Alloa Academy Secondary School
Science Faculty
Higher Chemistry Content Statements
The information given below is from the arrangements document on chemistry issued by
the Scottish Qualifications Authority. They state learning outcomes for knowledge and
understanding and for areas of problem solving.
Unit 1: Energy Matters
A . REACTION RATES
(i) Following the course of a reaction
1A.1
1A.2
1A.3
Reactions can be followed by measuring changes in concentration, mass
and volume of reactants and products.
The average rate of a reaction, or stage in a reaction, can be calculated from
initial and final quantities and the time interval.
The rate of a reaction, or stage in a reaction, is proportional to the reciprocal of
the time taken.
(ii) Factors affecting rate
1A.4
The rates of reactions are affected by changes in concentration, particle size and
temperature.
1A.5 The collision theory can be used to explain the effects of concentration and
surface area on reaction rates.
1A.6 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a
substance.
1A.7 The activation energy is the minimum kinetic energy required by colliding
particles before reaction will occur.
1A.8 Energy distribution diagrams can be used to explain the effect of changing
temperature on the kinetic energy of particles.
1A.9 The effect of temperature on reaction rate can be explained in terms of an increase
in the number of particles with energy greater than the activation energy.
1A.10 With some chemical reactions, light can be used to increase the number of
particles with energy greater than the activation energy.
(iii) The idea of excess
1A.11 The reactant that is in excess can be calculated.
(iv) Catalysts
1A.12
1A.13
1A.14
1A.15
Catalysts can be classified as either heterogeneous or homogeneous.
Catalysts are used in many industrial processes.
Heterogeneous catalysts work by the adsorption of reactant molecules.
The surface activity of a catalyst can be reduced by poisoning.
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1A.16 Impurities in the reactants result in the industrial catalysts having to be
regenerated or renewed.
1A.17 Catalytic convertors are fitted to cars to catalyse the conversion of poisonous
carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen to carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
1A.18 Cars with catalytic converters only use ‘lead-free’ petrol to prevent poisoning of
the catalyst.
1A.19 Enzymes catalyse the chemical reactions which take place in the living cells of
plants and animals.
1A.20 Enzymes are used in many industrial processes.
B. ENTHALPY
(i) Potential energy diagrams
1B.1
Exothermic changes cause heat to be released to the surroundings; endothermic
changes cause absorption of heat from the surroundings.
1B.2 A potential energy diagram can be used to show the energy pathway for a
reaction.
1B.3 The enthalpy change is the energy difference between products and reactants.
1B.4 The enthalpy change can be calculated from a potential energy diagram.
1B.5 The enthalpy change has a negative value for exothermic reactions and a
positive value for endothermic reactions.
1B.6 The activated complex is an unstable arrangement of atoms formed at the
maximum of the potential energy barrier, during a reaction.
1B.7 The activation energy is the energy required by colliding molecules to form an
activated complex.
1B.8 The activation energy can be calculated from potential energy diagrams.
1B.9 The effect of a catalyst can be explained in terms of alternative reaction pathways
with lower activation energy.
1B.10 A potential energy diagram can be used to show the effect of a catalyst on
activation energy.
(ii) Enthalpy changes
1B.11 The enthalpy of combustion of a substance is the enthalpy change when one
mole of the substance burns completely in oxygen.
1B.12 The enthalpy of solution of a substance is the enthalpy change when one mole of
the substance dissolves in water.
1B.13 The enthalpy of neutralisation of an acid is the enthalpy change when the acid is
neutralised to form one mole of water.
1B.14 The enthalpy changes can be calculated using H = c m ΔT
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C. PATTERNS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
1C.1
The modern Periodic Table is based on the work of Mendeleev who arranged the
known elements in order of increasing atomic masses in conjunction with similar
chemical properties, leaving gaps for yet to be discovered elements.
1C.2 There are variations in the densities, melting points and boiling points of the
elements across a period and down a group.
1C.3 The atomic size decreases across a period and increases down a group.
1C.4 The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms.
1C.5 The second and subsequent ionisation energies refer to the energies required to
remove further moles of electrons.
1C.6 The trends in the first ionisation energy across periods and down groups can be
explained in terms of the atomic size, nuclear charge and the screening effect
due to inner shell electrons.
1C.7 Atoms of different elements have different attractions for bonding electrons.
1C.8 Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction an atom involved in a bond has
for the electrons of the bond.
1C.9 Electronegativity values increase across a period and decrease down a group.
1C.10 Find out about the history of the Periodic Table and the origins and the discovery
of the elements.
D. BONDING, STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES
(i) Types of bonding
1D.1
1D.2
1D.3
1D.4
1D.5
Metallic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively
charged ions and delocalised outer electrons.
Atoms in a covalent bond are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction
between positively charged nuclei and negatively charged shared electrons.
The polarity of a covalent bond depends on the difference in electronegativity
between the bonded atoms.
Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively and
negatively charged ions.
The type of bonding in a compound is related to the positions of its constituent
elements in the Periodic Table.
(ii) Intermolecular forces of attraction
1D.6
1D.7
1D.8
1D.9
Van der Waals’ forces are forces of attraction which can operate between all
atoms and molecules.
Van der Waals’ forces are much weaker than all other types of bonding.
Van der Waals’ forces are a result of electrostatic attraction between temporary
dipoles and induced dipoles caused by movement of electrons in atoms and
molecules.
The strength of van der Waals’ forces is related to the size of the atoms or
molecules.
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1D.10 A molecule is described as polar if it has a permanent dipole.
1D.11 Permanent dipole-permanent dipole interactions are additional electrostatic forces
of attraction between polar molecules.
1D.12 Permanent dipole-permanent dipole interactions are stronger than van der Waals’
forces for molecules of equivalent size.
1D.13 The spatial arrangement of polar covalent bonds can result in a molecule being
polar.
1D.14 Bonds consisting of a hydrogen atom bonded to an atom of a strongly
electronegative element such as fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen are highly polar.
1D.15 Hydrogen bonds are electrostatic forces of attraction between molecules which
contain these highly polar bonds.
1D.16 A hydrogen bond is stronger than other forms of permanent dipole-permanent
dipole interaction but weaker than a covalent bond.
(iii) Structure
1D.17 A metallic structure consists of a giant lattice of positively charged ions and
delocalised outer electrons.
1D.18 A covalent molecular structure consists of discrete molecules held together by
weak intermolecular forces.
1D.19 A covalent network structure consists of a giant lattice of covalently bonded
atoms.
1D.20 An ionic structure consists of a giant lattice of oppositely charged ions.
1D.21 A monatomic structure consists of discrete atoms held together by van der
Waals’ forces.
1D.22 The first 20 elements in the Periodic Table can be categorised according to
bonding and structure:
. metallic (Li, Be, Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca)
. covalent molecular (H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, P4, S8 and C (fullerenes) )
. covalent network (B, C (diamond, graphite), Si)
. monatomic (noble gases)
1D.23 Compounds each adopt one of three structures in the solid state:
. covalent molecular
. covalent network, including silicon dioxide and silicon carbide
. ionic
(iv) Properties
1D.24 The melting points, boiling points and hardness/softness of elements and
compounds are related to their bonding and structures.
1D.25 The melting and boiling points of polar substances are higher than the melting and
boiling points of non-polar substances with similar molecular sizes.
1D.26 Ionic compounds and polar molecular compounds tend to be soluble in polar
solvents such as water and insoluble in non-polar solvents.
1D.27 Non-polar molecular substances tend to be soluble in non-polar solvents and
insoluble in polar solvents.
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1D.28 The anomalous boiling points of ammonia, water and hydrogen fluoride are a
result of hydrogen bonding.
1D.29 Boiling points, melting points, viscosity and miscibility in water are properties of
substances which are affected by hydrogen bonding.
1D.30 Hydrogen bonding between molecules in ice results in an expanded structure
which causes the density of ice to be less than that of water at low temperatures.
1D.31 The uses of diamond, graphite and silicon carbide are related to their structures
and properties.
1D.32 Fullerenes are the subject of current research and applications are being sought.
E. THE MOLE
(i) The Avogadro Constant
1E.1
1E.2
One mole of any substance contains 6.02×1023 formula units.
Equimolar amounts of substances contain equal numbers of formula units.
(ii) Molar volume
1E.3
1E.4
The molar volume (in units of mol l-1) is the same for all gases at the same
temperature and pressure.
The volume of a gas can be calculated from the number of moles and vice versa.
(iii) Reacting volumes
1E.5
The volumes of reactant and product gases can be calculated from the number of
moles of each reactant and product.
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Unit 2: The World of Carbon
A. FUELS
(i) Petrol
2A.1
2A.2
2A.3
2A.4
2A.5
2A.6
2A.7
2A.8
Petrol can be produced by the reforming of naphtha.
Reforming alters the arrangement of atoms in molecules without necessarily
changing the number of carbon atoms per molecule.
As a result of the reforming process, petrol contains branched-chain alkanes,
cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons as well as straight-chain alkanes.
Any petrol is a blend of hydrocarbons of different volatilities which takes
account of prevailing temperatures.
In a petrol engine, the petrol-air mixture is ignited by a spark.
‘Knocking’ is caused by auto-ignition.
The tendency of alkanes to auto-ignite is reduced by the addition of lead
compounds.
Unleaded petrol uses components which have a high degree of molecular
branching and/or aromatics and/or cycloalkanes to improve the efficiency of
burning.
(ii) Alternative fuels
2A.9 Sugar cane is a renewable source of ethanol for mixing with petrol.
2A.10 There are both advantages and disadvantages associated with the use of methanol
as an alternative fuel to petrol.
2A.11 Some biological materials, under anaerobic conditions, ferment to produce
methane.
2A.12 In the future a ‘hydrogen economy’ could see the use of hydrogen as a means of
storing and distributing energy.
2A.13 Hydrogen could be produced by the electrolysis of water using solar energy, a
renewable source of energy.
2A.14 The use of hydrogen in the internal combustion engine instead of petrol would
reduce the build up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
B. NOMENCLATURE AND STRUCTURAL FORMULA
(i) Hydrocarbons
2B.1
2B.2
2B.3
Systematic names, full and shortened structural formulae can be used for straight
and branched-chain alkanes, alkenes and alkynes (only to C8).
The functional group in an alkene is the carbon to carbon double bond.
The functional group in an alkyne is the carbon to carbon triple bond.
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(ii) Substituted alkanes
2B.4
2B.5
2B.6
2B.7
2B.8
2B.9
2B.10
2B.11
2B.12
2B.13
2B.14
An alcohol can be identified from the hydroxyl functional group and the ‘-ol’
name ending.
Alkanols are a homologous series of alcohols based on the corresponding parent
alkanes.
Systematic names, full and shortened structural formulae can be used for straightand branched-chain alkanols (only C1 to C8).
An aldehyde and ketone can be identified from the carbonyl functional group.
Alkanals are a homologous series of aldehydes based on the corresponding parent
alkanes.
Alkanones are a homologous series of ketones based on the corresponding parent
alkanes.
Alkanals and alkanones can be identified from the ‘-al’ and ‘-one’ name
endings.
Systematic names, full and shortened structural formulae can be used for straightand branched-chain alkanals and alkanones (only C1 to C8).
A carboxylic acid can be identified from the carboxyl functional group and the
‘-oic’ name ending.
Alkanoic acids are a homologous series of carboxylic acids based on the
corresponding parent alkanes.
Systematic names, full and shortened structural formulae can be used for straight
and branched-chain alkanoic acids (only C1 to C8).
(iii) Esters
2B.15 An ester can be identified from the functional group (-CO-O-C-) and the ‘-oate’
ending.
2B.16 An ester can be named given the names of the parent alkanol and alkanoic
acid, or from shortened and full structural formulae.
2B.17 Shortened and full structural formulae for esters can be drawn given the names of
the parent alkanol and alkanoic acid, or the names of esters.
2B.18 The products of the breakdown of an ester can be named or shortened, and full
structural formulae can be drawn, given the name of the ester or the shortened or
full structural formula of the ester.
(iv) Aromatic hydrocarbons
2B.19
2B.20
2B.21
2B.22
Benzene is the simplest member of the class of aromatic hydrocarbons.
The benzene ring has a distinctive structural formula.
The stability of the benzene ring is due to the delocalisation of electrons.
A benzene ring in which one hydrogen atom has been substituted by another
group is known as the phenyl group.
2B.23 The phenyl group has the formula -C6H5.
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C. REACTIONS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
(i) Addition
2C.1
2C.2
2C.3
2C.4
2C.5
2C.6
2C.7
The characteristic reaction of an alkene is the addition reaction.
Alkenes can undergo the addition of hydrogen, hydrogen halides, halogens and
water to form saturated products.
Ethyne can also undergo the addition of hydrogen, hydrogen halides and
halogens to form saturated products in two stages.
To meet market demand ethanol is made by means other than fermentation.
Direct catalytic hydration of alkenes is another way of making alkanols.
Alkanols can be converted to alkenes by dehydration.
The benzene ring resists addition reactions.
(ii) Oxidation
2C.8 Alcohols burn in oxygen and air to produce carbon dioxide and water.
2C.9 Alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary or tertiary.
2C.10 Primary and secondary alcohols can be oxidised by a number of oxidising
agents, including copper(II) oxide and acidified potassium dichromate solution.
2C.11 Primary alcohols are oxidised, first to aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids.
2C.12 Secondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones.
2C.13 Aldehydes, but not ketones, can be oxidised by a number of oxidising agents,
including Fehling’s solution, to carboxylic acids.
2C.14 When applied to carbon compounds, oxidation results in an increase in the
oxygen to hydrogen ratio.
2C.15 When applied to carbon compounds, reduction results in a decrease in the
oxygen to hydrogen ratio.
(iii) Making and breaking down esters
2C.16 Esters are formed by the condensation reaction between a carboxylic acid and an
alcohol.
2C.17 The ester link is formed by the reaction of a hydroxyl group with a carboxyl
group.
2C.18 The parent carboxylic acid and the parent alcohol can be obtained by hydrolysis
of an ester.
2C.19 The formation and hydrolysis of an ester is a reversible reaction.
(iv) Percentage yields
2C.20 Percentage yields can be calculated from mass of reactant(s) and product(s) using
balanced equations.
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D. USES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
2D.1
2D.2
2D.3
2D.4
2D.5
2D.6
2D.7
2D.8
2D.9
There are competing demands for the use of crude oil for fuels and the
manufacture of petroleum-based consumer products.
Many consumer products are compounds of carbon.
Uses of esters include flavourings, perfumes and solvents.
Carboxylic acids are used in a variety of ways.
Halogenoalkanes have properties which make them useful in a variety of
consumer products.
In the atmosphere, ozone, O3, forms a protective layer which absorbs ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.
The depletion of the ozone layer is believed to have been caused by the extensive
use of certain CFCs.
Benzene and its related compounds are important as feedstocks.
One or more hydrogen atoms of a benzene molecule can be substituted to form a
range of consumer products.
E. POLYMERS
(i) Early plastics and fibres
2E.1
2E.2
2E.3
2E.4
2E.5
2E.6
2E.7
2E.8
2E.9
2E.10
2E.11
2E.12
2E.13
2E.14
2E.15
2E.16
Ethene is a starting material of major importance in the petrochemical industry
especially or the manufacture of plastics.
Ethene can be formed by cracking the ethane from the gas fraction or the
naphtha fraction rom oil.
Propene can be formed by cracking the propane from the gas fraction or the
naphtha fraction from oil.
Condensation polymers are made from monomers with two functional groups
per molecule
The repeating unit or the structure of a condensation polymer can be drawn given
the monomer structures and vice-versa.
Polyesters are examples of condensation polymers.
Polyesters are manufactured for use as textile fibres and resins.
Polyesters used for textile fibres have a linear structure whereas cured
polyester a three-dimensional structure.
An amine can be identified from the functional group.
Polyamides are examples of condensation polymers.
The amide link is formed by the reaction of an amine group with a carboxyl
group.
An example of a polyamide is nylon which is a very important engineering
plastic.
The strength of nylon is related to the hydrogen bonding between polymer
chains.
Methanal is an important feedstock in the manufacture of thermosetting plastics.
Methanol, a feedstock for methanal, is made industrially from synthesis gas, a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
Synthesis gas can be obtained by steam reforming of methane from natural gas,
or by steam reforming of coal.
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(ii) Recent developments
2E.17 Kevlar is an aromatic polyamide which is extremely strong because of the way
in which the rigid, linear molecules are packed together.
2E.18 Kevlar has many important uses.
2E.19 Poly(ethenol) is a plastic which readily dissolves in water.
2E.20 Poly(ethenol) is made from another plastic by a process known as ester
exchange.
2E.21 The percentage of acid groups which have been removed in the production
process influences the strengths of the intermolecular forces upon which the
solubility depends.
2E.22 Poly(ethenol) has many important uses.
2E.23 Poly(ethyne) can be treated to make a polymer which conducts electricity.
2E.24 The conductivity depends on delocalised electrons along the polymer chain.
2E.25 Poly(vinyl carbazole) is a polymer which exhibits photoconductivity and is used
in photocopiers.
2E.26 Biopol is an example of a biodegradable polymer.
2E.27 The structure of low density polythene (LDPE) can be modified during
manufacture to produce a photodegradable polymer.
F. NATURAL PRODUCTS
(i) Fats and oils
2F.1
Natural fats and oils can be classified according to their origin as animal,
vegetable or marine.
2F.2 The lower melting points of oils compared to those of fats is related to the higher
unsaturation of oil molecules.
2F.3 The low melting points of oils is a result of the effect that the shapes of the
molecules have on close packing, hence on the strength of van der Waals’ forces
of attraction.
2F.4 The conversion of oils into hardened fats involves the partial removal of
unsaturation by addition of hydrogen.
2F.5 Fats and oils in the diet supply the body with energy and are a more concentrated
source of energy than carbohydrates.
2F.6 Fats and oils are esters.
2F.7 The hydrolysis of fats and oils produces fatty acids and glycerol in the ratio of
three moles of fatty acid to one mole of glycerol.
2F.8 Glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol) is a trihydric alcohol.
2F.9 Fatty acids are saturated or unsaturated straight-chain carboxylic acids containing
even numbers of carbon atoms ranging from C4 to C24, primarily C16 and C18 .
2F.10 Fats and oils consist largely of mixtures of triglycerides in which the three fatty
acid molecules which are combined with each molecule of glycerol may or may
not be identical.
2F.11 Soaps are produced by the hydrolysis of fats and oils.
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(ii) Proteins
2F.12 Nitrogen is essential for protein formation by plants and animals.
2F.13 Proteins are condensation polymers made up of many amino acid molecules
linked together.
2F.14 The structure of a section of protein is based on the constituent amino acids.
2F.15 Condensation of amino acids produces the peptide (amide) link.
2F.16 The peptide link is formed by the reaction of an amine group with a carboxyl
group.
2F.17 Proteins specific to the body’s needs are built up within the body.
2F.18 The body cannot make all the amino acids required for body proteins and is
dependent on dietary protein for supply of certain amino acids known as essential
amino acids.
2F.19 During digestion, the hydrolysis of proteins produces amino acids.
2F.20 The structural formulae of amino acids obtained from the hydrolysis of proteins
can be identified from the structure of a section of the protein.
2F.21 Proteins can be classified as fibrous or globular.
2F.22 Fibrous proteins are long and thin and are the major structural materials of
animal tissue.
2F.23 Globular proteins have the spiral chains folded into compact units.
2F.24 Globular proteins are involved in the maintenance and regulation of life
processes and include enzymes and many hormones, eg insulin and
haemoglobin.
2F.25 Enzyme function is related to the molecular shapes of proteins.
2F.26 Denaturing of a protein involves physical alteration of the molecules as a result
of temperature change or pH change.
2F.27 The ease with which a protein is denatured is related to the susceptibility of
enzymes to changes in temperature and pH.
2F.28 Enzymes are most efficient within a narrow range of temperature and pH.
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Unit 3: Chemical Reactions
A. THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
3A.1
3A.2
3A.3
3A.4
3A.5
3A.6
3A.7
3A.8
3A.9
3A.10
3A.11
3A.12
3A.13
The UK chemical industry is a major contributor to both the quality of our life and
our national economy.
Stages in the manufacture of a new product can include research, pilot study,
scaling-up, production and review.
A chemical manufacturing process usually involves a sequence of steps.
A feedstock is a reactant from which other chemicals can be extracted or
synthesised.
The major raw materials in the chemical industry are fossil fuels, metallic ores
and minerals, air and water.
Chemical manufacturing may be organised as a batch or as a continuous process.
Process conditions are chosen to maximise economic efficiency.
Manufacturing costs include capital costs, fixed costs and variable costs.
The UK chemical industry is, by and large, capital rather than labour intensive.
Safety and environmental issues are of major importance to the chemical industry.
Both historical and practical factors affect the location of chemical industries.
The efficient use of energy is significant in most chemical processes.
Factors influencing the choice of a particular route include cost, availability and
suitability of feedstock(s), yield of product(s), opportunities for the recycling of
reactants and marketability of by-products.
B. HESS'S LAW
3B.1
3B.2
Hess’s law states that the enthalpy change for a chemical reaction is independent
of the route taken.
Enthalpy changes can be calculated by application of Hess’s law.
C. EQUILIBRIUM
(i) The concept of dynamic equilibrium
3C.1
3C.2
Reversible reactions attain a state of dynamic equilibrium when the rates of
forward and reverse reactions are equal.
At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant,
although not necessarily equal.
(ii) Shifting the equilibrium position
3C.3
3C.4
3C.5
Changes in concentration, pressure and temperature can alter the position of
equilibrium.
A catalyst speeds up the rate of attainment of equilibrium but does not affect the
position of equilibrium.
The effects of pressure, temperature, the use of a catalyst, recycling of unreacted
gases and the removal of product can be considered in relation to the Haber
Process.
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D. ACIDS AND BASES
(i) The pH scale
3D.1
3D.2
3D.3
3D.4
3D.5
The pH scale is a continuous range from below 0 to above 14.
Integral values of pH from 0 to 14 can be related to concentrations
of H+(aq) in mol 1-1.
In water and aqueous solutions with a pH value of 7 the concentrations of H+(aq)
and OH-(aq) are both 10-7 mol 1-1 at 25oC.
The concentration of H+(aq) or OH-(aq) in a solution can be calculated from the
concentration of the other by using [H+(aq)] [OH-(aq)] = 10-14 mol2 1-2.
In water and aqueous solutions there is an equilibrium between H+(aq) and OH(aq) ions and water molecules.
(ii) The concept of strong and weak
3D.6
3D.7
3D.8
3D.9
3D.10
3D.11
3D.12
3D.13
3D.14
3D.15
3D.16
In aqueous solution, strong acids are completely dissociated but weak acids are
only partially dissociated.
Equimolar solutions of weak and strong acids differ in pH, conductivity, and
reaction rates, but not in stoichiomery of reactions.
The weakly acidic nature of solutions of ethanoic acid, sulphur dioxide and
carbon dioxide can be explained by reference to equations showing the
equilibrium.
In aqueous solution, strong bases are completely ionised but weak bases are only
partially ionised.
Equimolar solutions of weak and strong bases differ in pH and conductivity, but
not in stoichiometry of reactions.
The weakly alkaline nature of a solution of ammonia can be explained by
reference to an equation showing the equilibrium.
A soluble salt of a strong acid and a strong base dissolves in water to produce a
neutral solution.
A soluble salt of a weak acid and a strong base dissolves in water to produce an
alkaline solution.
A soluble salt of a strong acid and a weak base dissolves in water to produce an
acidic solution.
Soaps are salts of weak acids and strong bases.
The acidity, alkalinity or neutrality of the above kinds of salt solution can be
explained by reference to the appropriate equilibria.
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E. REDOX REACTIONS
(i) Oxidising and reducing agents
3E.1
3E.2
3E.3
3E.4
3E.5
An oxidising agent is a substance which accepts electrons; a reducing agent is a
substancewhich donates electrons.
Oxidising and reducing agents can be identified in redox reactions.
Ion-electron equations can be written for oxidation and reduction reactions.
Ion-electron equations can be combined to produce redox equations.
Given reactant and product species, ion-electron equations which include H+(aq)
and H2O(l) can be written.
(ii) Redox titrations
3E.6
The concentration of a reactant can be calculated from the results of redox
titrations.
(iii) Electrolysis
3E.7
3E.8
3E.9
The production of one mole of an element from its ion, by electrolysis, always
requires n X 96,500 C where n is the number of electrons in the relevant ionelectron equation.
96,500 C is the charge associated with one mole of electrons.
The mass or volume of an element discharged can be calculated from the quantity
of electricity passed and vice-versa.
F. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
(i) Types of radiation
3F.1
3F.2
3F.3
3F.4
3F.5
Radioactive decay involves changes in the nuclei of atoms.
Unstable nuclei (radioisotopes) are transformed into more stable nuclei by
releasing energy.
The stability of nuclei depends on the proton/neutron ratio.
The natures and properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation can be described.
Balanced nuclear equations, involving neutrons, protons, alpha particles and beta
particles, can be written.
(ii) Half-lives
3F.6
3F.7
3F.8
The half-life is the time taken for the activity or mass of a radioisotope to halve.
The decay of individual nuclei within a sample is random and is independent of
chemical or physical state.
The quantity of radioisotope, half-life or time elapsed can be calculated given the
value of the other two variables.
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Alloa Academy Secondary School
Science Faculty
(iii) Radioisotopes
3F.9
Radioisotopes are used in medicine, in industry, for scientific research including
carbon dating, and to produce energy by uranium fission and nuclear fusion.
3F.10 Nuclear fuels and fossil fuels can be compared in terms of safety, pollution and
the use of finite resources.
3F.11 Elements are created in the stars from simple elements by nuclear fusion.
3F.12 All naturally occurring elements, including those found in our bodies, originated
in stars.
PPA's
As well as the listed learning outcomes on the previous pages, there are 9 Prescribed
Practical Techniques which you should be familiar with. You should know the aim of the
experiments, the procedures for carrying out the experiments, be familiar with the
experimental set-up and the results of the experiments. The 9 PPA's are listed below.
1.1 The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate
1.2 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
1.3 Enthalpy of Combustion
2.1 Oxidation
2.2 Making Esters
2.3 Factors Effecting Enzyme Activity
3.1 Hess's Law
3.2 Quantitative Electrolysis
3.3 A Redox Titration
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