Mr. Pelullo’s Epic Latin Grammar Review
Prologue:
LATIN and the GRAMMAR I sing, who first from the city Rome
Came to Europe - an empire's by fate -and the Mediterranean
Coast - much she was parsed in both noun and verb,
By the will of the gods, and for savage Juno's mindful anger.
Much too she endured in class, while her students would yet do their homework,
And carry their wits into the Aeneid Whence the AP students and the Fives of high scores.
Muse, remind me of the causes, by what offended spirit
Or grieving at what, did the Queen of Languages
Impel students of such diligence to undergo
So many hardships, to adhere to such sufferings.
Does such anger lay in Linguistic hearts?
There was an ancient city (Latins held it)
Rome, across from Africa and Carthage,
Rich in grammar and savage in war,
Which, it is said, Jove cherished more than all,
With Ida being second. Here was his thunderbolt,
Here was his cloud; already he hopes and aims
If the fates allow, that this be an empire above all…
PART ONE: NOUNS AND OTHER NOMINALS
Nouns are inflected into one of five cases, with 2 secondary cases (discussed later).
These cases are:
NOMINATIVE: The nominative case indicates the subject, and is translated by
placing the word before the verb in English. Therefore, rex is to be thought of as “the
king (subject,)” always remembering to place “the king” directly before the verb, to
indicate it is the subject in English (e.g., “necat rex” = “the king kills.” – the
nominative word placed before the verb in English to indicate that it is the subject).
The exception is linking verbs, in which no action is transferred (“Marcus est
Romanus” = “Marcus is a Roman” = “a Roman is Marcus”)
GENITIVE: The genitive case stands in for a prepositional phrase using “of” – i.e.,
where English speakers would use two separate words to indicate “of (the) king,”
the Romans used one, with the genitive ending (regis.) Therefore, “regis” does not
mean “king,” but rather, and strictly, “of the king.”
DATIVE: The dative case stands in for a preposition using “to” or “for,” or as the
indirect object. “regi” is not to be thought of as “king,” but rather as “to the king.” It is
as if reg- means king, and –i is a preposition meaning to or for (which, most linguists
agree, was at one time the case.)
ACCUSATIVE: The accusative indicates the direct object, and is translated by placing
the word after the verb in English. Therefore, regem is to be thought of as “the king
(direct object),” always remembering to place “the king” directly after the verb, to
indicate it is the direct object in English (e.g. “regem necat” = “he kills the king” – the
accusative word placed after the verb in English to indicate that it is the direct
object). It is also the object of most prepositions governed by the ablative.
ABLATIVE: The ablative case stands in for a prepositional phrase using “by,” “with,”
“from,” or “in.” It has a variety of uses, including means (he killed the king with a
sword) and respect (he is skilled in war). It is also the object of a set number of
prepositions – however, these prepositions are incredibly common (sine, in, de, sub,
pro, ab, cum, ex).
Sample:
Case
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Ablative
Word
Rex
Regis
Regi
Regem
Rege
Translation
The King [VERB]
Of the king
To the king
[VERB] the king
By the king
Additionally, Latin has FIVE DECLENSIONS, each with a particular vowel associated
with it.
The First Declension has the theme vowel A.
The Second Declension has the theme vowel O.
The Third Declension has no theme vowel.
I-stems have the theme vowel I.
The Fourth Declension has the theme vowel U.
The Fifth Declension has the theme vowel E.
Additionally, each CASE has a pattern to its endings, although this is subject to many
variations.
Singulars:
NOMINATIVES tend to end in “VOWEL + S.” The exceptions are the first declension,
which derives its nominative from an older neuter plural form, and the third
declension, which in many places has a hidden s (dux = ducs, rex = regs). The second
declension –er words used to be –erus/eros, but, through rhotism, became erur, and
then err, and then er. The second declension ending “us” is also an exception; it was
originally the standard “os,” but the o vowel changed to a u vowel, as u is closer to s
when made in the mouth.
GENITIVES have no pattern, and must be memorized. The first and second genitive
singulars look like their respective nominative plurals.
DATIVES tend to be VOWEL + I. The exceptions are the first declension, as the
romans write the sound “ai” as “ae,” and the 2nd declension, in which the “i” is lost,
but leaves a long vowel as a marker.
ACCUSATIVES tend to end in VOWEL + M. The exceptions are the second
declension, in which the vowel o changed to the vowel u before m, as m is closer to u
than it is to o, and in the third declension, where a vowel is inserted (regm 
regem) as it was easier to pronounce.
ABLATIVES tend to be a LONG VOWEL. The exception is the third declension,
which has no theme vowel. Instead, the short “e” (originally an old Locative) is used.
Case
Nom (V+S)
Gen (?)
Dat (V+I)
Acc (V+M)
1st – A
A
Ae
(ai)Ae
Am
2nd – O
(os) US
I
(oi) ō
(om) Um
3rd – BLANK
--- (s)
Is
ī
(m)Em
4th – U
Us
ūs
Uī
Um
5th - E
Es
Ei
Ei
Em
Abl (V:)
ā
ō
e
ū
ē
Plurals:
NOMINATIVES tend to vary. The first and second declensions look like genitive
singulars, and the last three declensions are the same as the accusative plurals.
GENITIVES tend to end in VOWEL + UM, the exception being an r inserted between
the vowel and the ending in the first, second, and fifth declensions.
DATIVES are either IS or IBUS – IS in the first and second, and IBUS in the 3rd and
4th. The fifth takes the form EBUS. The datives are ALWAYS THE SAME AS THE
ABLATIVES IN THE PLURAL ONLY.
ACCUSATIVES tend to end in LONG VOWEL + S. The long vowel from the third
declension comes from the original pattern, which was vowel + m + s. As we saw
above, No vowel + m  em, and so, no vowel + ms  ems. When the m dropped, the
Romans were left with a long e.
ABLATIVES are the SAME AS THE DATIVE in the PLURALS ONLY.
Case
Nom
Gen (V+UM)
Dat (IS/IBUS)
Acc (V:+S)
Abl (=dat)
1–A
ae
ārum
is
ās
īs
2–O
ī
ōrum
īs
ōs
īs
3 – BLANK
ēs
um
ibus
ēs
Ibus
4–U
ūs
uum
ibus
ūs
ibus
5-E
ēs
ērum
ēbus
ēs
ēbus
NEUTERS:
Neuter nouns are the same as regular nouns, except they follow the neuter rule,
which consists of two parts:
1. The Nominative and the Accusative are identical forms
2. The Nominative and Accusative Plural end in –a.
For the second declension, the nominative and accusative SINGULAR looks like the
ACCUSATIVE form in UM.
Example: saxum, saxi, n. – stone – nom/acc: saxum
For the third declension, the nominative and accusative SINGULAR look like the
nominative form given in the dictionary (NOT THE ACCUSATIVE FROM EM)
Example: nomen, nominis, n. – name – nom/acc: name
For the fourth declension, the nominative and accusative end in u, the dative also
changes its ending to u (a special exception), and the plural takes the form ua.
Seen together:
SINGULAR
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Ablative
PLURAL
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
2nd Neuter
Um
I
ō
Um
ō
3rd Neuter
---Is
I
---- (same as nom)
E
4th neuter
u
ūs
U
U
U
A
ōrum
īs
A
Um
Ibus
Ua
Uum
Ibus
Accusative
Ablative
A
īs
A
ibus
Ua
ibus
DECLINING NOUNS:
To be completed.
ADJECTIVES:
To be completed.
PRONOUNS:
Pronouns follow a special declension, as follows. The trick is to note that:
1. The nominatives are unique and must be memorized
2. The genitive and the datives function like 3-3-3 adjectives, and may have a
special stem
3. The accusative and ablative have 2-1-2 endings (excepting, of course, the
NEUTER RULE)
Additionally:
4. The plurals use (for the most part) 2-1-2 endings
5. The FEMININE SINGULAR DEFINES THE NEUTER PLURAL AND VICE VERSA.
The general form of the declension:
Nom
Gen (3-3-3, ius)
Dat (3-3-3, i)
Acc (2-1-N)
Abl (2-1-2)
MASC
--Ius
I
Um
ō
FEM
--Ius
I
Am
ā
NEUT
--Ius
I
-- (NEUTER RULE)
ō
MASC
Ille
Ill-ius
Ill-i
Illum
Ill-ō
FEM
Illa
Ill-ius
Ill-i
Illam
Ill-ā
NEUT
Illud
Ill-ius
Ill-i
Illud (NEUTER)
Ill-ō
Applied to Ille:
Nom
Gen (3-3-3, ius)
Dat (3-3-3, i)
Acc (2-1-N)
Abl (2-1-2)
The same exact pattern underlies is, ea, id, and a variety of other pronouns.
HIC HAEC HOC.
Hic-Haec-Hoc is exactly the same, with the following exceptions:
1. The Genitive and Dative use a HU stem, and the Accusative and Ablative and
ALL PLURALS use a simple H stem. It is as if the HU is just for 333s, and the H
is for 212s.
2. A c is added to cases below the genitive (but NOT the plurals), and changes
sounds accordingly: mc  nc
3. The feminine singular is THE EXACT SAME AS THE NEUTER PLURAL.
Nom
Gen (hu-, 333)
Dat (hu, 333 + c)
Acc (h, 21N + c)
Abl (h, 2-1-2 + c)
PLURAL
Nom (h- 21F)
Gen (h- 212)
Dat (h - 212)
Acc (h – 21F)
Abl (= dative)
MASC
Hic
Hu-ius
Hu-i-c
H-un-c (*h-um-c)
Ho-c
FEM
Haec
Hu-ius
Hu-i-c
h-an-c (*h-am-c)
Ha-c
NEUT
hoc
Hu-ius
Hu-i-c
Hoc(NEUTERRULE)
Ho-c
H-i
h-orum
h-is
h-os
h-is
h-ae
h-arum
H-is
h-as
h-is
HAEC (same as F.s.)
h-orum
h-is
HAEC (neuter rule)
h-is
QUI-QUAE-QUOD
A similar pattern underlies qui-quae-quod, with the following special
notes/exceptions:
1. The Genitive and Dative use a CU stem, and the Accusative and Ablative and
ALL PLURALS use a QU stem. It is as if the CU is just for 333s, and the QU is
for 212s.
2. The masculine singular is QUEM, not the expected “quum.”
3. The dative and ablative plural is QUIBUS, not the expected “quis” (although
this does occur from time to time!)
4. The feminine singular is THE EXACT SAME AS THE NEUTER PLURAL.
Nom
Gen (cu-, 333)
MASC
Qui
cu-ius
FEM
Quae
cu-ius
NEUT
quod
cu-ius
Dat (cu, 333 )
Acc (qu, e1N)
Abl (qu 2-1-2)
PLURAL
Nom (qu- 21F)
Gen (qu- 212)
Dat (qu -IBUS)
Acc (qu – 21F)
Abl (= dative)
cu-i
Quem (NOT quum)
Qu-o
Hu-i-c
Qu-am
Qu-a
Hu-i-c
Quod (NEUTER)
Qu-o
Qu-i
qu-orum
Quibus
Qu-os
Quibus
Qu-ae
qu-arum
Quibus
Qu-as
Quibus
QUAE(same as F.s.)
qu-orum
quibus
QUAE (neuter rule)
quibus
PART TWO: VERBS
Verbs are action words, and are marked for the following qualities:
1. PERSON tells you which pronoun to use for the verb. More formally, it tells you
whether the speaker of the sentence (I, we), the person spoken to in the sentence
(you, y’all), or the person spoken about (he/she/it, they).
2. NUMBER tells you whether one person (I, you, he/she/it) or more than one
person (we, y’all, they) is performing the action of the verb.
Person and number are combined in the same endings. For example, there is a 3rd
person singular ending, but not a separate part for 3rd person, and a separate part
for plural. The endings are, in the active voice, as follows:
First Person
Second Person
Third person
SINGULAR (number)
O/M
-s
-t
PLURAL (number)
-mus
-tis
-nt
A corresponding English verb:
First Person
Second Person
Third person
SINGULAR (number)
O / M – I smite
-s – you smite
- t - he/she/it smites
PLURAL (number)
-mus – we smite
-tis – y’all smite
-nt – they smite
3. TENSE – Tense indicates the time and the aspect of the verb, and is split into two
systems, each with three tenses.
The Present System uses the present stem, derived from the first two principle
parts of the verb (facio, facere). It indicates an ongoing action, either from the
perspective of the present time (“present”), the past time (“imperfect”), or the future
time (“future”).
The Perfect System uses the perfect stem in the active, derived from the 3rd
principle part (feci), with special endings. In the passive, it uses a different principle
part, and the word sum, forming a two word tense. It indicates a completed action,
either from the perspective of the present time (“perfect”), the past time
(“pluperfect”), or the future time (“future perfect”).
NOTE: IT IS EASIEST TO TRANSLATE THE PERFECT TENSE AS A SIMPLE PAST. (I
destroyed).
Time for each tense occurs in the present, the past, and the future. This is VERY
confusing, as the same names are used. Seen schematically:
PRESENT TIME
PAST TIME
FUTURE TIME
PRESENT SYSTEM
Present
Imperfect
Future
PERFECT SYSTEM
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
NOTE: A completed action, from the perspective of the present, had to occur in the
past – this is why the perfect in Latin indicates a past tense (even though it aligns to
a “present” perspective of time).
An English example:
PRESENT SYSTEM
PERFECT SYSTEM
PRESENT TIME
I am smiting
I have smitten (I smote)
PAST TIME
I was smiting
I had smitten
FUTURE TIME
I will be smiting (will
I will have smitten
smite)
The actually morphology of the tense system in Latin is quite formulaic, the perfect
system being FAR more systematic than the present. The present system has
variations based on CONJUGATION, discussed in detail below.
The PRESENT SYSTEM uses the following system of indicators:
Present tense: present stem + endings
Imperfect tense: present stem + ba + endings
Future tense: present stem + bi + endings (1st and 2nd conjugations); present stem +
am-es-et (3rd and 4th conjugations)
This system will be viewed in detail in the conjugation system.
The PERFECT SYSTEM uses the following system of indicators. They do NOT vary
by conjugation.
Perfect tense: perfect stem + perfect endings (I, isti, it, imus, istis, erunt)
Pluperfect tense: perfect stem + eram/eras/erat/eramus/eratis/errant
Future perfect tense: perfect stem + ero/eris/erit/erimus/eritis/ERINT
NOTE: While in all other ways identical to the future of SUM, the pluperfect endings
have ERINT in the 3rd person plural, not the expected erunt (this would make the
perfect and the future perfect indistinguishable; an untenable confusion).
4. VOICE
Voice indicates whether the action of the verb changes the direct object or
whether it changes the subject.
You have seen one voice already, the ACTIVE. In a sentence with a verb in the
ACTIVE voices, the subject TRANSFERS the action of the verb TO THE OBJECT, and
the object is CHANGED. In a sentence with a verb in the PASSIVE voice, the SUBJECT
is CHANGED by the action of the VERB.
In a passive sentence, the doer of the action is either not expressed at all, or
expressed using the ABLATIVE of AGENT (ab + a person) if a person, or the ablative
of means (a THING in the ablative) if a thing.
Some examples:
ACTIVE: John (subj) killed (act. verb) the king (direct object).
As can be observed, the king is affected by the action.
PASSIVE: The king (subj) has been killed (pass. verb).
As can be observed, the king is affected by the action.
In the PRESENT SYSTEM, voice is indicated by a simple switching of endings, with
all other indicators (ba in the imperfect, for example) intact. These endings are:
First Person
Second Person
Third person
SINGULAR (number)
R
ris
tur
PLURAL (number)
Mur
mini
ntur
So, the imperfect passive of amabo would be amabor, of amabam would be amabar,
of amabat would be amabatur, etc (see full verb chart below).
In the PERFECT SYSTEM, changing voice involves CHANGING THE ENTIRE STEM
AND SYSTEM WHICH YOU ARE USING.
When making the PERFECT PASSIVE, you DO NOT USE THE THIRD PRINCIPLE
PART. Instead, you take the FOURTH PRINCIPLE PART, as if it were an entirely
different tense, and add the corresponding forms of to be, as shown.
Perfect Passive: Perfect Passive Participle + SUM
Pluperfect Passive: Perfect Passive Participle + ERAM
Future Perfect Passive: Perfect Passive Participle + ERO.
Here is an example of a fully translated perfect passive system verb:
Singular
Necatus sum
Necatus es
Necatus est
Plural
Necati sumus
Necati estis
Necati sunt
PLUPERFECT
Necatus eram
Necatus eras
Necatus erat
Necati eramus
Necati eratis
Necati erat
FUTURE
PERFECT
Necatus ero
Necatus eris
Necatus erit
Necati erimus
Necati eritis
Necati erunt
PERFECT
Translation
I have been
killed
You have been
killed
He has been
killed.
I had been
killed
You had been
killed
He had been
killed.
I will have
been killed
You will have
been killed
He will have
been killed.
We have been
killed
Yall have been
killed
They have
been killed
we had been
killed
You had been
killed
they had been
killed.
We will have
been killed
You will have
been killed
They will have
been killed.
Note: the perfect uses the English present form of the word have (I have a sword),
pluperfect uses English past (I had a sword), and future perfect uses English future
(I will have a sword). Also, the passive is ALWAYS indicated in English by TO BE +
___ED.