Groundwater
Held underground in aquifers (Ogalla has only 40% of original amount left!)
Area in an aquifer, below the water table, that has pores filled with water is the zone of saturation
Zone of aeration is upper soil areas that hold both air and water
Ocean currents
Surface currents - result of wind, rotation (the Coriolis Effect) and the shape of ocean basins
Deep currents - density driven by differences in salinity and temperature of water masses
Both bring warm equatorial waters towards the poles and cooler polar water towards the equator
Acid Rain
Man made source: sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide released from burning fossil fuels (which damage
lungs when inhaled) Natural source: volcanic eruptions or decay
Results in acidification of lakes/streams, damages trees and forest soil, accelerates the decay of building
materials and paints
Nonpoint Source Pollution
does not come from a single, identifiable source
ex's.)oil runoff from roads, gas leaks in boats, fertilizer /pesticide runoff from farms...
Abiotic factor
nonliving
ex's.) pH, water, sunlight, humidity, soil...
Biosphere
the global sum of all ecosystems, "zone of life"
includes organisms' interaction with the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere
Alternative Energy in North Carolina
Solar - uses toxic materials to make costly panels
Wind -unsightly, loud, and may kill birds and bats
Nuclear -potential for accidents, requires long term storage of radioactive material
(all of the above cause little pollution or habitat destruction)
Biomass - can use plants not suitable for eating but causes air pollution and increased soil erosion
Hydroelectric - dam provides flood control and recreational area but disrupts habitat
Weathering
Chemical - reaction causes break down, ex.) acid rain, rusting
Physical - force of movement (wind, water, ice) causes breakdown; ex.) frost wedging
Creates soil
Weathered Particles
Ordered from smallest size/ least pore space/ least permeability to largest size/ most pore space/
greatest permeability
Clay Silt Sand Gravel
Volcanoes
Cinder - small; eruption is explosive containing liquid lava and cinders (pumice rocks)
Composite/ Stratovolcano - medium; eruption is explosive with lots of debris (pyroclastic material like
ash, rocks, smoke, etc.) in eruption
Shield - largest; eruption is quiet with liquid lava
Earthquakes
Focus - point within the earth, or the exact spot, where the earthquake occurs; Epicenter - point on
surface of earth directly above the focus P Waves - compressional /primary waves, move through liquid
and solid earth, straight and fast S waves- secondary waves, move only through solid earth, moves in
waves
Faults/Boundaries
Convergent /Reverse- coming together, occurs when the crust is shortened; most powerful earthquakes;
creates mountains
Divergent /Normal - pulling apart, occurs when the crust is extended; least powerful earthquakes;
creates new sea floor
Strike slip/Transform- side to side motion, ex.) San Andreas Fault in CA
Rock Cycle
Recycling of earth materials due to convection , which is the movement/ recycling of Earth's interior
heat to the surface and the core's gradual cooling (theory of continental drift) which forms rocks and
volcanoes
Rock Types
sedimentary - "settle", settling of sediment creates easy to break rock, ex.) sandstone
igneous - "fire", cooling of magma, ex.) basalt and obsidian
metamorphic - "morph", intense heat and pressure, ex.) marble and slate
Atmosphere Layers
Troposphere - contains all life and weather, decreasing temperature;
Stratosphere -where planes fly, temp increases, includes ozonosphere which protects UV rays;
Mesosphere - protects from meteors, temperature decreases;
Thermosphere - includes ionosphere, magnetosphere (which contains earth's magnetic field and causes
Northern Lights), and the exosphere (where artificial satellites orbit), temperature increases
Fronts
Falling (low) pressure brings "bad" weather
Warm Front - warm air rises slowly; drizzle
Cold Front - cold air (denser) sinks quickly; storms
Stationary Front - stalled front; long period of rain
Occluded Front - cold front overtakes warm front; violent storms
Greenhouse Effect
trapping of EMR (electromagnetic radiation) leads to higher temperatures
2 Major Gases: carbon dioxide (CO2) and methaneEnergy production (coal plants) greatest contributor
to CO2
Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of CO2
Köppen climate classification system
Temperate climates - near mid latitudes (areas between equator and poles), generally have seasons;
moderate temperatures
Tropical - near equator, high temperatures
Polar climates - at poles, very cold, very strong wind, least diversity
Weather Patterns
El Nino - warming of water in the Pacific Ocean; brings storms and flooding; disrupts ocean food chains
La Nina - cooling of water in the Pacific Ocean; brings rain/snow to the West Coast, colder in Alaska, and
warmer in rest of US; droughts in the SW & more hurricanes off east coast
Atmosphere
Impacted most by aerosols, chlorofluorocarbons (cfc's), burning, industrial waste, and over farming
Helped by using scrubbers in smokestacks of factories, reducing emissions from cars and factories, and
using alternative energy (hydropower, natural gas, solar, wind) to reduce pollution
Kepler's Law
1st Law of Ellipses - Planets have elliptical orbit
2nd Law of Equal Areas - Planets speed up when closer to the sun
3rd Law of Harmonies - T2 = D3 where T is the time of one orbit and D is distance from the sun.
Precession
The change in direction of the axis is pointing, but without any change in tilt—this changes the stars
near (or not near) the Pole, but does not affect the seasons (as long as the angle of 23.5 degrees of tilt
stays the same).
Nutation
Wobbling around the precessional axis (This is a change in the angle—½ degree one way or the other).
This occurs over an 18 year period and is due to the Moon exclusively. This movement slightly increases
or decreases the amount of seasonal effects.
Barycenter
The point between two objects where they balance each other; the moon does not orbit the exact
center of the Earth, but a point on a line between the Earth and the Moon approximately 1,710 km
below the surface of the Earth, where their respective masses balance
Earth
The tilt of Earth's axis and the sun causes Earth's seasons; one rotation around the axis =1 day; one
revolution around the sun = 1 year
Sun
Energy is created from FUSION of hydrogen. This energy flows to the earth mostly by electromagnetic
radiation - heat and light. But there is a solar wind that consists of real particles. This causes the Aurora
on earth at high altitudes.
Sizes of Celestial Objects from Largest to Smallest
Universe → Galaxies → Solar Systems → Stars→ Planets → Moons → Meteoroids
Moon
It creates tides when the moon is located in a certain points above the Earth, and the force of the
moon's gravity pulls the ocean closer to the moon.
Magnetic Field
Forms a shield (the magnetosphere) protecting the planet's surface from energetic, charged particles
(solar wind) coming from the Sun and other places. It reflects the solar wind away from the earth, so it
does not harm us.
density
compactness; how closely molecules are to one another; the amount of mass in a given volume
infiltration
the seepage of water into soil or rock
porosity
the amount of open space (pore space) in an area of soil/rock
reservoir
a natural or artificial place where water is collected and stored for use
desalinizing
removing salt from ocean water to have fresh water
dependable
reliable, worthy of trust
dependent
relying on someone or something else for aid, support, etc.
troposphere
the lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather conditions occur
stratosphere
contains ozone layer; area that absorbs UV radiation that is dangerous to life
compressible
to press together; force into less space
altitude
the height above sea level on earth; similar to elevation
gradually
taking place, changing, moving, etc., by small degrees or little by little
frontal boundary
where two fronts meet
cyclonic
of or pertaining to a cyclone
sulfur dioxide
a chemical released by coal-burning power plants that increases acid precipitation
El Niño
a warm ocean current that develops every year in December that brings wetter conditions to the west
coast of South America
methane
greenhouse gas released by volcanic eruptions or the ocean; increases global warming
water vapor
#1 most significant greenhouse gas
subduction zones
move together to create largest volcanoes and largest earthquakes
reverse fault
a fault in which the rock above the fault plane is displaced upward relative to the rock below the fault
plane (gravity fault).
convergent plate boundary
creates largest earthquakes which can create largest tsunamis
jetties
a pier or structure of stones, piles, or the like, sticking out into the sea
turbidity
muddiness created by stirring up sediment
biomass
plants used as a fuel; the amount of living matter in a given habitat
dissolved oxygen
needed in water environments for fish and aquatic plants to survive
wetland
a marsh, swamp, or bog that acts as a helpful buffer by filtering/cleaning water
conservation techniques
ways to save water or energy that do not damage the environment, like turning off the lights when you
leave a room
thermohaline current
ocean currents created by temperature and salinity difference
inhibit
to stop or prevent from happening
red shift
a shift toward longer wavelengths of the spectral lines emitted by a celestial object that is caused by the
object moving away from the earth; used to prove the universe is expanding
universe
the totality of known or supposed objects and phenomena throughout all of space
galaxy
a large system of stars held together by mutual gravitation and isolated from similar systems by vast
regions of space; example includes the milky way (which is where we live!)
solar system
the sun together with all the planets and other bodies that revolve around it
carrying capacity
the maximum, equilibrium number of organisms of a particular species that can be supported
indefinitely in a given environment.
biotic
any living plant or organisms in an ecosystem
biome
a complex biotic community characterized by distinctive plant and animal species and maintained under
the climatic conditions (temperature and rainfall) of the region
tundra
one of the vast, nearly level, treeless plains of the arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and North America
savanna
a plain characterized by coarse grasses and scattered tree growth, especially on the margins of the
tropics where the rainfall is seasonal, as in eastern Africa
desert
a region so arid because of little rainfall that it supports only sparse and widely spaced vegetation or no
vegetation at all
taiga
the coniferous evergreen forests of subarctic lands, covering vast areas of northern North America and
Eurasia.
solar radiation
the process in which energy from the sun is emitted as waves
rainforest
a tropical forest, usually of tall, densely growing, broad-leaved evergreen trees in an area of high annual
rainfall.
abiotic
factors that are non-living in an ecosystem; includes light, water, wind, temperature...
photosynthesis
the synthesis(making) of complex organic materials, especially carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide,
water, and inorganic salts, using sunlight as the source of energy and with the aid of chlorophyll and
associated pigments
Kepler's first law
the law of ellipses
deciduous
shedding the leaves annually, as certain trees and shrubs.
coniferous
trees that are cone bearing evergreens; boreal
invasive species
Non-native organism that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species
detritivore
an organism that uses organic waste as a food source, as certain insects.
limiting factor
an environmental factor that tends to limit population size, like space or amount of food
keplers 2nd law
the law of equal areas - states that planets move quicker when closer to the sun
kepler's third law
the law of harmonies- states that planets take less time to make one revolution when closer to the sun
precession
the motion of the rotation axis of a rigid body, as a spinning top, that changes the orientation of where
the axis is pointing
nutation
the periodic oscillation (change) of the tilt earth's axis
ecological efficiency
percentage of usable energy transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the next highest trophic
level
biomass
the dry weight of all organic matter contained in its organisms
weather
the state of the atmosphere with respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness, moisture, pressure, etc.
climate
the general weather conditions of a region, as temperature, air pressure, humidity, precipitation,
sunshine, cloudiness, and winds, throughout the year, averaged over a longer period of time
atmosphere
the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth; the air.
stratosphere
the region of the upper atmosphere extending upward from the tropopause to about 30 miles (50 km)
above the earth, characterized by little vertical change in temperature; jets and ozone are found here
troposphere
the lowest layer of the atmosphere, 6 miles (10 km) high in some areas and as much as 12 miles (20 km)
high in others, within which there is a steady drop in temperature with increasing altitude and within
which nearly all cloud formations occur and weath
thermosphere
the region of the upper atmosphere in which temperature increases continuously with altitude,
encompassing essentially all of the atmosphere above the mesosphere; where find the northern lights
and space shuttles
ozone layer
located in the stratosphere and is composed of gas made of 3 oxygen atoms (O3); Absorbs 99% of suns
harmful UVB rays
air pressure
the force exerted by air, whether compressed or unconfined, on any surface in contact with it.
barometer
any instrument that measures atmospheric pressure.
cold front
the zone separating two air masses, of which the cooler, denser mass is advancing and replacing the
warmer; brings storms
warm front
a transition zone between a mass of warm air and the colder air it is replacing; brings drizzle or snow
flurries
stationary front
a front between warm and cold air masses that is moving very slowly or not at all; brings longer periods
of rain
occluded front
a composite front formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front and forces it aloft; creates the most
severe storms
Coriolis effect
the apparent deflection of a body in motion with respect to the earth, as seen by an observer on the
earth, attributed to a fictitious force but actually caused by the rotation of the earth and appearing as a
deflection to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and a deflection to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.
albedo
The reflectiveness of a surface. Black absorbs all colors while white reflects all colors.
rain gauge
an instrument for measuring rainfall
anemometer
any instrument for measuring the speed of wind
wind vane
any instrument for measuring the direction of wind
isotherm
a line on a weather map or chart connecting points having equal temperature.
El Niño
a warm ocean current of variable intensity that develops after late December along the coast of Ecuador
and Peru and sometimes causes catastrophic weather conditions.
latitude
the angular distance north or south from the equator of a point on the earth's surface, measured on the
meridian of the point.
tropical
very hot and humid
Temperate Zone
the part of the earth's surface lying between the tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern
Hemisphere or between the tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere,
and characterized by having a climate that is warm in the summer, cold in the winter, and moderate in
the spring and fall.
aerosol
a system of colloidal particles dispersed in a gas; smoke or fog; causes destruction of ozone
greenhouse effect
an atmospheric heating phenomenon, caused by short-wave solar radiation being readily transmitted
inward through the earth's atmosphere but longer-wavelength heat radiation less readily transmitted
outward, owing to its absorption by atmospheric carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and other
gases; thus, the rising level of carbon dioxide is viewed with concern.
global warming
an increase in the earth's average atmospheric temperature that causes corresponding changes in
climate and that may result from the greenhouse effect
high pressure
pressure resulting in clear weather
low pressure
pressure resulting in stormy weather
density current
produced by differences in temperature, salinity, and turbidity (the concentration of material held in
suspension)
surface current
a continuous, directed movement of ocean water generated by the force of wind
infiltration
the seepage of water into soil or rock
tributary
a stream that flows to a larger stream or other body of water
water cycle
processes by which water circulates between the earth's oceans, atmosphere, and land, involving
precipitation as rain and snow, drainage in streams and rivers, and return to the atmosphere by
evaporation and transpiration
groundwater
the water beneath the surface of the ground, consisting largely of surface water that has seeped down:
the source of water in springs and wells
aquifer
any geological formation containing or conducting ground water, especially one that supplies the water
for wells, springs, etc.
zone of saturation
the area in an aquifer, below the water table, in which relatively all pores and fractures are saturated
with water
water table
the planar, underground surface beneath which earth materials, as soil or rock, are saturated with
water; the top of the zone of saturation
porosity
the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the volume of the pores of a substance, like a rock or rock
stratum, to the total volume of the mass
permeability
the capability of a porous rock or sediment to permit the flow of fluids through its pore spaces
salinity
dissolved salt content of a body of water. It is a general term used to describe the levels of different salts
such as sodium chloride, magnesium and calcium sulfates, etc.
density
mass per unit volume (amount of "stuff" packed into a given space)
upwelling
the process by which warm, less-dense surface water is drawn away from along a shore by offshore
currents and replaced by cold, denser water brought up from the subsurface.
relative density of cold water
higher density; "sinks"
relative density of warm water
lower density; "floats"
relative density of freshwater
lower density; "floats"
relative density of ocean water
higher density; "sinks"
transpiration
the passage of water through a plant from the roots through the vascular system to the atmosphere.
biosphere
the part of the earth's crust, waters, and atmosphere that supports life (all life on earth)
reservoir
a natural or artificial place where water is collected and stored for use, especially water for supplying a
community, irrigating land, furnishing power, etc.
runoff
something that drains or flows off, as rain that flows off from the land in streams
zone of aeration
the underground region where groundwater can move but does not fill the pore space in the rock or
sediment
coastal climate
increased precipitation than inland climate, more moderate temperatures than inland climate (cooler in
summer but warmer in winter)
eutrophication
Excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land,
which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen
potable
Safe to drink; drinkable
recharge
The addition of water to rivers or to aquifers by natural infiltration, that tends to raise the water table
watershed
The entire land area that contributes surface runoff to a given drainage system.
point source pollution
Pollutants discharged from any identifiable point, including popes, ditches, channels, sewers, tunnels,
and containers of various types.
nonpoint source pollution
comes from many diffuse sources; caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground
epicenter
a point on the ground that is directly above the true center of where the shock waves of an earthquake
apparently radiate
focus
the point of origin of an earthquake.
seismogram
a printed or visual record made by a seismograph
seismograph
any of various instruments for measuring and recording the vibrations of earthquakes
earthquake
a series of vibrations induced in the earth's crust by the abrupt rupture and rebound of rocks in which
elastic strain has been slowly accumulating
elastic rebound
theory that states that when tension builds up, earth stretches and warps until friction is overcome and
the two pieces of land move, snapping back to their original shapes
S wave
a transverse earthquake wave that travels through the interior of the earth and is usually the second
conspicuous wave to reach a seismograph
P wave
a longitudinal seismic wave that travels through the interior of the earth and is usually the first
conspicuous wave to be recorded by a seismograph
mantle
the portion of the earth, about 1800 miles (2900 km) thick, between the crust and the core
crust
the outer layer of the earth, about 22 miles (35 km) deep under the continents and 6 miles (10 km) deep
under the oceans
core
the central portion of the earth, having a radius of about 2100 miles (3379 km) and believed to be
composed mainly of iron and nickel in a molten state.
L wave
an earthquake wave that travels around the earth's surface in mostly an up and down motion
chemical weathering
involves the change in the composition of rocks, often leading to a 'break down' in its form. This is done
through a combination of water and various chemicals to create an acid which directly breaks down the
material
mechanical weathering
When rocks are broken down into smaller pieces, or when sharp rock fragments become smooth and
rounded
thermal
of, pertaining to, or caused by heat or temperature
metamorphic
pertaining to or characterized by change of form, or metamorphosis
sedimentary
formed by the deposition of sediment as certain rocks
igneous
produced under conditions involving intense heat, as rocks of volcanic origin or rocks crystallized from
molten magma
divergent boundary
where new crust is being created as the old crust on each side moves away as if on a conveyor belt
convergent boundary
also known as a destructive plate boundary (because of subduction), is an actively deforming region
where two (or more) tectonic plates or fragments of lithosphere move toward one another and collide
transform boundary
a boundary in which two plates (portions of Earth’s lithosphere) slide past each other without creating
or destroying lithosphere
magma
molten material beneath or within the earth's crust, from which igneous rock is formed
lava
the molten, fluid rock that escapes from a volcano or volcanic vent onto earth's surface
plume
a deep-seated upwelling of magma within the earth's mantle
asthenosphere
the region below the lithosphere, variously estimated as being from fifty to several hundred miles
(eighty-five to several hundred kilometers) thick, in which the rock is less rigid than that above and
below but rigid enough to transmit transverse seismic waves.
lithosphere
the solid portion of the earth
convection
the transfer of heat by the circulation or movement of the heated parts of a liquid or gas
composition
the act of combining parts or elements to form a whole, what an object is made up of
Ring of Fire
the linear zone of seismic and volcanic activity that coincides in general with the margins of the Pacific
Plate
deep focus earthquake
an earthquake that occurs at depths between 300 and 700 km beneath the Earth's surface as a result of
subducted lithosphere
shallow focus earthquake
An earthquake with a focus less than 70 km below Earth's surface that occur at all plate boundary types
reverse fault
blocks of earth move towards each other
normal fault
blocks of earth are pulled apart
strike slip fault
blocks of earth shift past each other in a horizontal movement
oceanic lithosphere
more dense (compacted), so it does not float; is subducted under continental lithosphere
continental lithosphere
it is buoyant (less dense) than oceanic lithosphere
mid-ocean ridge
a general term for an underwater mountain system that consists of various mountain ranges (chains),
typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine
rift
an opening made by splitting, cleaving, etc.; fissure; cleft; fault
seafloor spreading
a process in which new ocean floor is created as molten material from the earth's mantle rises in
margins between plates or ridges and spreads out