Table 1: The 20 most frequently used herbal medicines in pregnancy, overall and according to region.
Overall use
Top 20 herbal medicines
Ginger/Zingiber officinale
Cranberry/Vaccinium oxycoccus
Valerian/ Valeriana officinalis
Raspberry/Rubus idaeus folicum
Chamomile/Chamomilla recutita
Peppermint/Mentha x piperita
Dog rose/Rosa majalis
Cowberry/Vaccínium vítis-idaéa
Psyllium/Psyllii semen
Rosemary/Rosmarinus officinalis
Seaside Centaury/Centaurium littorale
Lovage/Levisticum officinale
Lemon/Citrus
Echinacea/Echinacea spp.
Lemon Balm/Melissa officialis
Motherwort/Leonurus cardiaca
Garlic/Allium sativa
Fiber crops
Bearberry/Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Total
Summary of herbal medicine used
Total number of herbs used
Average number of herbs used
Number of different herbs
REGION
Total
number of
herb used
(n)
%
643
622
391
301
194
188
149
142
132
98
94
94
93
92
84
79
78
66
65
3,605
12.8
12.4
7.8
6.0
3.9
3.7
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.3
1.3
72.0
Western
Europe
n=888
%
Northern
Europe
n=335
%
Eastern
Europe
n=1,213
%
North
America
n=142
%
South
America
n=62
%
Australia
28.5
10.6
6.9
14.8
4.2
6.5
0.1
0.1
6.1
0.3
3.8
5.0
2.4
0.2
3.6
0.1
39.1
22.4
0.9
11.0
1.2
2.1
0.6
0.3
1.8
0.6
4.8
0.6
0.6
0.9
-
12.2
35.7
26.4
7.4
10.5
8.1
11.8
11.5
1.4
7.7
7.7
7.7
4.0
1.5
4.9
6.5
5.6
0.5
5.3
40.8
6.3
2.8
17.6
5.6
8.5
1.4
19.7
1.4
6.3
0.7
2.8
9.9
-
4.8
1.6
4.8
27.4
12.9
1.6
12.9
6.5
3.2
1.6
4.8
-
52.6
10.5
18.9
1.1
5.3
20.0
1.1
3.2
3.2
2.1
8.4
-
Total
number of
women
n=2,735
%
23.5
22.7
14.3
11.0
7.1
6.9
5.4
5.2
4.8
3.6
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.1
2.9
2.9
2.4
2.4
1,261
1.4
90
379
0.6
54
2,904
1.1
83
233
1.4
42
110
1.4
38
136
1.4
24
5,023
1.6
134
n= 95
%
Table 2: The ten most common reasons for using herbal medicines and the most frequently used herbs.
Overall
Reason for use
N
(%)
Top herbs
Western Europe
N
(%)
Top herbs
Northern Europe
Eastern Europe
N
(%)
44
(12.9)
Echinacea, Ginger,
Sambucus, Peppermint, ,
Primula
400
(24.5)
Cranberry, Raspberry,
Garlic, Rutin, Chamomile
112
(32.8)
Ginger
120
(7.3)
Ginger, Artichoke,
Peppermint
63
(18.5)
Cranberry
321
(19.6)
Cranberry, Dog rose,
Rosemary, Seaside
centaury, Lovage
317
(19.4)
Valerian, Motherwort,
Lemon balm, Peppermint,
Chamomile
Top herbs
N
(%)
Top herbs
Cold or flu
620
(18.6)
Cranberry, Echinacea,
Garlic, Ginger, Raspberry
136
(13.9)
Echinacea, Lemon,
Eucalyptus, Peppermint,
Sambucus
Nausea
548
(16.5)
Ginger, Peppermint,
Artichoke, Lemon
224
(22.9)
Ginger, Peppermint,
Fennel, Lemon, Raspberry
Urinary tract infections
476
(14.3)
Cranberry, Dog rose,
Rosemary, Seaside
centaury, Lovage
75
(7.7)
Cranberry
Sedative/sleeping
problems
447
(13.4)
Valerian, Motherwort,
Lemon balm, Chamomile,
Peppermint
100
(10.2)
Valerian, Passiflora,
Chamomile, Lemon balm
6
(1.8)
Constipation
304
(9.1)
Psyllium, Fiber crops,
Senna, Prunes, Flax
136
(13.9)
Psyllium, Fiber crops,
Senna, Prunes, Aloe vera
26
(7.6)
Prunes, Psyllium, Fiber
crops, Flax
54
(3.3)
Psyllium, Prunes, Senna,
Fiber crops, Fennel
Preparation for labour
206
(6.2)
Raspberry, Evening
primrose, Sage, Nettle,
Fennel
119
(12.2)
Raspberry, Evening
primrose, Sage
34
(10.0)
Raspberry, Evening
primrose
16
(1.0)
Raspberry
Health promotion
117
(3.5)
Cranberry, Ginger,
Echinacea, Raspberry,
Chamomile
31
(3.2)
Echinacea, Cranberry,
Ginger, Nettle, Lady's
Mantle
12
(3.5)
Cranberry, Aloe vera
63
(3.9)
Cranberry, Ginger, Dog
rose, Lemon, Chamomile
Water retention
94
(2.8)
Cowberry, Cranberry, Dog
rose, St. John's wort,
Bidens
3
(0.3)
Nettle
1
(0.3)
**
87
(5.3)
Cowberry, Cranberry, Dog
rose, St. John's wort,
Bidens
Gastrointestinal
disorders, flatulence
89
(2.7)
Ginger, Peppermint,
Chamomile, Fennel,
Cranberry
40
(4.1)
Ginger, Peppermint,
Fennel, Chamomile
3
(0.9)
**
27
(1.7)
Ginger, Peppermint,
Cranberry
Pain conditions
65
(2.0)
34
(2.1)
Peppermint, Lemon balm,
Lemon, Cinnamon, Cloves
Peppermint, Lemon balm,
14 (1.4)
**
8 (2.3)
Lemon, Cinnamon, Cloves
Note: The top 5 herbs are presented where more than 2 women used an herbal medicine. ** no one herb was used by more than 2 women
**
Ginger
North America
South America
Reason for use
N
(%)
N
(%)
Cold or flu
20
(10.9)
Echinacea, Ginger, Garlic
13
(16.7)
Nausea
43
(23.4)
Ginger, Peppermint
4
(5.1)
7
(3.8)
Cranberry
3
Sedative/sleeping
problems
14
(7.6)
Chamomile, Valerian
Constipation
43
(23.4)
Psyllium, Fiber crops
Preparation for labour
20
(10.9)
Health promotion
6
(3.3)
Water retention
0
(0.0)
Gastrointestinal
disorders, flatulence
9
(4.9)
Pain conditions
4
(2.2)
Urinary tract infections
Top herbs
Australia
N
(%)
7
(6.1)
Echinacea
**
45
(39.5)
Ginger, Peppermint
(3.8)
**
7
(6.1)
Cranberry
9
(11.5)
**
1
(0.9)
19
(24.4)
26
(22.8)
Psyllium
Raspberry, Nettle, Alfalfa
0
(0.0)
-
17
(14.9)
Raspberry
Ginger, Raspberry
3
(3.8)
**
2
(1.8)
**
2
(2.6)
**
1
(0.9)
**
9
(11.5)
1
(0.9)
**
5
(6.4)
0
(0.0)
**
Ginger
**
Top herbs
Chamomile
Psyllium, Senna, Prunes,
Fiber crops
Chamomile, Peppermint
**
Note: The top 5 herbs are presented where more than 2 women used an herbal medicine. ** no one herb was used by more than 2 women
Top herbs
**
Table 3: Determinants of herbal medicine use, overall and by region
Overall
N
-
Region of residence
Maternal age (years)
(%)
-
Western Europe
Northern Europe
Eastern Europe
aOR (95% CI)
-
N
888
(%)
(27.7)
aOR (95% CI)
Reference
N
335
%
(11.9)
aOR (95% CI)
0.36 (0.32 - 0.42)
N
1,213
%
(51.8)
aOR (95% CI)
2.81 (2.49 - 3.17)
<= 20
21 - 30
31 - 40
>= 40
95
1,555
1,036
49
(28.9)
(30.0)
(27.6)
(25.0)
0.98 (0.74 - 1.30)
Reference
0.96 (0.86 - 1.07)
0.84 (0.59 - 1.20)
10
371
481
26
(16.4)
(26.8)
(29.1)
(25.0)
0.39 (0.19 - 0.82)
Reference
1.16 (0.98 - 1.38)
0.92 (0.57 - 1.48)
16
197
120
2
(16.7)
(11.8)
(11.9)
(4.9)
1.40 ( 0.74 - 2.62)
Reference
1.00 (0.77 - 1.30)
0.38 (0.09 - 1.61)
56
846
302
9
(62.9)
(55.3)
(43.3)
(36.0)
1.68 (1.00 - 2.74)
Reference
0.65 (0.54 - 0.79)
0.48 (0.20 - 1.14)
No
Yes
1,483
1,252
(31.5)
(26.3)
Reference
0.81 (0.73 - 0.89)
539
349
(30.7)
(24.1)
Reference
0.66 (0.56 - 0.79)
151
184
(11.3)
(12.4)
Reference
1.15 (0.90 - 1.47)
668
545
(56.8)
(46.7)
Reference
0.77 (0.65 - 0.92)
Married/cohabitating
2,559
Single/divorced/other
176
Working status
Employed but not as HCP
1,700
Student
285
Housewife
238
HCP
294
Job seeker
98
Other than above
118
Education level
High school
626
< High school
99
> High school
1,688
Other, unspecified
322
Folic acid use before and/or during pregnancy
Yes
2,606
No
129
Alcohol use after awareness of pregnancy
No
2,121
Yes
577
Cannot remember
35
Smoking during pregnancy
No
2,523
Yes
205
(28.9)
(28.9)
Reference
1.13 (0.92 - 1.39)
843
45
(27.7)
(28.3)
Reference
1.15 (0.79 - 1.67)
318
17
(11.8)
(13.1)
Reference
1.12 (0.65 - 1.95)
1,134
79
(51.3)
(60.3)
Reference
1.59 (1.08 - 2.35)
(30.4)
(33.3)
(28.4)
(23.4)
(23.0)
(24.7)
Reference
1.37 (1.15 - 1.64)
1.03 (0.86 - 1.23)
0.82 (0.71 - 0.96)
0.80 (0.62 - 1.02)
0.83 (0.66 - 1.05)
542
36
101
121
43
43
(26.7)
(36.0)
(28.2)
(32.0)
(28.7)
(24.4)
Reference
2.03 (1.28 - 3.22)
1.34 (1.02 - 1.75)
1.26 (0.99 - 1.60)
1.31 (0.90 - 1.91)
0.96 (0.66 - 1.38)
194
60
19
37
11
14
(12.7)
(16.2)
(14.0)
(7.0)
(8.7)
(10.4)
Reference
1.31 (0.94 - 1.84)
1.10 (0.65 - 1.86)
0.51 (0.35 - 0.74)
0.66 (0.35 - 1.27)
0.80 (0.45 - 1.40)
791
156
75
102
38
51
(53.3)
(60.2)
(46.0)
(45.7)
(38.8)
(44.0)
Reference
1.11 (0.84 - 1.48)
0.86 (0.61 - 1.21)
0.75 (0.56 - 1.00)
0.58 (0.37 - 0.90)
0.70 (0.47 - 1.04)
(23.1)
(21.8)
(32.3)
(30.2)
Reference
1.33 (1.03 - 1.72)
1.28 (1.13 - 1.44)
1.53 (1.29 - 1.81)
233
52
465
138
(23.1)
(32.1)
(30.0)
(28.8)
Reference
1.67 (1.15 - 2.43)
1.26 (1.04 - 1.52)
1.34 (1.04 - 1.73 )
99
23
163
50
(11.7)
(13.6)
(11.1)
(15.2)
Reference
1.15 (0.68 - 1.96)
0.96 (0.73 - 1.28)
1.45 (1.00 - 2.12)
230
14
862
107
(44.1)
(37.8)
(53.4)
(62.6)
Reference
0.81 (0.39 - 1.68)
1.41 (1.13 - 1.75)
2.01 (1.39 - 2.90)
(30.2)
(15.8)
Reference
0.51 (0.41 - 0.62)
851
37
(30.6)
(33.9)
Reference
0.46 (0.32 - 0.67)
311
24
(12.5)
(7.3)
Reference
0.52 (0.34 - 0.81)
1,153
60
(52.7)
(39.0)
Reference
0.63 (0.44 - 0.89)
(27.0)
(38.2)
(27.0)
Reference
1.36 (1.20 - 1.54)
1.43 (0.90 - 2.29)
663
213
11
(26.5)
(31.6)
(45.8)
Reference
1.26 (1.04 - 1.52)
2.46 (1.07 - 5.61)
298
36
1
(11.4)
(17.9)
(14.3)
Reference
1.85 (1.25 - 2.73)
0.91 (0.11 - 7.79)
935
255
22
(50.4)
(57.4)
(57.9)
Reference
1.33 (1.07 - 1.65)
1.35 (0.69 - 2.64)
(92.5)
(7.5)
Reference
0.60 (0.50 - 0.72)
832
53
(30.5)
(1.9)
Reference
0.63 (0.46 - 0.87)
314
21
(11.5)
(0.8)
Reference
0.79 (0.48 - 1.30)
1,103
107
(40.4)
(3.9)
Reference
0.52 (0.39 - 0.68)
Previous children
Marital Status
N
142
Region of residence
Maternal age (years)
North America
(%)
aOR (95% CI)
(26.6)
0.97 (0.78 - 1.20)
N
62
South America
(%)
aOR (95% CI)
(17.9)
0.57 (0.42 - 0.77)
N
95
(%)
(43.8)
Australia
aOR (95% CI)
2.11 (1.58 - 2.81)
<= 20
21 - 30
31 - 40
>= 40
8
66
64
4
(21.1)
(22.9)
(32.3)
(44.4)
1.39 (0.53 - 3.63)
Reference
1.31 (0.84 - 2.05)
2.26 (0.54 - 9.35)
3
33
23
3
(8.6)
(15.6)
(25.0)
(42.9)
0.65 (0.18 - 2.43)
Reference
1.66 (0.87 - 3.18)
10.48 (1.52 -72.22)
2
42
46
5
(20.0)
(44.7)
(44.7)
(50.0)
0.38 (0.06 - 2.52)
Reference
0.78 (0.40 - 1.51)
1.10 (0.25 - 4.76)
No
Yes
66
76
(28.0)
(25.6)
Reference
0.88 (0.57 - 1.37)
14
48
(13.2)
(20.0)
Reference
1.35 (0.67 - 2.72)
45
50
(43.3)
(44.2)
Reference
1.04 (0.53 - 2.03)
Married/cohabitating
125
Single/divorced/other
17
Working status
Employed but not as HCP
73
Student
19
Housewife
20
HCP
21
Job seeker
4
Other than above
5
Education level
High school
20
< High school
2
> High school
111
Other, unspecified
9
Folic acid use before and/or during pregnancy
Yes
138
No
4
Alcohol use after awareness of pregnancy
No
102
Yes
40
Cannot remember
0
Smoking during pregnancy
No
128
Yes
14
(28.3)
(18.7)
Reference
0.94 (0.48 - 1.84)
49
13
(17.9)
(17.8)
Reference
1.15 (0.55 - 2.40)
90
5
(46.6)
(20.8)
Reference
0.69 (0.20 - 2.36)
(28.9)
(32.2)
(24.4)
(25.9)
(11.8)
(20.8)
Reference
1.55 (0.79 - 3.04)
0.97 (0.52 - 1.82)
0.79 (0.44 - 1.43)
0.50 (0.16 - 1.60)
0.79 (0.27 - 2.30)
39
11
5
2
2
3
(22.0)
(18.6)
(8.8)
(10.0)
(15.4)
(15.0)
Reference
1.04 (0.47 - 2.40)
0.47 (0.16 - 1.37)
0.26 (0.05 - 1.43)
1.11 (0.21 - 5.74)
0.70 (0.18 - 2.77)
61
3
18
11
0
2
(47.7)
(33.3)
(43.9)
(40.7)
(0.0)
(28.6)
Reference
0.64 (0.13 - 3.13)
0.96 (0.41 - 2.27)
0.60 (0.25 - 1.45)
0.61 (0.10 - 3.73)
(15.0)
(18.2)
(32.3)
(20.0)
Reference
1.65 (0.31 - 8.77)
1.96 (1.05 - 3.68)
1.25 (0.48 - 3.22)
25
8
20
9
(18.0)
(10.7)
(19.0)
(33.3)
Reference
0.75 (0.31 - 1.84)
1.04 (0.51 - 2.14)
2.52 (0.94 - 6.74)
19
0
67
9
(30.2)
(0.0)
(48.9)
(56.3)
Reference
1.62 (0.78 - 3.35)
3.32 (0.99 - 11.11)
(28.8)
(7.4)
Reference
0.28 (0.09 - 0.82)
61
1
(19.4)
(3.2)
Reference
0.18 (0.02 - 1.45)
92
3
(45.5)
(23.1)
Reference
0.61 (0.13 - 2.74)
(23.2)
(44.4)
(0.0)
Reference
2.25 (1.37 - 3.70)
-
56
5
1
(19.2)
(11.4)
(11.1)
Reference
0.69 (0.24 - 2.00)
0.80 (0.09 - 7.00)
67
28
0
(42.9)
(47.5)
(0.0)
Reference
1.15 (0.59 - 2.25)
-
(4.7)
(0.5)
Reference
0.96 (0.48 - 1.91)
58
3
(2.1)
(0.1)
Reference
0.56 (0.14 - 2.12)
88
7
(3.2)
(0.3)
Reference
0.36 (0.12 - 1.00)
Previous children
Marital Status
Table 4: Source of the recommendation to use herbal medicine in pregnancy, by region and country.
Total
responses
Own
initiative
N
Total
%
3,961
Western Europe
Austria
France
Italy
Switzerland
The Netherlands
United Kingdom
1,315
31.9
79
34
387
48
8.6
28.0
19.2
3.6
2.5
2.9
6.5
2.1
5.7
0.5
6.3
2.9
5.4
8.3
0.4
1.3
0.3
2.1
12.7
36.6
8.5
1.4
2.8
5.6
9.9
-
-
Australia
161
29.8
9.9
21.1
9.3
9.3
8.1
1.9
5.6
2.5
2.5
11.5
19.0
17.6
13.9
8.3
13.6
2.4
10.7
16.0
Note: Women were permitted to indicate more than one source for the recommendation to take an herbal medicine.
** Includes sources such as prenatal or yoga class.
5.2
2.8
2.2
5.2
3.3
6.0
-
0.1
1.3
2.1
22.5
18.2
11.9
6.4
15.5
10.4
1.9
14.1
2.6
0.8
1.6
1.2
1.1
71
8.6
28.6
33.6
0.9
5.2
5.8
2.6
2.6
0.8
1.6
1.7
2.0
South America
31.6
84
125
10.3
9.7
8.8
12.7
29.9
5.6
1.3
9.5
3.0
2.4
2.5
4.1
4.2
0.6
209
12.9
16.1
13.1
8.5
5.2
4.9
4.0
3.2
2.7
4.3
1.7
11.1
5.9
%
0.8
North America
Canada
USA
17.2
34.8
38.1
36.6
10.4
10.3
5.3
13.9
14.7
7.8
8.3
%
3.0
4.0
16.1
8.1
7.9
13.8
11.1
0.9
CAM
Practitioner
657
34.5
19.4
30.2
26.8
39.0
13.3
9.1
13.9
14.7
17.1
8.3
%
3.3
7.7
3.2
13.5
4.6
10.1
14.6
Other**
Eastern Europe
Croatia
Poland
Russia
Serbia
Slovenia
116
422
971
71
77
34.5
15.7
%
6.1
10.2
9.7
9.5
9.5
7.4
22.2
16.1
11.4
17.6
20.9
18.8
%
7.8
11.3
11.3
14.9
12.5
13.1
29.3
7.6
2.9
10.1
2.1
%
11.3
18.6
21.0
21.6
27.9
17.0
33.3
1.5
39.2
44.1
27.9
43.8
%
16.8
14.7
32.3
29.7
23.9
30.9
22.2
26.3
Percentage of women indicating each recommendation source
Midwife,
Pharmacy
Magazine
Internet
nurse
personnel
or media
Herbal shop
%
21.6
27.6
62
74
305
405
9
460
Finland
Iceland
Norway
Sweden
%
28.6
548
Northern Europe
Physician
Family &
Friends
1.7
1.4
1.4
5.2
3.8
3.6
3.2
0.1
0.9
0.1
-
3.3
4.8
3.2
0.9
0.2
3.6
3.2
0.1
0.1