Annotated Bibliography
Rationale or motivation for the study:
Alberts, B. (2009). Making a science of education. Science, 323 (5910), 15.
Alberts’s article discusses how an outstanding education system must continually evolve
to remain relevant to the interests and needs of each new generation, and in order to
achieve this ambitious goal, more emphasis should be placed on both science education
and the “science of education.” The article goes on to discuss how scientific research is
needed to explore, analyze, and improve each of the many components of educational
systems. Additionally, by collecting and analyzing data on student learning, the many
variables that determine effectiveness can be sorted out. Moreover, the article states the
most important element of any education system is a highly skilled teacher. Teacher
recruitment, preparation, retention, and professional development all need to be informed
by scientific research in education. In addition, curricula, pedagogy, assessment, and
school system management similarly require focused research.
This article will be used to support the rationale for the study. Professional development
opportunities for teachers are needed at the middle school level. Research shows that
children, especially girls, start to lose interest in science in middle school. In addition,
there have been numerous reports that a high proportion of our nation’s middle school
public school teachers (in many cases exceeding 60%) are teaching out-of-field.
Therefore, it is essential to have passionate, confident, and well-trained science teachers
at this level.
Glod, M. (2008, December 10). Scores on Science Test Causing Concern in U.S. The
Washington Post. Retrieved from: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2008/12/09/AR2008120901031.html
Glod’s article discusses how American students compare with international students in
the disciplines of math and science. The article states that U.S. students are doing no
better on an international science exam than they were in the mid-1990s. It further
discusses how this performance plateau leaves educators and policymakers worried about
how schools are preparing students to compete in an increasingly global economy.
The article accuses the United States of being “static,” while other countries are
improving. This article demonstrates how crucial Improving Teacher Quality projects are
to Georgia’s STEM teachers.
Singer, M. (2009). Great teachers for STEM. Science, 325, 1047.
The article discusses how many countries are motivated to develop the human resources
required to advance science and technology. It states that success requires a system of
education that prepares young people for life in today’s complex societies. Further, the
article discusses how to develop and cultivate great STEM teachers. It also reports that
the Obama administration has recently stressed the need to strengthen science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education in the United States.
Further, the article states, “the science community needs to participate directly in
improving teacher education programs. Scientists should work to help develop STEM
teacher education programs that are rigorous and relevant for teaching students who have
grown up in the Internet era.”
This article is extremely important for this study. The U.S. Department of Education (US
DoE) last reported that 47% of all 8th graders in the state of Georgia fell below the
national achievement level for science. This fact demonstrates how crucial projects, such
as those funded by Improving Teacher Quality State Grants, are to Georgia’s STEM
teachers. Moreover, the Obama administration launched an “Educate to Innovate”
campaign to improve the participation and performance of America’s students in STEM
education.
Design of the study:
Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the terrain.
Educational Researcher 33, (8), 3-15.
Borko’s article discusses how education reform policies are raising the bar for student
learning. Additionally, the reform demands changes in classroom practices, placing a
tremendous responsibility on teachers. This realization has led educational scholars and
policy makers to require professional development opportunities that will help teachers
enhance their content knowledge and develop new instructional practices. The article
further describes the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, which requires that
states ensure the availability of "high-quality" professional development for all teachers.
This study is sponsored by a “No Child Left Behind” Title II Part A, PL-107-110, Higher
Education Bill Improving Teacher Quality State Grant. The study is a partnership between
local school systems and Georgia State University (GSU)’s Colleges of Education and Arts and
Sciences. The project is geared towards preparing Georgia’s middle school science teachers to
integrate inquiry-based, hands-on research modules in the classroom. Teachers will gain
instructional strategies and deepen their content knowledge and laboratory skills in earth science,
life science, and physical science based on Georgia’s Performance Standards.
Darling-Hammind, L., & Youngs, P. (2002). Defining “Highly qualified teachers”: What does
“scientifically –based research” actually tell us? Educational Researcher, 31, (9), 13-25.
The article critics the arguments stated in the 2002 U.S. Secretary of Education’s Annual
Report on Teacher Quality, as required by the 1998 reauthorization of Title II of the
Higher Education Act, entitled, Meeting the Highly Qualified Teachers Challenge. The
article discusses how the arguments are not based upon empirical support and do not cite
the scientific literature that addresses them. The Secretary essentially argues for the
dismantling of teacher education systems and the redefinition of teacher qualifications to
include little preparation for teaching. The article states that current teacher certification
systems are “broken,” and that they impose “burdensome requirements” for education
coursework that make up “the bulk of current teacher certification regimes,” the report
argues that certification should be redefined to emphasize higher standards for verbal
ability and content knowledge and to de-emphasize requirements for education
coursework—making student teaching and attendance at schools of education optional
and eliminating “other bureaucratic hurdles.” These conclusions rest on the arguments,
“teachers matter for student achievement, but teacher education and certification are not
related to teacher effectiveness,” “verbal ability and subject matter knowledge are the
most important components of teacher effectiveness,” “teachers who have completed
teacher education programs are academically weak and are underprepared for their jobs,”
and “alternative certification programs have academically stronger recruits who are
highly effective and have high rates of teacher retention.”
This article is significant in that it discusses why scientifically-based research is
necessary as it pertains to the issue of teacher quality and preparedness. The article is
relevant to the study in that, rigorous scientific experimental research will be utilized to
support any claims.
Garet, M. S., Porter, A. C., Desimone, L., Birman, B. F., & Yoon, K. S. (2001). What makes
professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers.
American Educational Research Journal, 38, 915-945.
The article discusses several ways for improving professional development. Results
indicate that sustained and intensive professional development is more likely to have an
impact than shorter professional development. Also, professional development focusing
on content, gives teachers opportunities for “hands-on” work (active learning), and is
integrated into the daily life of the school (coherence). This approach is more likely to
produce enhanced knowledge and skills. Moreover, to improve professional
development, it is important to focus on the duration, collective participation, and the
core features (i.e., content, active learning, and coherence) of the experience.
This article will be used to support the three-fold approach to the plan of operation for the
study, a five-day summer teacher workshop, follow-up classroom activities during the
school-year, and a professional learning community.
Hanauer, D.I., Jacobs-Sera, D., Pedulla, M. L., S. G. Cresawn, Hendrix, R.W., Graham, F. H.
(2006). Teaching scientific inquiry. Science, 314, 1880-1881.
The article discusses that while numerous acts and initiatives are training STEM teachers
to teach students more effectively, once STEM teachers are properly equipped with the
content knowledge and skills to prepare their students, they are still faced with a “curious
paradox.” On the one hand, the incorporation of scientific inquiry in the classroom in a
manner that mirrors the processes used by professional scientists is considered to be
among the most effective ways to promote scientific learning. On the other hand, a
school classroom is not a research laboratory. Scientific research usually involves
complex (and expensive) methodology and problem-solving approaches, resulting in
conclusions that are subjected to worldwide evaluation. Capturing these characteristics
of professional science within the K–12 school classroom is difficult. Moreover, because
K–12 students are limited in knowledge and available classroom time, finding
appropriate research projects that are within reach of their skills and knowledge (and not
accessible to only one or two high achieving students) is a particular challenge.
This article is important in that it supports the study’s goal to resolve the “curious
paradox” by bringing a laboratory to the students, by incorporating scientific inquiry into
the classroom, and by implementing hands-on activities that mirror the processes used by
professional scientific researchers.
Jones, M. T. & Eick, C. J. (2007). Providing bottom-up support to middle school science
teachers’ reform efforts using inquiry-based kits. Journal of Science Teacher Education,
18, 913-934.
The National Science Education Standards National Research Council (NRC) calls for a
reform of science education supporting inquiry-based teaching and learning. The NRC
defined inquiry as utilizing hands-on approaches to observe phenomena in science, create
models, or gather empirical data to learn the content and processes of science. The target
outcomes of these reforms are positive student gains in science, including cognitive
achievement, process skills, and attitude toward science. The article discusses this
initiative, stating that teachers find it difficult to implement inquiry in practice. The
difficulty occurs because of a lack of professional development and support for
inexperienced teachers and the ineffectiveness of many professional development
programs that do not provide systemic support in practice.
The article supports the study in that teachers will be provided with resource materials,
laboratory supplies, and instructional strategies that will give them the confidence
necessary to effectively integrate inquiry-based, hands-on, interdisciplinary teaching
lessons in the classroom. As a result, teacher quality will be improved; student learning
and attitude towards science will be enhanced.
Methods for data collection and analysis, and interpretation of the results
Field, A. 2009. Discovering statistics using SPSS. London: Sage.
Field’s book covers how to understand, use, and report statistics, at every level. The book
makes statistics meaningful by including playful examples from everyday student life, as
well as other places, creating a gateway into the often intimidating world of statistics. In
the process, Field presents an opportunity for students to ground their knowledge of
statistics through the use of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
This book is relevant for this study in that it will be utilized for data collection, analysis,
and interpretation of the results. For example, Cronbach’s alpha (α) as a measure of the
internal consistency of a factor will be used, as well as analysis of variance between
groups (ANOVA), to name a few.
Sorge, C. 2007. What happens? Relationship of age and gender with science attitudes from
elementary to middle school. Science Educator, 16, (2), 33-37.
Sorge’s article examines the results of the implementation of a school-based science
enrichment program involving 1008 students from rural New Mexico, ages 9 through 14.
A large decrease in science attitudes between the ages of 11 and 12 years, corresponding
with the move from elementary to middle school was observed. Research shows that this
reaction to science is not uncommon for middle school-aged students. Around the age of
11 or 12, positive attitudes toward science decrease dramatically, usually as students
enter middle school, and never return to the levels that were reported during the
elementary school years. Because this observation has been so widely reported, it has
become a major goal for science educators to determine what factors play a role in this
drastic decline. Moreover, several studies report a direct correlation between positive
attitudes exhibited by students and the likelihood that they will achieve academic success
in science.
This article is of importance due to the fact that the study will serve twenty-one 6th, 7th,
and 8th grade science teachers and 1,152 6th, 7th, and 8th grade students. The study will
compare the students’ content knowledge and attitude towards science prior to, and
following, implementation of a school-based science enrichment program.