UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN DENMARK, ODENSE
Identity and Tourism
Globalization Processes
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
24-05-2012
Examiner: Julie Emontspool
University of Southern Denmark
Odense
Globalization Processes
24/5-2012
Content
Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 3
Tourism in growth ............................................................................................................................. 3
Why is it popular to travel? ............................................................................................................... 4
My main research question is: .......................................................................................................... 5
Structure ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Searching for identity ............................................................................................................................ 5
What made search for identity a goal in life? ....................................................................................... 7
Economic structures .......................................................................................................................... 7
We desire to desire ........................................................................................................................... 7
Possible lives...................................................................................................................................... 8
Dis-embedded vs. re-embedded individuals ..................................................................................... 8
Behavioral changes in everyday life ...................................................................................................... 9
New standards and high expectations for life................................................................................... 9
Sophisticated consumption ............................................................................................................. 10
Individualization .............................................................................................................................. 11
How behavioral changes have affected tourism ................................................................................. 13
Specialization ................................................................................................................................... 13
Exploration ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Self-optimization ............................................................................................................................. 14
Will tourism continue growing in the future? ................................................................................. 15
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 16
References ........................................................................................................................................... 18
Web: ................................................................................................................................................ 18
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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University of Southern Denmark
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Introduction
“The accumulation of tourism experiences has been proposed as one vehicle through which individuals
engage in the (re)formation of identity often as a search for personal growth or a subjective sustained
sense of self.”
-
The Tourism and Leisure Experience 2010
Tourism in growth
New figures indicating that there are more tourists in the world as never before. International tourist
arrivals grew by over 4% in 2011 to 980 million and according to forecasts from the UNWTO (World
Tourism Organization) there will by the end of this year have been about one billion tourists
worldwide. One billion people who have been on holiday in another country. It's a new record!
1
In my everyday life I feel the increasing demand for experiences too. I am a copywriter for a company
called Downtown.dk. Downtown.dk is a Danish internet based company that daily offers experiences
such as visits to restaurants and wellness and travels at half price. Downtown.dk has been one of the
fastest growing internet companies in Denmark. It is a business of millions and has several thousand
members. Within a short time many similar companies have emerged in Denmark and Downtown.dk
today has more than 80 competitors.
1
Figure from UNWTO: http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_hq_fitur12_jk_2pp_0.pdf
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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University of Southern Denmark
Odense
Globalization Processes
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2
Why is it popular to travel?
It is popular to travel, but certain forms of travel are particularly attractive. According to an analysis3
by VisitDenmark, travels in the form of relaxation for several weeks are past. More and more people
seek the unique, highly profiled, different and transcendent. One of the reasons is, of course, that
more and more people have traveled a lot through life. Often they have traveled during and after their
education, they have been on charter trips, city breaks and skiing holidays. Therefore they have great,
varied and accurate expectations of their travel experiences. Another reason is that individuals have
become much more selective and sophisticated consumers. Today’s consumers are very aware of the
social constellations, which must meet their different needs.
But my main theory is that tourism is in an increasing growth because a travel is a transitional
experience which can shape the way in which we understand our own identity. And the need for
understanding identity, personal growth and to reflect on ourselves is essential for contemporary
individuals.
2
Figure from UNWTO: http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_hq_fitur12_jk_2pp_0.pdf
Visit Denmark report: http://www.visitdenmark.dk/NR/rdonlyres/16877348-E001-4E7C-950C98131FF37F57/0/fremtidens_rejsebehov_2011.pdf
3
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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University of Southern Denmark
Odense
Globalization Processes
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In this paper I will try to describe how search for identity became a goal in life. I attempt to combine
the theory of globalization and self-identity, evident in the work of a number of social theorists, with
the purpose to place processes of reflexivity at the heart of modern identity.
Identity has become a prism for understanding a variety of aspects in contemporary society. I will
also try to explain how search for identity has affected humans as consumers and how this is reflected
in tourism.
My main research question is:
How can we use globalization to understand individuals’ search for identity through tourism?
Structure
In chapter 1 I use Roland Robertson’s model of ‘global fields’ to underpin a part of my main theory:
Search for identity is a consequence of globalization.
In chapter 2 I use globalization as a framework and meta-theory to understand how individuals’
lives and self-identity are affected by globalization. I use theories of Zygmunt Bauman and Anthony
Giddens to explain how the transition from tradition to modernity promote, call or offer the modern
man to seek meaning in life. With focus on economic structures of modernity, the consequences of
technology and reflexivity I explore the factors that made search for identity to a goal in life.
In chapter 3 I will try to elaborate what impact individuals’ search for identity has on consumption
with reference to the report from Visit Denmark. The report is prepared by Lighthouse Cph A/S – a
consulting firm that identifies patterns of behavior change among consumers. I highlight 3 trends that
characterize consumer behavior – especially in the category of tourism and experiences: New
standards and high expectations of life, sophisticated consumption and individualization.
In chapter 4 I explain how these behavioral changes are reflected in tourism. I give examples of
popular travel forms and what characterize them. I will also argue why I think tourism will remain in
growth in the future
Searching for identity
Identity is the story that the modern I construct and tell about the me. Searching for identity is
pervasive in modern societies.
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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Odense
Globalization Processes
24/5-2012
Roland Robertson stresses this in his article Globalization as a problem. Roland Robertson is
interested in the “global field” and its constitutive elements in order to analyze how the world is
ordered. Robertson’s ideological project is to embrace and accept the complexity carried along by
globalization. (Adams 2003)
According to Roland Robertson’s model of global fields, globalization proceeds through the
relativization of 4 points of reference; the individual, the nation state, world system of societies
(international relations) and humankind which makes the world more complex.
Roland Robertson’s model ”is conceived as an attempt to make analytical and interpretive sense of
how quotidian actors, collective or individual, go about the business of conceiving of the world (…).”
(Robertson)
Robertson argues from his model that “the particularization of the universal, defined as the global
concretization of the problem of universality, has become the occasion for the search for global
fundamentals. In other words, the current phase of very rapid globalization facilitates the rise of
movements concerned with the 'real meaning' of the world. Movements (and individuals) searching for
the meaning of the world as a whole.” (Robertson)
Robertson’s finding makes me want to investigate globalization. Why has globalization created a
need for finding meaning in life?
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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University of Southern Denmark
Odense
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What made search for identity a goal in life?
Globalization is “a social process in which the constraints of geography on economic, political, social
and cultural arrangements recede, in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding
and in which people act accordingly” (Waters 2001).
In this part I explain how the transition from tradition to modernity promote, call or offer the
modern man to seek meaning in life. With focus on economic structures of modernity, the
consequences of technology and reflexivity I explore the factors that made search for identity to a goal
in life.
Economic structures
Striving towards self-realization has only in recent decades been an independent goal for many
individuals. It is relatively new that so many individuals have the pursuit of self-realization and the
search for identity as an essential life project and simultaneously have both internal and external
resources - in terms of knowledge and money - available to pursue this goal.
Modernity initiates the emerging development of capitalism, industrialization, urbanization
processes, secularization and an increasing level of rationalization, differentiation and specialization in
all areas of society. The movement from a traditional past toward a modernized future resulted in
economically growing societies. Because of the development of capitalism a growing number of the
population got access to benefits that previously were reserved for the few.
We desire to desire
Since the postwar period there has been a significant increase in disposable income, education level,
leisure and life expectancy. This growth has promoted both the possibility and the ability to sell
products and experiences whose function is beyond the physiological utility. “Today's industry is
geared increasingly to the production of attractions and temptations" (Bauman 1998) Individuals
chase after desires and for this chase after new desires, there is no limit. We always look for new
experiences. The eternal quest for more keep the wheels of consumption going.
Zygmunt Bauman reads, writes and observes a lot. He is not theoretical, his texts are
commentaries. Bauman mentions in his article Tourists and Vagabonds (1998) that even the very
richest in the world are compelled to bear within themselves the urgency for striving to acquire. They
are not satisfied. Expectations about what life will bring and what life must include increases
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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proportionally with the growth, but paradoxically the subjective experience of happiness does not
increase. Once the basic consumption needs are met, (cf. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) individuals
need something qualitative different that can give life meaning.
Possible lives
Through technology people get information about other cultures and lifestyles. This means that more
people dream of and consider a greater range of possible lives (Appadurai 2000) than they have ever
done before. They cannot help knowing that they could be elsewhere so they are always on the move.
“The idea of the ‘state of rest’, of immobility, makes sense only in a world that stays still or could be
taken for such, in a place with solid walls, fixed roads and signposts steady enough to have time to
rust. One cannot ‘stay put’ in moving sands. (Bauman 1998)
People travel for pleasure. Geography is no longer an obstacle. Today's concern is not 'How do I get
there?' but 'Where should I go?' The world is a countless multitude of opportunities and people want
to be everywhere at once “so there is less and less reason to stay anywhere in particular.” (Bauman
1998)
Dis-embedded vs. re-embedded individuals
Previously it was important not to deviate from the norm. One's role in society was a foregone and
people typically lived the same place throughout their lifes. ‘Keeping up with the Jones’ grasped
consumerism’s life project in short form: “Actively conforming to the established social types and
models of conduct, of imitating, following the pattern, 'acculturating', not falling out of step.” (Bauman
2000)
In modernity god is no longer the predominantly explanatory authority. “'Predestination' was
replaced with 'life project', fate with vocation - and a 'human nature' into which one was born was
replaced with 'identity' which one needs to saw up and make fit.” (Bauman 2000) Individuals were
emancipated from the ascribed, inherited and inborn determination of his or her social character and
social positions such as gender roles. “One's place in society no longer comes as a gift. (…) Needing to
become what one is is the feature of modern living (...) Modernity replaces the determination of social
standing with a compulsive and obligatory self-determination.” (Bauman 2000)
Giddens refers to this process as ‘the reflexive project of the self’ (Giddens 1991). This process of
transforming self-identity is marking the shift from traditional to post- traditional societies. Giddens’
basic argument is that reflexivity plays a significant role in processes of self-identity once it comes into
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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contact with postmodernism. The postmodern tendencies emerged in the late 1970s as a response to
modern society and its dynamism. “Reflexive self-awareness provides the individual with the
opportunity to construct self-identity without the shackles of tradition and culture, which previously
created relatively rigid boundaries to the options for one’s self-under- standing.” (Matthew Adams
2003)
Detraditionalization resulted in ‘individualization’. Individuals were no longer embedded in
‘estates’. The self was disembedded, separating the individual from the context it had in previous
times been immersed in. Dis-embedded individuals increasingly determine the nature of their identity
through conscious choices in the frantic search for re-embeddedness.
The quandary tormenting these dis-embedded individuals is which identity to choose and how to
keep alert and updated. They are always on the move physically or bodily. The challenge is to stand
out from the crowd, be fashionable and prioritize the many opportunities life offers. “There is no
prospect of a 'final re-embeddedness' at the end of the road; being on the road has become the
permanent way of life of the (now chronically) dis-embedded individuals.” (Bauman 2000)
Behavioral changes in everyday life
With reference to the report from Visit Denmark I will now try to elaborate what impact individuals’
search for identity has on consumption. I highlight 3 trends that characterize consumer behavior –
especially in the category of tourism and experiences: New standards and high expectations of life,
sophisticated consumption and individualization.
New standards and high expectations for life
Expectations about what life should bring and what life must include increases proportionally with the
growth. Life is no longer about surviving but about getting as many opportunities and experiences as
possible. The slogan appears to be: "If you are not in development you are phasing out".
In the 1960s parents' success criteria’s were work, career and material wealth. It was with the
younger generation challenged by new parameters such as leisure, togetherness and development,
even spiritualism. Growth was the preferred metaphor, not growth in national or private economic
sense, but in individual psychological terms. Growth and self-realization became the symbol of the
good life in contrary to the previous generations where self-control was preferable.
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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This trend still exists. Consumers' "I" is constantly optimized and abilities is boosted through
education, training and personal development. There are clear tendencies towards self-optimization,
where people try to define and differentiate themselves, their partners and their children in an
attempt to create better opportunities in a competitive world. It becomes evident through sport and
health, where people exercise like never before.
Also time, activity and consumption are optimized. Consumers across countries are very aware of
which products and experiences that suits the situation and they are willing to pay for high quality
products. This creates a growing market and demand for premium products. This includes everything
from food to premium hotels, travel and adventure. Consumers are ex. increasingly up-grading hotel
standards from 3 to 4 star hotels. (VisitDenmark) In many countries a myriad of low budget and copy
products are produced. Luxury brands are therefore considered as a form of quality assurance.
Luxuries have a clear signal power. They indicate that the consumer is one of "those who have made
it". This tendency is very strong in U.S., China, Japan and especially in Russia. (VisitDenmark)
Sophisticated consumption
In recent years, global economic growth has affected consumer expectations and behaviors when it
comes to consumption. Despite the financial crisis consumers in local markets and among the new
affluent middle class in remote markets are well updated on the tangible consumer goods. Even
before the financial crisis focus among consumers slowly began to move away from cars, TVs and
other tangible products to intangible property such as experience consumption.
One of the consequences of the financial crisis and the new economic reality is that things rapidly
lose value (ex. housing investments, jewelry and cars). It seems to have the consequence that
consumers become (even) more selective in their consumption and distinguishes between which
needs they want to have satisfied through immaterial and material consumption. In times of recession
people realize that material goods have a limited life and instead many look inwards. This may explain
why yoga, pilates, coaching and Buddhism are megatrends.
Consumption of intangible products is growing across many countries. In several countries
museums and cultural events are visited as never before.4 In addition, consumers spend more money
4
The National Gallery of Denmark had record-breaking 448,342 visitors in 2010. Italian museums had 18 percent
more visitors in the third quarter of 2010 compared to same period in 2009.
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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on travels and experiences which boost experience economy globally. The figure5 shows that ‘Ferie og
rejser’ (translation: tourism and travel) is an upward curve compared to other fields of consumption.
More people are experiencing an increased time pressure which means that leisure and recreational
activities are given a high priority and are a key element in consumers' self-perception and self
promotion. Selective and sophisticated consumers therefore prefer profiled experience products
where it is clear what one gets for its time and money. The consumers are extremely aware of what
needs they want to have satisfied and go on trips in different constellations to cover different needs.
Individualization
Modernism does not exist without risk; risk is embedded in the modern capitalism. Coping with a
diversity of new situations of risk - external and manufactured (Giddens 1999) has brought fear and
concern for the unpredictability of the future among consumers. Our generation is therefore not
without reason named the ‘fear society generation’. Fear forces us to think and act in the moment
and consume individually and selfishly.
Individuality is also expressed in the way we live. A trend among countries is that more and more
people are live alone. Half of the apartments in Oslo are inhabited by only one person. In Denmark,
5
Bille and Lorenzen 2008
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
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more than 1.1 million people live alone.6 Figures from 2008 show that about 25 percent of the U.S.
population is single.7 In Italy the number of singles grew by 10 percent in 2007 to 2010.8
Individualization is spreading globally and its impact on behavior when it comes to consumption is
massive as well. Consumers want their individual needs met to a degree that makes it difficult for
them to compromise. People increasingly attempt to engage in relationships where there is room for
individuality and people spend more and more time alone or with peers who share their interests.
Consumers therefore prefer adventures and trips that meet their diverse needs, ex. Playitas Resort
(Spain), folk high schools or summer camps where families are spread out in different activities and
meet a couple of times during the day.
Individualization is also linked to personal challenges, especially in sport. People run marathons like
never before, they participate in triathlons, climb mountains and dive. The goal is to beat their own
records and to exceed their own personal physical and mental limits. In order to maximize personal
training people hire personal trainers who have the consumer's personal goal in mind.
The technology is increasingly becoming an important element in modern life and especially in our
self promotion. One of the consequences of the technological development is that we are constantly
online through ex. Facebook and our cell phones. All our activities and results regularly are updated
and shared with friends. and it's incredibly hard for the human psyche.
An increased need for individualization is also reflected in the demand for personalized products
which are specially designed for the individual, ex. personal perfumes, bicycles, training programs,
treatments or specialized newspapers.
In an attempt to stand out from the crowd and at the same time get the best value, consumers are
becoming more specialized in their consumption behavior. Consumers expect that the experiences
and other consumables will add a new dimension, which is 100 percent directed against them and
their needs. However, it takes a lot to impress the consumers because they have seen and tried so
much.
6
Danish statistics: http://www.dst.dk/
American statistics: http://www.catalyst.org/publication/241/single-people-in-the-united-states
8
Italian statistics: http://www.eurispes.it/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1094:rapportoitalia-2010&catid=40:comunicati-stampa&Itemid=135
7
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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How behavioral changes have affected tourism
The fundamental changes taking place in consumers' everyday life in most parts of the world has a
massive influence on what they expect from life. Changes as higher standards of living,
individualization and great expectations of life are all instrumental in influencing consumers' demand
for travelling and the travelers’ specific needs. The new thing is thus that experiences are driven by
specific needs instead of the destination.
This part describes how the changes in consumer behavior have affected tourism. I have identified
3 increasingly popular travel needs; specialization, exploration and self-optimization. I will give
examples of travel forms that meet these requirements and therefore will be dominant for
consumers' choice of holidays in the future.
Specialization
As people get higher expectations of what life should contain, they become more sophisticated and
advanced consumers with very specific needs. This is seen in all areas of life from specialized
preferences in food, interests and health etc.
Specialization leads to travels which are more focused on concepts, ex. marathon trips, homo
travels, yoga travels or concepts tied to physical or mental illnesses. The individual wants to be the
center of the experience. He wants to participate and not just be an observer.
Exploration
The geographical boundaries are no longer enough when it comes to exploring. Exploration means
that individuals want to experience a world that in various ways are far from their own daily life. It
means that people want to travel to the other end of the world, but it can also mean that people want
to see the world through the eyes of others.
Authenticity is a particularly exciting element of exploring new countries and destinations. As many
have experienced tourism scraps and tried the demarcated tourism reserves, they increasingly want to
experience cultural characteristics, meet local people and experience things "as they really are." The
concept "Dine with the Danes" is an example of how the activities can create an informal meeting
between locals and tourists.
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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The growing need to explore authenticity and cross unusual boundaries goes hand in hand with
travelers’ desire of getting surprised and sometimes appalled. In recent years, slum-tourism, where
you go on guided tours in ex. the slum of Mumbai or around the South African townships, has grown
big. In London you can book tours around the city led by homeless people who give the participant an
alternative vision on the big city. Need to explore the dangerous and the transcendent have resulted
in ex. death tourism where people travel to exposed locations.
Exploration can of course also mean exploration of the self. It may be physical limits as we see it in
the growing interest for marathon-tours, triathlons, mountain bike tours and extreme hiking and
skiing. It may also be mental or spiritual exploration which we see in the growing interest in extreme
meditation tours, retreats, quiet holidays, coaching and mindfulness-tours.
Self-optimization
Another travel need is focus on self-optimizing, ex. by using travels for learning or personal
development.
The modern educational trip for adults is about raising the individual's quality of life and the main
purpose is to change people’s lives. Ex. ‘The Life Change People’9 in Thailand that promises to change
your life in 7 days. 4 months of life coaching, counseling and therapy in compressed into a unique
tailor made holiday in Thailand. Or ‘The Reading Weekend’ in England which is a holiday that is all
about books. ‘The Reading Weekend’ is described as “a unique and stylish sojourn for the mind and
body.”10
A growing number of tourists seek peace and immersion in their spare time. Therefore more and
more travel concepts, which give you a treat of peace and isolation, have become popular. More than
40,000 annually make a stay in the European monasteries11 and pilgrimage is growing across all
countries. (The following figure12 shows how many people walked the ‘Camino de Santiago’.) This does
not necessarily mean that people have become more religious, but it indicates that people are looking
for individual contemplation and breathing holes. There is a kind of religious/spiritual personalization
where people effortlessly combine a monastery visit with an intense yoga course.
9
Homepage of Life Change People: http://www.thelifechangepeople.com/
Homepage of ’The Reading Weekend’: http://readingweekend.co.uk/what
11
Visit Denmark report: http://www.visitdenmark.dk/NR/rdonlyres/16877348-E001-4E7C-950C98131FF37F57/0/fremtidens_rejsebehov_2011.pdf
12
Web page about Camino de Santiago: http://www.caminodesantiago.me/how-many-pilgrims-walk-thecamino-de-santiago/
10
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Will tourism continue growing in the future?
According to the figure from WTO (World Tourism Organization) tourism will remain in growth and
reach 1,8 billion tourists in 2030. I will briefly argue why I think so too.
As we experience higher living standards and increased expectations of what life should contain,
the feeling that freedom and leisure time is in short supply gets reinforced.
Many people have a rapidly accelerating everyday life. Labor- and transportation time is
increasingly encroaching consumers' lives. Increased time pressures mean that leisure time and
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
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hobbies are given high priority and are increasingly a key element in consumers' self-perception and
self promotion.
Time is the future wealth and it will be perceived as a weakness not to have the energy to take time
off. Travel experiences will therefore work as a way of doing self-branding.
Conclusion
The higher standard of living tends to reinforce individualism and expectations of what life must
include globally. When life is not about survival, consumers can brighten their lives with consumer
goods and experiences. In this context the individually need for development and expectations of life
grows.
Today individuals in general expect not just more of life than before. They expect something
qualitatively different. Today’s consumers are looking for excitement, contemplation and other forms
of enjoyment in ways that require a high degree of activity and reflexivity of the experience-seeking
self.
One of the consequences of consumers’ demand for experiences is that the traditional industry
breakdown decomposes. It has become more difficult to delineate where one can buy what.
Supermarkets no longer sell only groceries such as milk and peeled tomatoes, but also clothes,
handicrafts, electronics, lottery tickets and now experiences. You can buy Smartboxes in most Danish
supermarkets such as Netto, Føtex and Lidl. Smartbox is one of the world's largest providers of
experience gifts.
Experience culture also includes items that earlier were regarded as commodities. Ex. a beer is no
longer just a beer. Danish and international specialty beers sell very well even though they are several
times more expensive than a regular beer.
When it comes to tourism, people not only travel more, they seek the unique, highly profiled,
different and transcendent. They have specific needs that must be satisfied. Needs have become more
important than the destination.
Travelling is popular and will remain in growth because “(...) travel can facilitate transition during
periods of life change, suggesting that tourism serves as a right of passage as individuals move from an
old way of life to new ways of living.” (Morgan red. 2010)
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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As identities in contemporary times have become increasingly fragmented and fractured, most
modern Western individuals still seek an idea of self that reflects unity and purpose. In this sense,
identity can act as an 'anchoring' or sense-making device. (Morgan red. 2010)
Self-identity has to be created and recreated. Searching for identity can be seen as a meta-narrative
about the self as an inner moral source with a potential that still pervades and drives much of Western
society. “The frantic search for identity is not a residue of preglobalization times which are not yet fully
extirpated but bound to become extinct as the globalization progresses; it is, on the contrary, the sideeffect and by-product of the combination of globalizing and individualizing pressures and the tensions
they spawn.” (Bauman 2000, p. 72) Search for identity is a natural companion of globalization. It
“lubricate its wheels”. In addition, globalization produces new demands and changes consumer
behavior. In that way our role as consumers reproduces identity.
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References
Arjun Appadurai: “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy”, in M. Featherstone
(red.): Global Culture. Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity, London: Sage, 1990
Bauman, Zygmunt: “Identity in a Globalizing World” in The Individualized Society, Cambridge: Polity
Press, 2001.
Bauman, Zygmunt: Liquid Modernity, Cambridge Polity Press, 2000
Bauman, Zygmunt: “Tourists and Vagabonds” in Globalization, 1998
Belk, Russell W.; Ger, Güliz; Askegaard, Søren: “The Fire of Desire: A Multisited Inquiry into Consumer
Passion” in Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 30, December 2003
Beynon, John; Dunkerley, David: Globalization: the reader, New York, Routledge, 2000 (About Arjun
Appadurai and ‘possible lives)
Bille, Trine; Lorenzen, Mark: Den danske oplevelsesøkonomi – afgrænsning, økonomisk betydning og
vækstmuligheder, Imagine og Samfundslitteratur, 2008
Giddens, Anthony: Introduction, Consequences of Modernity, Stanford: Standford University Press
Giddens, Anthony: Runaway World, 1999
Giddens, Anthony: Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age. Polity Press,
Cambridge, 1991
Jantzen, Christian; Rasmussen, Tove Arendt (red.): Oplevelsesøkonomi – vinkler på forbrug, Aalborg
Universitetsforlag 2007
Madsen, Jan Halberg: Oplevelsesøkonomi, Systime A/S, 2010
Robertson, Ronald: ‘Globalization as a Problem’. In F.J. Lechner and J. Boli, Eds. The Globalization
Reader, 2nd ed., London: Blackwell
Waters, Malcolm: Globalization, Routledge, 2001
Web:
Article by Matthew Adams: The Reflexive Self and Culture: a Critique:
http://brighton.academia.edu/MatthewAdams/Papers/284477/The_Reflexive_Self_and_Culture_a_Cr
itique
VisitDenmark report: http://www.visitdenmark.dk/NR/rdonlyres/16877348-E001-4E7C-950C98131FF37F57/0/fremtidens_rejsebehov_2011.pdf
World Tourism Organization: http://unwto.org/en
Group nr. 72: Mette Rabølle Sørensen
Exam number: 301704
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