01/10/2015
The Student’s Academic
Literacy Tool
Developed by: Sue Becker; Holly Shahverdi; Nadine Spence & Luke Kennedy
(October, 2014)
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Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................... 3
The Sections .................................................................................... 4
Section A: Grammatical accuracy ......................................................................... 5
Section B: Correct use of language ...................................................................... 6
Section C: Structure and development of text ....................................................... 7
Section D: Use of relevant source material ........................................................... 8
The Glossary ................................................................................... 9
Section A: Grammatical accuracy ....................................................................... 10
Section B: Correct use of language .................................................................... 14
Section C: Structure and development of text ..................................................... 17
Section D: Use of relevant source material ......................................................... 19
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Introduction
The longer my piece of writing, the better it will look!
You can only get high grades if you are a genius.
Maybe if I use fancy words in my essay I will get a higher mark?
These are but a few common misconceptions among students going on to study
at University. A high standard of academic writing is not based on any of the
above statements, so you don’t need to worry! In fact, everything you need to
know to improve your writing and raise your grades can be found right here in
this booklet!
The SALT has been constructed to help you to attain the standard of writing
expected of you at University. We have outlined the key stylistic features that you
need to be aware of to improve your writing. To make it even easier, we have
organised these features into four sections:

Section A: Grammatical accuracy

Section B: Correct use of language

Section C: Structure and development of text

Section D: Use of relevant source material
If you are unsure of any term in a section, we have also provided a glossary
section (the blue bit) which includes further explanations and examples for you to
help you understand and learn each of the criteria. Once you feel like you
understand them, you can tick them off the checklist.
We hope you find this tool useful!
#TeamSALT
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The Sections
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Section A: Grammatical accuracy
What is grammatical accuracy anyway? Well, it is actually more important than
you may think. Let’s take the following statements as an example:
“Let’s eat Grandpa!’ and “Let’s eat, Grandpa!”
It’s fair to say that without that added comma, it would not have ended very well
for poor Grandpa!
Do you
What you need to know
know
it?
1.Correctly formed clause structure
There are a variety of different sentence types which comprise of different
clause structures. It is important that you understand these.
2. Correctly formed tense choices
There are a variety of tenses you must be aware of and it is important that you
are using the most appropriate tense for your assignment.
3. Understanding of passive and active language
Your work must demonstrate an understanding that the focus of a sentence is
interchangeable. The focus may be on the action or the object.
4. Correct use of articles
The word before the noun must be used correctly (a, and or the).
5. Correct use of conjuncts, adjuncts and disjuncts
Please refer to the glossary.
6. Correct use of punctuation
Full stops, commas, semi-colons etc. must be used in the correct place in
your writing.
7. Avoidance of spelling errors
All of your work must be spell checked. A word that you are unsure how to
spell should be looked up in a dictionary for the correct spelling. It is also
useful to set your spell checker to your country (e.g. English rather than
American).
8. Appropriate use of capital letters
Capital letters must be used at the beginning of sentences and for the names
of places or people.
(See glossary for further examples)
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Section B: Correct use of language
You will always get more points for writing in the correct language, but that’s not
quite what we are getting at here! This section is all about using words correctly
to ensure that your writing makes sense.
Do you
What you need to know
know it?
1. Use of field specific vocabulary
Familiarise yourself with the terminology that is specific to your field of study and
use it throughout your writing.
2. Appropriate level of formality and objectivity
It is important that a neutral and unbiased perspective is adopted.
3. Use of evaluative language
It is vital to demonstrate that you are able to consider all sides of an argument in
your writing. You can do this by discussing the pros and cons of the points you
make throughout your writing.
4. Understanding of grammatical metaphors
Grammatical metaphors involve eliminating the action and making a sentence
‘noun heavy’.
5. Control of cohesive devices
In order to make sure your writing is concise, repetition of similar phrases within a
sentence or paragraph should be avoided and reference chains should be used.
6. Correct subject-verb agreement
Whilst it is important that you use a wide range of vocabulary in your writing, you
must understand the meaning of the words you are using so that your sentences
make logical sense.
(See glossary for further examples)
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Section C: Structure and development of text
This section is about the way you present your ideas and arguments in your
writing. You would never start an argument with something that goes against the
point you are trying to make, but equally, it is important to show that you are
unbiased and that you can appreciate both sides of an argument.
Do you
What you need to know
know it?
1. Introduction orientates to how the argument will be presented
Your opening paragraph must show awareness of how to compose a structured
answer that addresses the question or title of your assignment.
2. Claims build up the argument presented in the introduction
The points you make should work together to present your argument in the most
logical way.
3. Text structure is appropriate to the title
You should be aware of which structure is appropriate for you work and adjust your
writing style accordingly (e.g. essay or report).
4. Beginnings of paragraphs relate to the argument
The first sentence of each paragraph you write should relate to the last sentence of
the preceding paragraph.
5. Conflicting arguments are presented, addressed and effectively managed
Counter arguments must be incorporated and critically evaluated in your writing.
6. Information flow in the argument progresses in a logical order
You must plan the presentation of your main points so that they make the most
sense to the reader.
7. Conclusion follows from argument and relates to the title
The conclusion should be directly related to both the title and the rest of the text.
(See glossary for further examples)
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Section D: Use of relevant source material
So imagine that you have learned everything in the handbook so far, produced a
glowing essay and then referenced ‘Wikipedia’. You can wave goodbye to those
high grades. Did you know that websites like Wikipedia can be modified by
anyone? That’s right; you could be quoting absolute nonsense!
Do you
What you need to know
know it?
1. Most relevant and up to date sources are used
In order for your work to be credible, you must use the most recent source material
in the area you are writing about to build your main points.
2. Non-academic source material is avoided
All the information you reference should be taken from credible sources that have
been peer-reviewed.
3. Information is interpreted correctly
You should reference only the most relevant information from source material and
use it appropriately within your writing to support your claims.
4. Text is free from plagiarism
You must demonstrate originality within your writing rather than using direct
quotes. Try to interpret source material in your own way.
5. Accurate referencing in text, bibliography or reference list
You must produce correct references for all of your source material and these
should be presented in accordance with your course’s guidelines and referencing
style.
(See glossary for further examples)
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The Glossary
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Section A: Grammatical accuracy
Extract 1:
It has been argued that many psychics use cold reading to make
their claims.1 Cold reading is a method employed by psychics
whereby they are able to convince the sitter they can read their
mind when in reality they are making their claims based on the
sitter’s body language2, (Hyman, 2007). Psychics can make a
vague and highly general claim and sitters will ask ‘are you sure’
or ‘I can take everything but this’, (Hyman, 2007).3 For this reason,
more people should consider whether the psychic should have
room for mistakes if they are claiming that the spirit is on the stage
talking to them.4 Equally, it may be useful to consider that as noted
in the introduction, if these interactions are televised they may
appear even more credible as the psychic’s mistakes can be cut
out. Fortunately5, this kind of research can help people to approach
these situations with less of an open mind.6
1. Correctly formed clause structures
A clause is a group of words that form either full sentences or part of a sentence.
All sentences contain a main clause.

A simple sentence is one that consists of a single clause
Refer to extract 1.1

Compound sentences are made up of two or more main clauses joined
together using conjunctions, (joining words). Refer to extract 1.2

Complex sentences are made up of a main clause and a subordinate
clause. A subordinate clause adds extra information to the main clause
but will not make sense alone. Refer to extract 1.5
Your work should consist of a variety of sentence structures.
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2. Correctly formed tense choice
There are three main tenses, past present and future. Tenses portray the
sequence of events; they give the text chronological order and aid narrative
progression. An awareness of which tense to use at the correct time is essential
to a good academic writing style.
- The present tense: This is when the action is taking place. The present tense is
usually appropriate in an essay.
e.g. ‘Ruqaiya argues.’‘
- The past tense: This is when the action has taken place in the past. This tense
is most appropriate when discussing previous research.
e.g. ‘Ruqaiya argued.’
- The future tense: This is when the action will take place in the future.
e.g. ‘Ruqaiya will conduct research’
- The conditional tense: This is when the action is not definite but may take place.
It is most often used in introduction and conclusion sections.
e.g. ‘Ruqaiya may argue.’
3. Correctly formed passives
Passive language places focus upon the receiver of action. In academic writing
as in the example below, the focus is the object (the research) rather than the
agent of the action (Bandura).
e.g: ‘Research conducted by Bandura.’
Active language is also important in improving academic writing style. This is
where the focus is placed upon the person carrying out the action, this
construction may be more appropriate when evaluating the contribution of a
particular psychologist
e.g. ‘Bandura conducted research.’
4. Correct use of articles
In order to improve academic writing style, it is important to understand how to
use articles correctly. There are three articles that can be used, these are; the,
an, and a. These are divided into two types of articles; the definite (the) and the
indefinite (a, and an.)
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The definite article is used to indicate something specific whilst the indefinite
articles are used to indicate non-specific things. The following examples show
how articles can be used to convey different meanings. Refer to extract 1.3
This sentence indicates that you can sit at any table However, if it is necessary to
make the sentence more specific, it may be useful to use a different article. Refer
to extract 1.4
When using ‘an’ and ‘a’ it is important to determine the first sound of the next
word. If the sound the word will create is a vowel then ‘an’ is used. Refer to
extract 1.6
5. Correct use of conjuncts, adjuncts and disjuncts
In order to make academic writing flow it is essential that an understanding of the
following three criterions are understood. Below are examples and explanations
of each:

Conjunct: A conjunct is a word used in a sentence that is not related to
the proposition (the meaning of the sentence) but still adds to the
sentence; usually by relating what is said in one sentence to another, i.e.
Moreover, Furthermore etc. Refer to extract 1.3

Adjunct: An adjunct modifies the verb to display factors such as time,
manner, place frequency and/or degree of that particular verb in the
sentence i.e. highly, rarely etc. Refer to extract 1.3

Disjunct: Disjuncts relate to expressing the writers’ attitude or position on
the subject in that particular sentence i.e. unfortunately, etc. Refer to
extract 1.6
6. Punctuation is generally correct
In order to achieve a high standard of academic writing, it is essential that
punctuation is used correctly throughout a piece of work.
Some key punctuation marks to remember are:
- Colons (:). Colons are to be used before doing a bullet pointed lists.
- Semi colons (;). Semi colons are to be used when doing lists within the text.
- Ellipsis (…). Ellipses are used in academic writing when missing out part of a
quote.
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- Quotation marks (‘) Quotation marks need to be used correctly within their
placement of the text. It is essential to remember how they affect the placement
of other punctuation. A full stop would always be placed before the end of the
quotation mark.
Refer to extract 1.
7. Spelling is generally correct
Make sure that all work is spelt correctly, if using word processing then a spell
check will be available to help with this. For instances when you do not have
access to a spell check facility then certain spelling rules can be learnt in order to
improve your spelling.
Spelling is important as it can sometimes affect the meaning of the word e.g.
there, their and they’re.
You must ensure that your spell checker is set to your language e.g. English
(UK)
8. Capitals are used appropriately
It is important in academic writing to have the correct use of capitals letters. A full
stop must always be followed by a capital letter. Capital letters must also be used
within sentences when naming a person or place.
Refer to extract 1.
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Section B: Correct use of language
Extract 2:
There are three main psychological theories that examine humour,
its comic nature and its quantifiable elements, insofar to say each
theory proposes a different hypothesis to why we laugh. Most
prevalent amongst these is the incongruity theory (Berger, 1994;
Clark, 1970; Curco, 1996; Meyer, 2000 & Rutter, 1997).1
Schopenhauer’s interpretation of incongruity (2010) furthers Kant
(2007) and is the most widely accepted theoretical basis for
contemporary research on humour.2 Perhaps most important to
denote in this theory is how recognition and understanding multiple
sets of scripts and roles contribute to the presentation of the joke
and the falseness of the narrative congruence3, thus leading to the
difference in expectation and the surprise effect (Shurcliff, 1968).
This highlights a link that shows how a cognitive understanding of
semantics (Giora, 1991; Grice 1975) can, in this sense lead to a
better understanding of humour as a concept. Moreover, it could
be suggested that the form of incongruence theory shares
commonalities with the form of a joke, wherein there is a setup,
expectation and twist; advocating evidence for why incongruence
is the most popular humour theory.4
1. Field specific vocabulary
Using the correct vocabulary is essential in academic writing. When writing
persuasive pieces it is important to use persuasive language. Yet in research
reports more scientific and academic language will be needed. Is the vocabulary
used the correct choice for the task at hand? It will need to include abstract
wording and wording specific for the field of study.
Doing academic reading around the topic area will help to highlight some specific
technical terms within the field. Refer to extract 2.1
e.g. In biology when talking about the structure of the body, you would not call it
the structure of the body but would refer to it as the anatomy of the body.
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2. Appropriate level of formality and objectivity
In academic writing it is important to get the correct balance of how formal and
objective the work needs to be. To try to improve the level of academic writing in
this area, make sure the piece is written in the third person. e.g. The study
found.. the author found… etc. It is important to give a balanced view, do not
build the argument up in favour of a personal opinion but show all opinions that
could be had of the topic.
Refer to extract 2.4 ‘Moreover, it could be suggested that…’
3. Appropriate use of modality, metaphors and other evaluative
language
Metaphor is the practice of using one concept which is familiar to explain another
process or concept which may be new or less familiar. For example, ‘mental
health’ or ‘intellectual level’.
Modality indicates the degree of certainty in any claim i.e. research suggests that
mood may be affected by cortisol level’ as opposed to ‘according to research,
mood is affected by cortisol level,
Refer to extract 2.2
4. Appropriate use of grammatical metaphor
Grammatical metaphor is a key feature of scientific and technical writing. Using
grammatical metaphors ‘processes or actions’ become ‘things or concepts’ and
human actions are made invisible to the reader i.e. ‘the process of designing
research’ becomes ‘research design’
The writing also becomes more ‘noun heavy’ which is a typical feature of
academic style writing
Refer to extract 2 3 ‘the falseness of the narrative congruence’
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5. Control of cohesive devices
Reference chains allow for easier reading. They follow through your text so you
know what is being discussed.
For example, if the person in question is named ‘Becker’, once they have been
named then the reader is already aware of who is being talked about so this can
follow through the text in the upcoming sentences.
e.g. ‘Becker proposed a theory of humour in 1949. Kilinc et al further developed
this theory.
Due to the reference chain it was not necessary to state ‘Becker proposed a
theory of humour in 1949. Becker’s theory of humour was further developed by
Kilinc et al.’
6. Correct subject-verb agreement
Subject-verb agreement is using the correct verb in a sentence. You might use
tools such as a thesaurus or the synonym checker in an attempt to improve your
vocabulary. These tools are not always effective if you do not understand the
correct meaning of the suggested verbs. Using the incorrect verb leads to a lack
of subject-verb agreement.
With reference to extract 1.5, the phrase ‘cut out’ makes sense, whereas ‘ripped
out’ would not have been appropriate in this text though the words have a similar
meaning.
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Section C: Structure and development of text
1. Introduction engages with the title and orientates to how the
argument will be presented
Introductions are necessary to grab the reader’s attention and are vital for letting
them know what is going to come in the essay. They should give the context and
background of the topic, showing a clear purpose for the essay. They need to
include an outline of the main things that you are going to cover.
2. Claims build up the argument presented in the introduction
The argument needs to be correctly structured with relevant claims as this will
help to strengthen the piece of writing. Normally, an argument will begin with
general claims surrounding the topic area. This allows the reader to see the
background and more general research and how it has been refined into the
point being made. Once the general claims have provided a holistic background
the writer can then begin to further develop the claims to produce a more
complex argument. Academic writing generally becomes more refined as it
develops and this is done through the correct use of claims.
3. Text structure is appropriate to the title
The text structure is dependent upon the task given. It is important that the
nature of the task is fully understood so that the appropriate structure can be
used. For example, the structure of an essay is very different to that of a
research report.
4. Beginnings of paragraphs and sentences orientate to the argument
and title
One way of ensuring that the beginnings of paragraphs and sentences orientate
to the argument is to read through the first and last sentence of each paragraph
and ensure that each paragraph links together to produce a well-structured
argument. This is known as signposting.
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5. Conflicting arguments are presented, addressed and effectively
managed
It is important to show both sides of the argument as opposing arguments are
used to create discussion within the text. If studies have shown opposite findings
to the original argument, these need to be included and addressed. They can be
effectively managed by explaining why the results may have been different. For
example, some studies may only use participants from a particular area and this
may be the reason the study didn’t have the expected results. It can be stated
that although this study had different findings to the other research quoted, this
could be due to the sample and not because of the phenomena being
researched.
6. Information flow in the argument progresses in a logical order
Essay which flow logically are much easier to read than essays that jump from
topic to topic. Ordering paragraphs with ideas that link to each other can
counteract this from happening. If there are 4 main points to write about then
order them in a way that will allow them to be linked. Use the opening and
closing sentences of paragraphs to link previous points to the points that are
about to be made. Write more generally in these sentences and this will allow
them to be linked to previous and following paragraphs.
7. Statement of conclusion follows from argument and relates to title
A conclusion is needed in order to remind the reader of all the main points that
have been covered. This is an important summary of all that has been included in
the writing. It is important for this not just to relate to what has been discussed in
the work but also to relate this previous content back to the title. This allows the
reader to know what conclusion or answer has been reached to address the title.
Conclusions are also important for stating what can be considered for future
research.
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Section D: Use of relevant source material
1. Most relevant and up to date research is included
To ensure the literature is relevant, it must easily relate to the topic area. It is
advisable when reading research papers and books to check that the literature is
up to date. This can be done by looking at when the literature was published. The
published date can usually be found on the inside cover of a book or on the first
page of a journal. If you are still unsure you can find the literature online.
2. Non peer-reviewed and non-academic source material is avoided
It is imperative that the work you submit contains only peer-reviewed articles. If
work has been peer-reviewed it is generally a much more reliable and trustworthy
source. To ensure your source material is peer-reviewed, when using search
engines make sure the ‘peer reviewed’ box is ticked.
Non-academic information can be written by anyone meaning it is not always
accurate. A commonly used non-academic source is ‘Wikipedia’. This website
allows anyone with internet access to manipulate the information. Following the
importance of using peer-reviewed information, it is essential that source material
is also academic as this increases its accuracy and improves the quality of
academic writing.
3. Information from course material and any other research is
interpreted correctly
In order to attain the highest standard of academic writing, it is essential that you
are able to identify and correctly transfer only the most relevant pieces of
information from a source into their writing. An example of this would be the
ability to use metaphor correctly.
4. Text is free from plagiarism
When constructing a piece of writing it is important that your work is original and
any other information used is credited. This is ensured through correct
referencing.
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5. Accurate referencing in text, bibliography or reference list
Different schools of study require different referencing styles so it is important to
see what style of referencing is appropriate for the assignment that you have
been given. Referencing guides are available that will show in detail how to
reference in text and in the reference list. It is important to get these correct as
well as the format of the text etc.
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We would love to know what you think!
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E-mail us at SALTtool@outlook.com
Please keep in touch so we can send you any further developments to the tool.
We will also inform you about the development of our online-based SALT tool
with interactive features.
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