Study Advice Service
Sentences & Paragraphs
Author: Phil Farrar
What is a sentence?
This is not an easy question to answer but we shall try to define the main characteristics of a sentence
in the written language. Those of paragraphs can only be in written form, of course.
Most educated native speakers of English are able to say whether or not a particular sequence of
words forms an acceptable sentence but would find it very difficult to give a satisfactory definition of
one. For example, the principle that “All sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop”,
though true in most cases, is not sufficient to define an acceptable sentence of English. Another oftheard definition is: ‘A sentence must contain a finite (complete) verb’1 but again one could find
examples which do not fit this definition. The difficulty of defining the term ‘sentence’ is hardly
surprising since over 200 definitions have so far been attempted2, none of which caters for all types!
Why is a definition of the notion ‘sentence’ so problematic? Attempting to answer this may give an
idea of what an acceptable sentence is. Here are some examples of strings or sequences of words
which could be called sentences:
He wanted to buy a suit.
Go away!
Because he did not have enough money, he had to wait until pay day.
There are three common factors in these examples:
- they all contain a simple verb or a verbal construction (in bold),
- they are all grammatically correct and
- they all convey a complete meaning.
These are three good tests to apply to see whether or not a sequence of words forms something
which we could call a sentence. However there are grey areas: the following sequences are all
‘correct’ but are they also acceptable as ‘sentences’ since they do not have a complete verb?
The least said the better.
Once bitten, twice shy.
No entry.
Good morning.
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2
Verb = a word which describes an action, an event or a state of affairs.
Crystal, D. (1987) Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language Cambridge : CUP
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These all express a clear message, are grammatically correct, start with a capital letter and end with a
full stop.
Some linguists suggest an answer to this question by saying that “All native speakers can recognise a
well-formed utterance (a sequence of words, spoken or written)”, but whether or not it can be classified
as a sentence is not always clear.
So, we could say that
He will arrive later this afternoon, or
Later this afternoon, he will arrive.
are acceptable sentences but that the following are not, since the order in which the units combine
does not follow an acceptable syntactic pattern (i.e. the way the sentence is structured), or
because the utterance is semantically incomplete (i.e. it does not convey a complete meaning or
idea):
He will later this afternoon arrive.
Arrive later this afternoon he will.
He later this afternoon.
We can see from the above that word order is often crucial to the meaning of an utterance in English.
The sentences
and
He knows the result
He will ring with all the details
are each correct and complete but simply joining the two together will not make an acceptable
sentence. To achieve this, the word He will need to be deleted to avoid repetition and the addition of
the word when or but is required to produce:
or
or
When he knows the result, he will ring with all the details.
He will ring with all the details when he knows the result.
He will ring with all the details, but he knows the result.
(The last two examples have slightly different meanings since the logical connection between the two
halves of the sentence - when/but - is not the same. It is interesting to note here that, in formal
written English, it is advisable not to start sentences with but and that the Present Tense is used to
convey a future meaning, illustrating the fact that human language is not an exact science and not
always logical - thank goodness!)
So, a sentence could be defined as ‘the largest unit [of language] to which syntactic rules apply’. 1
It is a good idea, especially for non-native speakers of English, not to construct sentences
which are too long in order to avoid problems with syntax2. Often, one becomes so engrossed in
communicating the meaning or series of ideas that the sentence becomes jumbled or incomplete, but
it may be the confusion of subject and verb, or a lack of one of these, which causes the problem.
Some examples (below) showing constructional and other errors may serve to illustrate the point:
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Crystal D. (1997) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language Cambridge : C.U.P. p. 94
is the study of word combinations or sentence structure.
2 Syntax
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Non -s e nte nc e
Corre c te d ex a mple
“Although the Consumer Act 1991 came into
force, which play a key role in the new policy,
but to what extent the regulation will improve the
situation for consumers.”
The Consumer Act came into force in 1991 and
it plays a key role in the new policy, but to what
extent will the regulation improve the situation for
consumers?
Remarks:
 This is really two or three sentences in one
 which is too far from the noun phrase to
which it refers (the Consumer Act 1991).
 there is no main clause for the subordinate
clause beginning “Although …”
 the modal (auxiliary) verb will should
precede the subject of the main verb
improve, thus changing the statement into
a question
 the direct question (to what extent…) has
no question mark
Structure:
[Main clause] + and + [main clause] + but + [main
clause]
Note that each main clause has its own complete
verbal form, came into force, plays, will
…improve.
or:
Although the Consumer Act came into force in
1991 and plays a key role in the new policy, to
what extent will the regulation improve the
situation for consumers?
Structure:
[Subordinate clause] + and + [subordinate
clause] + [main clause]
Here too, each clause has a complete verbal form
(see above)
“With the development of the economies, higher
standards require for companies to meet.”
With the development of economies, companies
need to meet higher standards.
Remarks:
 the second the is not needed.
 require is a transitive verb and has a direct
object, so there is no for.
 here, the verb meet would mean that the
companies would need to meet each other.
Meet can also be transitive, in which case
the sentence is incomplete and would
require an object e.g. “ … to meet certain
criteria.”
Structure:
[noun phrase] + [main clause]
“This theory closely linked with the stakeholders,
the underlying elements of corporate
governance.”
This theory is closely linked with the stakeholders
(who are) the underlying elements of corporate
governance.
or:
The development of economies requires
companies to meet higher standards.
Structure: [main clause]
Remarks:
 there is no finite or tensed verb, so there is
not a complete sentence.
Structure:
[main clause] + [relative clause]
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“Focuses on the company, its survival closely
associated with some other social parts in
broader social system.”
[This essay] focuses on the company. Its
survival is closely associated with some other
aspects of the broader social system.
Remarks:
 the verb focuses has no subject and
associated with is not a complete
construction: there is no auxiliary verb.
 the meaning of social parts is unclear.
 there is repetition of the word social.
Structure:
[main clause] + [main clause]
or:
[This essay] focuses on the company, whose
survival is closely associated with the broader
social system.
Structure:
[main clause] + [relative clause]
“Ethical stakeholders, that is, regardless of
whether there is an improvement of financial
performance, management should take account
into all stakeholders’ benefits, such as human
rights, public relations and environmental
performance.”
Regardless of whether or not there is an
improvement of financial performance,
management should take account of all
stakeholders’ benefits …
Remarks:
 that is is not needed.
 whether should be followed by or not since
there is an implied comparison or
alternative
 the phrasal verb is to take account of, not
into, something (but we do say to take
something into account).
 take account has two different subjects.
Who is taking account of what? If it is the
management which is taking shareholders
into account, then the first two words of the
‘sentence’ are not needed either.
Note that this sentence is simpler and avoids
repetition of the word performance.
Structure:
[subordinate clause] + [main clause]
Paragraphs
All essays, books, reports etc are divided into paragraphs – the building blocks of an essay - and there
are two good reasons for this.
Firstly, a long text with no breaks is an unappealing prospect for any reader and he or she would also
find it difficult to refer to any given part of it afterwards. It would have a most uninteresting
appearance on the page and perhaps be difficult to follow.
Secondly, dividing it into paragraphs, each of which is a collection of closely related ideas about a
particular theme or idea, organises the arguments better for both the author and the reader. It clearly
marks a progression in the arguments into visually obvious steps or parts.
Whether the paragraph is descriptive or discursive, it is a good idea to have the first sentence give a
good idea of what it will contain, thus guiding the reader along the ‘pathway’ you have devised.
So, a paragraph could be said to be ‘a short passage or a collection of sentences, with a unity of
content or purpose’ (Chambers Dictionary 1998). It is usually possible (and preferable) to organise
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ideas into paragraphs. Most are of ‘medium’ length and of course there is no ‘rule’ about this, but it is
often a good idea, as you might with sentences, to vary their length from time to time. One or two
paragraphs might be relatively long, if the idea being described or discussed requires this, while the
occasional short paragraph can be quite ‘punchy’ and memorable.
Recommended reading:
Arscott, D. (n.d.) Good English: the witty, in-a-nutshell, language guide. Lewes, Sussex :
Pomegranate Press. (An excellent guide. Sentencing policy starts on page 5.)
Cottrell, S. (2008) The Study Skills Handbook 3rd edn. Basingstoke, Palgrave. (Paragraphs section pp.
192 – 5.)
Institute of Education, University of London. http://www.ioe.ac.uk/caplits/writingcentre Go to ‘Quick
tips’, then ‘Paragraphing’. There is then a short one-page description of the function of sentences and
paragraphs.
Kirkman, N. (n.d.) The Bumper Guide to Writing University of Hull, Disability Services. (Another
excellent guide, with short exercises. The section on paragraphs is on page 19.)
The Open University, Skills for Study: http://www.open.ac.uk/study-strategies/ Click the Assignments
section, then Dividing your work into paragraphs. The Activity sections are for OU students but the
rest is very useful.
Peck, J. & Coyle, M. (1999) The Student’s Guide to Writing: Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling.
Basingstoke : Palgrave. (Paragraphs are discussed starting on page 63.)
Teesside University, Drop-In Student Skills Centre http://dissc.tees.ac.uk/ Click the tab Sentences
and Paragraphs at the top. This goes into some very useful detail and contains examples and FAQ &
quiz sections.
Varley, A. & Arscott, D. (n.d.) Good Essays – every student’s guide to effective writing. Lewes,
Sussex: Pomegranate Press. (An excellent, witty guide to the subject and highly recommended. A
short section on paragraphs is on page 20.)
(Websites correct at time of publication 1.2.11)
The information in this leaflet can be made available in an alternative format
on request. Telephone 01482 466199
© 04/2011
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