from each other in praxis. Architectural
quality is a whole which only occurs when the three aspects of architectural quality are
woven inextricably linked. Thus, the strength of the modernistic architectural concept is,
that the ideals in each of three corners - firmitas, utilitas and venustas - are closely
interlinked. This was obvious already in the design of Crystal Palace, which ushered the
evolution of modern architecture when it was built in 1851. Crystal Palace was designed
for a world exhibition - thus a new function, that required a brand new building type. The
new function of the building set up new requirements for spatial dimensions and
organization. Since the exibition was only open for a short period there were also
requirements of temporality - it could be built quickly and taken down quickly after the
exhibition. This had constructional implications, since a special industrial building
technique (consisting of prefabricated sections of glass and steel) was developed for the
purpose. Furthermore a completely new spatial experiences was developed in the glass
building. a completely - clear spatial limitations disolved, and new relationships between
outside and inside arised. Based on a new feature (utilitas), a new constructive systems
was developed (firmitas), which lead to entirely new spatial experiences (venustas).
The three corners in Vitruvius' triad is thus woven tightly together. Similarly, a number of
basic architectural ideals of modernism - in a strange way - are linked to all three corners
of the triad. As an example we can look at a single part of modernist architecture ideals the claim to reject the use of ornamentation. This ideal was quite in line to the modernist
effort to develop building techniques and construction methods, so they suited for
industrial manufacturing and mass production. Industrialization had been developed into
mass production and thus to the replacement of traditional craftsmanship. This had been
designated as an aesthetic problem by 'The Arts and Crafts Society' in the second half of
the 19th century, and John Ruskin and William Morris sought a solution in a reform of the
crafts. The modernists took a greater extent to the consequence of industrialization, and
developed architecture in light of the production methods, materials and construction
systems, which belonged to industrialism. It was thus the modernists’ strength that they
saw industrialism, which had previously been seen as the cause of the problem, in a new
perspective in which it appeared as a solution to the problem. They explored the
industrialized production methods, new materials and its construction forms for their
inherent form guiding principles.
In this light modernist ideals of rejecting decoration and ornamentation are closely linked to
buildings materials and constructive conditions - the corner of the architectural triad termed
'firmatas'. But the same ideal was also developed on the basis of functional, social and
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political ideals - ideals that has more to do with 'utilitas'. It was an important part of
modernist architecture concept that architects should assume a social responsibility, and
they endeavored to develop affordable housing in order to meet contemporary housing
shortage. In this context, it made no sense to increase the cost of housing with
ornamentation. The Austrian architect Adolf Loos argued for example that the use of
ornamentation led to a periodic change of decorative styles that only served producers and
distributors profit. Similarly the Danish architect, Poul Henningsen regarded ornamentation
as upper-class way to stand out as elite over the working class (Henningsen 1927, p.41).
Dwellings as well as other household items should be developed in extension of the
welfare society's ideals of social equality, and it should therefore be cleaned for the upper
class distinquising and costly character - and thus cover only functional need.
Ideals of an architecture without classical ornamentation has thus roots in both technical
and constructive demands - firmitas - and in functional and social demands - utilitas. And
actually the same ideal was also developed with an eye for qualities that belong in the third
corner in the architectural triad - venustas. In an aesthetic perspective the rejection of
ornamentation aimed to help finding basic architectural and spatial qualities. The
modernists considered as ornamentation as a superficial surface, that blurred qualities and
contexts of more fundamental nature As part of the described ideal to reset the
architecture, the modernists would start a fresh , they would develop the architectural
idiom as Esperanto, a 'primary architecture'. They were in search of architecture's original
starting point and would develop an architecture that was based solely its primary
components. The architects had to find architecture's basic elements, while everything
else should be excluded, and in that connection the outer decoration was omitted.
Modernism's ideals to reject decoration and ornamentation has thus roots in requirements
belonging to building material and building constructions - 'firmatas'. The same ideal is
also rooted in ideals to do with building functional and societal ideals - 'Utilitas'. And finally,
the ideal of an architecture without 'stuck' ornamentation are also rooted in the third corner
in the Vitruvian triad - venustras. This is the strength of modernism.
Perspectives
As described, the modernist ideals have threads in all corners of the Vitruvian triad. It's my
point - or thesis - that it has to be like that, if the architectural ideals must be processed
into an architectural wholeness.
With this in mind, the question for my future work is whether there can be traced ideals in
sustainable construction, which may indicate an early development of a sustainable
architecture. Not only in the sense of construction associated with reduced energy
consumption, but as sustainable construction, which presents itself as an architectural
whole.
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So far, there have been many different ideas about what sustainable development of
architecture may entail. Part of sustainable construction is primarily focused on developing
the materials, the constructional and the supply technical conditions of buildings - ie
conditions that have to do with 'Firmitas'. For example to ensure that constructions can be
disassembled after use. Or to develop LCA analyzes in order to ensure, that the materials
are associated with minimal environmental problems. Or to use alternative energy sources
(eg solar cells) and to increase the isolation, as for example occurs in passive houses.
Another part of sustainable building focuses primarily on developing the framework for new
housing types and alternative behavior. Green accounting has stated the residents'
behavior as crucial to the use of resources in housing. Grassroots and other
environmentally conscious enthusiasts have developed residential construction - here the
construction techniques and building durability is debatable, but nevertheless presents
interesting results on the environment. This is primarily because the residents develop a
way of life that is based on environmental consciousness - ie conditions that might have to
do with 'Firmitas'.
A third aspect of sustainable construction has been about developing new designs that
match our expectations for a living and organic architecture. This is for instance reflected
in construction with planted surfaces and organically shaped construction, which
emphasizes to express architectural connection to nature and discusses building
relationships with the environment - both the landscape contexts and its correlations with
the basic cycles of nature.
It seems like the three approaches to sustainable construction have not much in common.
This makes it impossible to talk about sustainable architecture. It is therefore essential to
find the intersection points of ideal and approches that would link the Vitruvius triad
together and tie the sustainable architecture together into a whole. It will be the target for
an upcoming research project.
Litteratur
Gropius, Walter. The New Architecture and the Bauhaus. Cambridge, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 1965.
Habermas, Jürgen: Moderne og postmoderne arkitektur. I: Arch+, nr 61, feb. 1982.
Hartoonian, Gevork. Ontology og Constructions: On Nihilism of Technology in Theories of Modern
Architecture, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1994.
Henningsen, Poul. Tradition og Modernisme. I: Kritisk Revy, 3/1927.
Morgan, M.H. (ed.). Vitruvius. The Ten Books on Architecture. New York, Dover Publications, 1960.
Studies in Tectonic Culture. The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture
Kenneth Frampton
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