Food in the Middle Ages Depending on their status in society and where they lived, medieval people had a
variety of meats to enjoy. But thanks to Fridays, Lent, and various days deemed meatless by the Catholic Church,
even the wealthiest and most powerful people did not eat meat or poultry every day. Fresh fish was fairly common,
not only in coastal regions, but inland, where rivers and streams were still teeming with fish in the Middle Ages, and
where most castles and manors included well-stocked fish ponds.
Those who could afford spices used them liberally to enhance the flavor of meat and fish. Those who could not
afford spices used other flavorings like garlic, onion, vinegar and a variety of herbs grown throughout Europe. The
use of spices and their importance has contributed to the misconception that it was common to use them to disguise
the taste of rotten meat. However, this was an uncommon practice perpetrated by underhanded butchers and vendors
who, if caught, would pay for their crime.
Meat in Castles and Manor Homes
A large portion of the foodstuffs served to the residents of castles and manor homes came from the land on which
they lived. This included wild game from nearby forests and fields, meat and poultry from the livestock they raised
in their pastureland and barnyards, and fish from stock ponds as well as from the rivers, streams and seas. Food was
used swiftly -- usually within a few days, and sometimes on the same day -- and if there were leftovers, they were
gathered up as alms for the poor and distributed daily.
Occasionally, meat procured ahead of time for large feasts for the nobility would have to last a week or so before
being eaten. Such meat was usually large wild game like deer or boar. Domesticated animals could be kept on the
hoof until the feast day drew near, and smaller animals could be trapped and kept alive, but big game had to be
hunted and butchered as the opportunity arose, sometimes from lands several days' travel away from the big event.
There was often concern from those overseeing such victuals that the meat might go off before it came time to serve
it, and so measures were usually taken to salt the meat to prevent rapid deterioration. Instructions for removing outer
layers of meat that had gone bad and making wholesome use of the remainder have come down to us in extant
cooking manuals. Be it the most sumptuous of feasts or the more modest daily meal, it was the lord of the castle or
manor, or the highest-ranking resident, his family, and his honored guests who would receive the most elaborate
dishes and, consequently, the finest portions of meat. The lower the status of the other diners, the further away from
the head of the table, and the less impressive their food. This could mean that those of low rank did not partake of
the rarest type of meat, or the best cuts of meats, or the most fancily-prepared meats; but they ate meat nonetheless.
Meat for Peasants and Village-Dwellers
Peasants rarely had much fresh meat of any kind. It was illegal to hunt in the lord's forest without permission, so, in
most cases, if they had game it would have been poached, and they had every reason to cook it and dispose of the
remains the very same day it was killed. Some domestic animals such as cows and sheep were too large for everyday
fare and were reserved for the feasts of special occasions like weddings, baptisms, and harvest celebrations.
Chickens were ubiquitous, and most peasant families (and some city families) had them; but people would enjoy
their meat only after their egg-laying days (or hen-chasing days) were over. Pigs were very popular, and could
forage just about anywhere, and most peasant families had them. Still, they weren't numerous enough to slaughter
every week, so the most was made of their meat by turning it into long-lasting ham and bacon. Pork, which was
popular in all levels of society, would be an unusual meal for peasants.
Fish could be had from the sea, rivers and streams, if there were any nearby, but, as with hunting the forests, the lord
could claim the right to fish a body of water on his lands as part of his demesne. Fresh fish was not often on the
menu for the average peasant. A peasant family would usually subsist on pottage and porridge, made from grain,
beans, root vegetables and pretty much anything else they could find that might taste good and provide sustenance,
sometimes enhanced with a little bacon or ham.
Because monasteries or convents were mostly self-sufficient, the meat available to the brothers and sisters was -usually -- pretty much the same as that served in a manor or castle, although the more common foodstuffs like
chicken, beef, pork and mutton would be more likely than swan, peacock, venison or wild boar.
The average medieval cook or housewife had access to a variety of meat from both wild and domesticated animals.
Cooks in the households of the nobility had a fairly impressive selection available to them. Here are some, but by no
means all, of the meat medieval people would consume.
Meat
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Beef and Veal - By far the most common meat, beef was regarded as coarse and was never considered
exclusive enough for the nobility; but it was very popular among the lower classes. Though more tender,
veal never surpassed beef in popularity.
o Many peasant households had cows, usually only one or two, that would be slaughtered for meat once
their days of giving milk had passed. This would usually take place in the fall so that the creature would not
have to be fed through the winter, and whatever was not consumed at a feast would be preserved for use
throughout the months ahead. Most of the animal was used for food, and those parts that weren't eaten had
other purposes; the hide was made into leather, the horns (if any) might be used for drinking vessels, and
the bones were occasionally used to make sewing implements, fasteners, parts of tools, weapons, or
musical instruments, and a variety of other useful items.
o In larger towns and cities, a substantial portion of the population had no kitchens of their own, and so it
was necessary for them to purchase their meals ready-made from street vendors: a kind of medieval "fast
food." Beef would be used in the meat pies and other food items these vendors cooked if their customers
were numerous enough to consume the product of a slaughtered cow in a matter of days.
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Goat and Kid - Goats had been domesticated for thousands of years, but they were not particularly popular
in most parts of medieval Europe. The meat of both adult goats and kids was consumed, however, and the
females gave milk that was used for cheese.
Mutton and Lamb - Meat from a sheep that is at least a year old is known as mutton, which was very
popular in the Middle Ages. In fact, mutton was sometimes the most expensive fresh meat available. It was
preferable for a sheep to be from three to five years old before being slaughtered for its meat, and mutton
that came from a castrated male sheep (a "wether") was considered the finest quality.
o Adult sheep were most often slaughtered in the fall; lamb was usually served in the spring. Roast leg of
mutton was among the most popular foods for nobility and peasant alike. Like cows and pigs, sheep might
be kept by peasant families, who could make use of the animal's fleece regularly for homespun wool (or
trade or sell it).
o Ewes gave milk that was frequently used for cheese. As with goat cheese, cheese made from sheep's milk
could be eaten fresh or stored for quite some time.
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Pork, Ham, Bacon, and Suckling Pig - Since ancient times, the meat of the pig had been very popular with
everyone except Jews and Muslims, who regard the animal as unclean. In medieval Europe, pigs were
everywhere. As omnivores, they could find food in the forest and city streets as well as on the farm.
o Where peasants could usually only afford to raise one or two cows, pigs were more numerous. Ham and
bacon lasted a long time and went a long way in the humblest peasant household. As common and
inexpensive as keeping pigs was, pork was favored by the most elite members of society, as well as by city
vendors in pies and other ready-made foods.
o Like cows, nearly every part of the pig was used for food, right down to its hooves, which were used to
make jellies. Its intestines were popular casings for sausages, and its head was sometimes served on a
platter at festive occasions.
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Rabbit and Hare - Rabbits have been domesticated for millennia, and they could be found in Italy and
neighboring parts of Europe during Roman times. Domesticated rabbits were introduced to Britain as a
food source after the Norman Conquest. Adult rabbits more than a year old are known as "coneys" and
show up fairly frequently in surviving cookbooks, even though they were a rather expensive and unusual
food item.
o Hare has never been domesticated, but it was hunted and eaten in medieval Europe. Its meat is darker and
richer than that of rabbits, and it was frequently served in a heavily-peppered dish with a sauce made from
its blood. Fowl
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Chicken, Capons, and Eggs - Chicken appears in a good percentage of the recipes that have survived from
the Middle Ages, and among the upper classes the meat was served frequently. In more modest homes,
chicken might be served on very special occasions; peasants needed chickens for their eggs, and were very
unlikely to eat a hen until it had stopped laying them. Eggs were used regularly and frequently in a wide
variety of recipes in upper-class kitchens and peasant dwellings alike. Capons -- castrated males -- were
considered luxury items that only the rich could afford.
Duck - Though not as popular as chicken or goose, duck was often served in medieval Europe. Sometimes
duck was raised domestically, but more often than not it appears to have been hunted or captured in the
wild. Duck feathers were probably put to use in bedding and clothing, though goose feathers were more
common for such uses
Game Birds: Partridge, Pheasant and Quail - These three birds are all related to each other, and all were
hunted with the help of falcons by the upper classes. Pheasant was especially prized, since its meat was
considered very flavorsome. Male pheasants had colorful feathers, and at aristocratic banquets it was
common to serve them in their own plumage
Goose - domesticated since ancient times, and they have been raised for their feathers as well as for the
meat, grease, and liver used in cooking
Peacock - Domesticated and highly prized for its stunning plumage, the peacock wasn't a particularly tasty
bird, but it was still served at aristocratic functions as a status symbol in spite of its toughness. Their taste
could be improved and their toughness mitigated by hanging the slaughtered birds by the neck with their
feet weighted down a day or two. Like partridges and swans, the peacock was almost always served redressed in its own skin with its notable tail feathers fanned out.
Dove / Pigeon - The wood pigeon, the rock dove and the turtledove were domesticated for food in medieval
Europe, and were usually reserved for the upper class. Pigeons and doves might be roasted or served in
pies. Fish and Seafood
In the Middle Ages, the seas, lakes and rivers were teeming with fish, and medieval people took advantage
of this fact with professional fishing fleets and fish traps. When a castle moat had water it might also have
fish, and fish ponds were part of many manor holdings. Preserved fish was very common and easy to
acquire.
Fish was allowed on the days of the week that the Church had declared "meatless" (such as every Friday
and all of Lent), but it was usually eaten more often, especially in coastal regions. In medieval cookbooks,
the exact type of fish wasn't always specified; as with measurements and cooking times, the knowledgeable
cook decided what recipe went best with what fish.
Carp - Carp is native to northern European rivers and wasn't introduced into England until the late Middle
Ages. Bream, a variety of carp, is indigenous to northern and central Europe and prefers slow-flowing and
stagnant waters. This made it perfect for medieval fish ponds and castle moats, but its reputation as a
bottom-feeder limited its prestige. The active dace, also of the carp family, could be caught by skilled
anglers in fairly swift-moving streams and rivers, and occasionally made a good meal.
Cod or "Stockfish" - Although some sources indicate that "stockfish" could refer to any white fish, the term
usually referred to cod (and its relatives haddock and whiting). Cod was caught in vast quantities in the
North Atlantic, much of it off the coast of Iceland, where it was air-dried in the cold to preserve it and
traded widely across Europe. Properly dried cod could last for years, and had to be beaten for hours and
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soaked for days to make it edible again. Preserved cod was often a staple in medieval households. Its roe,
tongue and liver were considered delicacies.
Herring - This oily, fatty fish caught in the North Sea and the Baltic was enormously popular in the Middle
Ages. Most of what was caught by professional fishermen was pickled, packed in barrels, and traded
throughout Europe. Herring that was gutted, pre-soaked in brine, and thoroughly smoked would turn red.
Herring that was cured without smoking retained its silver skin and was known as white herring, which
kept longer than red herring. Though herring didn't last as long as cod, it still made a good staple fish.
o Anchovies and sardines, which are found in warmer waters, are smaller relatives of the herring and were
also eaten in the Middle Ages. The consumption of anchovies goes back to ancient times, and the fish
remained part of Mediterranean cuisine throughout the medieval era and beyond. Both anchovies and
sardines were salted to preserve them and traded throughout the Mediterranean and Adriatic regions.
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Lamprey and Eel - Lamprey fish are sometimes mistaken for eels because of their slick, snakelike
appearance, but they are actually parasites that suck the blood of larger fish. They live in the sea and spawn
in rivers. Eels spawn in the ocean and spend most of their lives in fresh water; they were often caught in
river traps. Eels, which were very common in the Middle Ages, were sometimes carefully separated from
their skins, seasoned, and returned to the skin for roasting. Some surviving medieval recipes regard
lamprey and eel as interchangeable.
Lobster, Crab and Crayfish - The Greeks and Romans were fond of lobster and crab, and the high regard
with which such seafood was held never faded through the Middle Ages. (It's interesting to note that for a
time in America, the abundance and easy availability of lobster made it a common food for poorer folk; but
such was never the case in medieval Europe.) The lobster's freshwater cousin, the crayfish, was not
precisely considered a delicacy, but it made a prestigious meal and was especially sought-after on meatless
days.
Mackerel and Tuna - Both the mackerel and its relative, the tuna, were fairly abundant in the Atlantic and
Mediterranean in medieval times. Mackerel was enjoyed fresh in season (usually beginning in June but
sometimes as early as March), but it proved exceedingly difficult to preserve. Only the French appeared to
have any success preserving mackerel, which they did with a lot of salt. In Sicily, a tradition of tuna
trapping goes back to at least the 10th century and may have originated with Muslim residents, although it's
possible the custom goes back to Roman times or even earlier.
Mollusks - Cockles, oysters, mussels, scallops and whelks were consumed regularly in the Middle Ages,
chiefly by people living on the coast. Although they were sometimes eaten by the wealthy (especially as
part of a multi-course feast), mollusks were much more commonly eaten by the lower classes.
Pike - This carnivorous fish was held in high regard by medieval cooks and was a favorite of the nobility.
Though often caught wild in the lakes and rivers of low-lying regions, pike were also kept in fish ponds,
where they kept down the population of such prolific fish as bream.
Plaice and Flounder - These flatfish were among the most popular fish in northern Europe. In England,
archaeological evidence shows that stockfish and herring were the only fish to appear more frequently in
the High Medieval English diet.
Salmon and Trout - Though it spawns inland, the salmon lives all the rest of its days in the ocean. It was
therefore caught in both seagoing ships and river traps. In the Middle Ages, salmon was very common, and
was caught in great quantities in the Rhine and traded throughout Germany and beyond by the Hanseatic
League. Trout, which is related to the salmon, was often mentioned in cookbooks as an alternative to other
fish. Unlike its cousin, the trout is confined to fresh water.
Shrimp - The common European shrimp could be found in coastal waters of the North Atlantic. There was
no large-scale shrimping industry, but shrimp were known to be consumed as part of impressive feasts.
Since they could be obtained in shallow waters, they were probably eaten by poorer folk, as well.