HISPANIC STUDENT TRANSFER PATHWAYS FROM COMMUNITY
COLLEGE TO A 4-YEAR PUBLIC UNIVERSITY IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
ENGINEERING AND MATH (STEM) DISCIPLINES
Kevin Jason Gonzalez
B.S. California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, 1995
M.B.A., Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA, 2003
DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
in
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2013
Copyright © 2013
Kevin Jason Gonzalez
All rights reserved
ii
HISPANIC STUDENT TRANSFER PATHWAYS FROM COMMUNITY
COLLEGE TO A 4-YEAR PUBLIC UNIVERSITY IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
ENGINEERING AND MATH (STEM) DISCIPLINES
A Dissertation
by
Kevin Jason Gonzalez
Approved by Dissertation Committee:
Carlos Nevarez, Ph.D.
JoLynn Britt, Ph.D.
Francisco Rodriguez, Ed.D.
Lisa Romero, Ph.D.
SPRING 2013
iii
HISPANIC STUDENT TRANSFER PATHWAYS FROM COMMUNITY
COLLEGE TO A 4-YEAR PUBLIC UNIVERSITY IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
ENGINEERING AND MATH (STEM) DISCIPLINES
Student: Kevin Jason Gonzalez
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this dissertation is suitable for shelving in the library and credit is
to be awarded for the dissertation.
, Program Director
Carlos Nevarez, Ph.D.
Date
iv
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this paper to all of the students that particpated in this
study, and particularly those students willing to share a little more in the focus groups.
Each of your stories is inspirational and important for people to hear. This study doesn’t
work without your voices …
“Keep your goals short term. Dream, but just focus on small goals, just
take them one at a time and work hard.”
– Focus Group Participant #1
“Don't ever give up on yourself up because of where you came from. It's
not where you came from. It's where you end up at. That's the goal in life. You're
going to have struggles, but there's going to be people out there that will help you
get to your goal.”
– Focus Group Participant #2
“It’s worth it. It’s worth the trouble. Don’t be afraid to start, that’s the
hardest part. And once you are there, go for it!”
– Focus Group Participant #4
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my family for their support and understanding over the last
three years. Thank you to my wife Kim for the reminder at the beginning of this pursuit
that this program and degree are an excellent example for our girls, for all of the extra
support on Fridays and Saturdays, and especially over the last few months. Thank you to
my girls, Kaitlin and Kendall, for your patience and understanding for when daddy had to
go to class, miss a soccer game, or write a paper. Thank you to my parents for the
example and reminder of the importance of education, and for your extra help over the
last three years. To the professors that teach and mentor in the Ed.D. program, thank you
for sharing your wisdom and resources. Each class added another piece to the puzzle. In
our first class, Dr. Nevarez said we would be transformed, and I believe we are.
I should also thank and recognize my co-workers who listened to the topic of my
latest paper, or this dissertation. Your attention was helpful and appreciated. I also want
to thank the administrators and leadership at Sacramento State for the access and input
you provided throughtout the program. Your support and participation provided valuable
information and perspective into leadership, policies, finance and human resources.
I want to thank the members of Cohort 4 for your comraderie and perspective. I
learned a lot from each of your areas of work and your professions. I especially want to
thank Christopher Morris, Tabitha Thompson, Maggie Williams and Jon Knolle for
helping to keep things entertaining. Our daily interactions during this last phase of this
vi
journey have been encouraging and provided the type of community and support it takes
to get through a program like this.
Lastly, thank you my committee, Dr. Carlos Nevarez, Dr. Jolynn Britt, Dr.
Francisco Rodriguez and Dr. Lisa Romero. Each of you provide a unique perspective
and expertise. Your support, advice and encouragement is invaluable.
vii
CURRICULUM VITAE
Education
Candidate for Doctorate in Education, California State University, Sacramento, 2013
Master’s in Business Administration, Finance, Santa Clara University, 2003
B.S., Recreation Administration, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo, 1995
Professional Employment
Administrator-in-Charge, Development, Sacramento State, 2012
Director of Major and Planned Gifts, Sacramento State, 2010
Senior Development Officer, Pacific McGeorge School of Law, 2004
Director of Alumni Relations and Annual Giving, Santa Clara University, 2000
Associate Director of Annual and Special Gifts, Santa Clara University, 1998
Coordinator of Annual Giving & Alumni Director, Jesuit High School, 1996
Field of Study
Educational Leadership and Policy, Community College
viii
Abstract
of
HISPANIC STUDENT TRANSFER PATHWAYS FROM COMMUNITY
COLLEGE TO A 4-YEAR PUBLIC UNIVERSITY IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
ENGINEERING AND MATH (STEM) DISCIPLINES
by
Kevin Jason Gonzalez
This study of Hispanic student pathways focused on successful community
college transfer students in Science, Technology, Engineering, or Math (STEM)
disciplines to discover significant personal and academic factors influencing their
pathway. The impetus for this study is the persistence of achievement gaps in STEM
disciplines for Hispanic students, the largest and fastest growing population in the U.S.
Eighty-percent (80%) of Hispanic students start public higher education at community
colleges, but few graduate, particularly in STEM fields. Achievement gaps in STEM
have economic ramifications not only for the Hispanic population, but also the economy
and competitiveness of the U.S. and California. The theoretical framework for this study
included Tinto’s Persistence/Interactionalist Student Departure Model, Bourdieu’s
Theory of Cultural Capital and Padilla’s Latino Student Success Model, which was
further informed through the literature review.
ix
This study used a sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach, collecting
both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data was collected by electronic
survey to Sacramento State transfer students majoring in STEM. Survey responses were
analyzed by Pearson correlation and a summary of open-ended responses was provided.
Two focus groups were held to collect qualitative data using a semi-structured interview
protocol. Open-coding was used to discover themes from student responses and discover
convergence and differences with quantitative data.
Family was the most significant contributing factor to student success in this
study, providing emotional support and a push or permission to continue to pursue an
education. Socio-economic status played a significant role in students’ educational
pathway in this study. Despite a paucity of Hispanic role models and mentors in STEM
for underrepresented students, findings suggest that some students are able to find
surrogate role models through teachers and community college professors despite
racial/ethnic differences.
Students in this study generally had positive feelings on the role of community
college in their success, particularly community college faculty. The concept of
“transition time” was an unexpected finding in this study. Community colleges allowed
students to adjust to being independent and discover their pathway. Additional time
needed to transition and mature, for some students, may be tied to culture and the
closeness of family in Hispanic communities.
x
Recommendations in this study include maintaining access through financial aid,
increasing communication to parents, and increasing training by development of the
Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies model.
Keywords: STEM, Latino, Hispanic, Transfer, Community College, Achievement Gap
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... vi
Curriculum Vitae ............................................................................................................ viii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xvi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. xix
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1
Family and P-12 Influences on Achievement Gaps ................................................. 5
Community College Gateway .................................................................................. 7
Hispanic Student Achievement Gap ...................................................................... 10
The Hispanic Student Achievement Gap and STEM ............................................. 13
Certificates, Career Technical Education and Transfer Pathways ......................... 16
Trends Towards Career Technical Education ........................................................ 17
Implications of Completion as the New Mission ................................................... 20
xii
The Master Plan and California Policy .................................................................. 22
History of California Community College Governance and Leadership ............... 23
Educational Leadership and Equitable Outcomes .................................................. 24
Problem Statement ................................................................................................. 27
Purpose of the Study .............................................................................................. 29
Research Questions ................................................................................................ 29
Summary of Theoretical Frames ............................................................................ 29
Operational Definitions .......................................................................................... 36
Assumption and Limitations .................................................................................. 38
Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 39
Remainder of the Study .......................................................................................... 40
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................................... 42
Tinto – Persistence/Interactionalist Student Departure Model .............................. 46
Raymond Padilla – Heuristic Model of Hispanic Student Success ........................ 47
Bourdieu – Forms of Capital .................................................................................. 52
Pre-College Factors ................................................................................................ 58
Pre-college Academics ........................................................................................... 62
Community College/Institutional Factors .............................................................. 64
xiii
Economic Implications of STEM Achievement Gaps ........................................... 66
Institutional Success Factors and System Policies ................................................. 66
California Community College Policy and Structure ............................................ 68
Community College Leadership ............................................................................. 72
Summary ................................................................................................................ 78
3. METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 80
Research Design ..................................................................................................... 81
Role of the Researcher ........................................................................................... 82
Setting and Sample ................................................................................................. 83
Survey Response Rates .......................................................................................... 85
Instrumentation and Materials ................................................................................ 85
Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis ............................................................ 86
Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis .............................................................. 89
Protection of the Participants ................................................................................. 91
4. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ....................................................................................... 92
Report of Quantitative Data ................................................................................... 95
Qualitative Data – Summary of Themes From Open-Ended Survey
Responses ............................................................................................................. 140
xiv
Report of Qualitative Data ................................................................................... 145
Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 166
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................ 169
Summary and Discussion of Findings .................................................................. 170
Interpretation of Findings ..................................................................................... 174
Recommendation for Actions............................................................................... 190
Leadership and Policy Implications ..................................................................... 196
Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 200
Recommendation for Further Study ..................................................................... 203
Reflection ............................................................................................................. 206
6. APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 210
Appendix A. IRB Permission Letter .................................................................... 211
Appendix B. Electronic Survey ........................................................................... 213
Appendix C. Focus Group Forms and Questions ................................................ 223
Appendix D. Variables and Descriptive Statistics .............................................. 229
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 232
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1. Starting Point for Hispanics Students in CA Higher Education .................................. 8
2. Padilla’s Barriers Summary ....................................................................................... 51
3. Examples of Community College Types and Latino Representation ........................ 67
4. Sacramento State Racial Demographics/Representation ........................................... 74
5. Latino Student Transfer Representation in STEM at Sacramento State .................... 84
6. Research Variables for Questions #1 and #2 ............................................................. 93
7. Significant correlations with Gender ......................................................................... 96
8. Significant correlations with Father’s Education ....................................................... 96
9. Significant Correlations with Mother’s Education .................................................... 97
10. Significant correlations with English as a Second Language .................................... 98
11. Significant correlations with Finances were a Personal Challenge ........................... 99
12. Significant correlations with It was not Difficult to Adjust to College ................... 101
13. Significant correlations with My family was Emotionally Supportive
of My Education ..................................................................................................... 103
14. Significant correlations with I had Community/Mentor Support
to Attend College ..................................................................................................... 104
15. Significant correlations with My Family Contributed to my Academic
Success in Community College ............................................................................... 107
xvi
16. Significant correlations with My Personal Motivation Contributed
to My Success .......................................................................................................... 109
17. Significant correlations with My friends/Social Support Contributed
to My Success in Community College..................................................................... 109
18. Significant correlations with Number of Remedial English Courses ...................... 111
19. Significant correlations with Number of Remedial Math Courses .......................... 112
20. Significant correlations with Number of Remedial Writing Courses ...................... 113
21. Significant correlations with High School Academics Prepared
me for College.......................................................................................................... 114
22. Significant correlations with My Community College Experiences was
Helpful in My Transfer Success .............................................................................. 115
23. Significant correlations with Race was not an Issue in
Community College ................................................................................................. 117
24. Significant correlations with Community College Faculty had High
Expectations of Me .................................................................................................. 119
25. Significant correlations with I Participated in Academic and Student
Programs at Community College ............................................................................. 121
26. Significant correlations with Community College Faculty Contributed
to My Success .......................................................................................................... 122
27. Significant correlations with My High School Academics Contributed
to My Success .......................................................................................................... 124
xvii
28. Significant correlations with My High School STEM Courses Inspired Me
to Pursue a STEM Degree........................................................................................ 126
29. Significant correlations with High School Summer Programs Inspired Me
to Pursue STEM ....................................................................................................... 128
30. Significant correlations with My High School Teachers Inspired Me to
Pursue a STEM Degree ............................................................................................ 129
31. Significant correlations with My Success in Community College
STEM Courses Inspired Me to Pursue a STEM Degree.......................................... 132
32. Significant correlations with My Community College Professors Inspired
Me to Pursue STEM................................................................................................. 133
33. Summary of Themes for Open-ended Survey Responses – Question #1 ................ 140
34. Summary of Themes for Open-ended Survey Responses – Question #2 ................ 143
35. Summary of Focus Group Participant Responses by Theme ................................... 150
36. Summary of Focus Group Responses – Question #1............................................... 151
37. Summary of Focus Group Responses – Question #2............................................... 157
38. Summary of Focus Group Responses – Question #3............................................... 161
39. Recommendations for Action .................................................................................. 191
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1. Hispanic STEM Transfer Study Diagram ...................................................................... 4
2. Hispanic Enrollment and Transfer Representation ...................................................... 10
3. CA Public Education Pathways by Ethnicity............................................................... 12
4. California Per Capita Income Projection ..................................................................... 14
5. Pay rates by Education and Discipline......................................................................... 21
6. Hispanic Student/Community College Pathways Model ............................................. 44
7. Community College STEM Transfer Gaps.................................................................. 45
8. Padilla’s Geography of Barriers................................................................................... 48
9. Padilla’s Heuristic Student Success Model.................................................................. 50
10. Bourdieu’s Forms of Capital ....................................................................................... 53
11. Nora’s Student Engagement Model ............................................................................ 57
12. Achievement Gap Action Model ................................................................................ 76
13. Padilla's Geography of Barriers ................................................................................ 177
14. Bourdieu's Forms of Capital ..................................................................................... 181
15. Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies...................................................................... 185
16. Hispanic Student/Community College Pathways Model .......................................... 187
17. Revised Hispanic Student/Community College Pathways Model ............................ 189
xix
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
“Our nation’s success depends on strengthening America’s role as the world’s
engine of discovery and innovation ... And that leadership tomorrow depends on how we
educate our students today – especially in science, technology, engineering and math.
We know how important this is for our health. It’s important for our security. It’s
important for our environment. And we know how important it is for our economy.”
--President Barack Obama, September 16, 2010.
As the Hispanic demographic continues towards becoming the majority of the
U.S. population, particularly in states like California, it is imperative to the health and
growth of the economy, and the economic health of Hispanics in particular, that this
population be educated to fill the jobs in demand and made available by today’s
industries. The achievement gap for underrepresented minority students persists,
however, and is even more evident for Hispanic students in Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields requiring a bachelor’s degree, one of the
fastest growing job sectors in America. Many research reports have focused on
disparities in college-going and completion rates and the P-12 factors behind the
persistence in achievement gaps for the growing Hispanic population in the United
States (Astin, 1975; Bean, 1980; Nora, 1987; Padilla, 1993; Tinto, 1975). With the
majority of Hispanic students entering higher education through community colleges,
2
this gateway to higher education is seen as a major solution to making up ground in
education achievement gaps for underrepresented students and to help fill the demand
for college-educated workers. However, without a deeper understanding of why some
students are successful in navigating their way through community colleges and
transferring to baccalaureate degree granting institutions, this growing population will
continue to be underrepresented in STEM and other fields requiring a degree, and
remain unqualified to fill positions in STEM industries in an economy that is
increasingly dependent on technology and a college educated workforce. The
persistence of achievement gaps for this growing population has implications for the
economic mobility of current generations of students, but also impacts the future
education of coming generations of Hispanic students which will be discussed in this
study. The impact of achievement gaps in STEM fields will also have an effect on our
ability to fill jobs domestically, our competiveness internationally in STEM fields, and
by result, effect state and national tax bases and economies.
In addition to the personal and academic (institutional) factors that impact
achievement gaps, completion issues are further complicated by the wide distribution of
power and influence for community colleges and education policies, as well as federal
funding incentives that are focused toward certificates and job skills (Callan, 2009;
Shulock & Moore, 2005; Shulock & Moore, 2007). This study will explore factors that
promote success and act as barriers to improving achievement gaps for Hispanic
students that start at California’s community colleges.
3
The impetus for this study of Hispanic achievement gaps in STEM disciplines
and community colleges as a pathway are fivefold:
1. achievement gaps for Hispanic students start in kindergarten and persist through
doctoral degrees particularly in STEM disciplines;
2. Hispanic students in California start higher education in community college at
higher rates than any other group, and therefore the reasons behind transfer
achievement gaps from community college must also be studied;
3. the Hispanic population is the fastest growing, currently nearing 50% of school
aged children in California;
4. the need for more STEM graduates for America to remain competitive has been
outlined by numerous reports; and
5. achievement gaps need to better understood and addressed to allow
underrepresented populations more economic mobility and opportunity through
the fastest growing segments of our economy – science, technology, engineering
and math.
The goal for our community colleges must be to move beyond access to more
equitable outcomes for all students, particularly those who are underrepresented in
bachelor degree completions (Nevarez & Wood, 2010).
This study is focused on Hispanic students who have been successful in
transferring from a community college to a four-year public university to better
4
understand which personal, high school and community college (institutional) factors
have been influential in their persistence and transfer success, and to better understand
factors influencing student pathways through community college. The areas emphases
of this study are outlined in Figure 1 below with Chapter 1 focusing on achievement
gaps, STEM and personal and institutional factors that affect achievement gaps. The
review of literature in Chapter 2 explores the theoretical framework for this study and
related research which further informs the variables and factors researched.
Q1
Personal
Factors
(+/-)
Language
Culture
Parent
Education
Q2
P-8th
HS Grades
Grade
9-12
→
→
Institutional Factors
(+/-)
Teacher Expectations
Quality Instruction
Access to AP Courses
College-going culture
Personal Factors
(+/-)
College-readiness
Language
Parent Education
Parent
Expectations
Economics
Culture
Mentors
Community
College
→
Institutional
Factors (+/-)
Counseling
Academic Support
Social Support
Financial Aid
Teacher
Expectations
Personal
Factors
Transfer
Age 0-4
→
Personal Factors
(+/-)
Language
Access to Pre-School
Parent Education
Parent Expectations
Economics
Culture
Mentors
4-year
University
Institutional
Factors
Academic Preparation and Experience
Q3
Personal and Academic Factors and Perceived Barriers in Transfer Pathway (+/-)
Figure 1. Hispanic Student STEM Transfer Study Diagram
5
Q1 in Figure 1 shows the focus and variables related to Research Question #1:
Which of the following personal variables are the most significant for Hispanic students
who have successfully transferred from a community college to Sacramento State in
STEM majors? Likewise Q2 in Figure 1 shows the period of time and focus of the
variables related to Question #2: What institutional factors (high school and community
college) were most influential in the success of Hispanic students that have transferred
from community college to Sacramento State? Lastly, Q3 shows the focus on the
transfer pathway and experiences for students who were successful in transferring
explored in Research Question #3: What are the pathways and perceived barriers for
Hispanic students who have successfully transferred to Sacramento State in STEM
majors?
Family and P-12 Influences on Achievement Gaps
Discussion around higher education achievement gaps for Hispanic students
warrants an examination of pre-college factors that have been found to influence
academic achievement. The achievement gaps for Hispanic students in STEM are
undoubtedly related to gaps that have been recognized as early as kindergarten and have
been shown to be caused by low socio-economic status, parent educational levels,
English as a second language (ESL) and access to preschool. Research shows that,
compared to White and Black students, Hispanics students start kindergarten less
6
prepared for school as access to preschool has traditionally been only available to
families who can afford it and choose to send their children to preschool (Reardon &
Galindo, 2006). In part due to economics, and perhaps cultural factors, many Hispanic
children have never attended preschool and thus show up for kindergarten less prepared
for school than their counterparts (Gandara, 2006). Fryer and Levitt (2006) found that
socioeconomic status was in large part the determinant in the levels of preparation for
kindergarten.
In early school years, language barriers have also been shown to add to the
struggles of Hispanic children with 31% of children speaking two languages at home,
and 15% speaking only Spanish, but after the first two years of school, educational gaps
are narrowed and maintained through eighth grade (Reardon & Galindo, 2009).
Socioeconomic status and previous grades have also been found to be strongly and
positively related to students’ eighth grade achievement across all races and genders
(Muller, Stage, & Kinzie, 2001). In fact, studies show that Hispanic students have the
same attitudes as other students toward science and math as a career in the eighth grade
(Arbona and Nora, 2007), but this does not translate into enrollment at the college level.
Research on racial differences shows that science achievement gaps for Latino students
widen during middle school and high school compared to their White and Asian
counterparts, and Latinos are similarly underrepresented in college courses, majors and
science, math and engineering fields. These gaps in achievement have been shown to be
strongly connected to socio-economic status (SES), family background and social
7
capital. Students with higher SES status have been found to have higher scores, while
students with lower SES status have been shown to have less growth in achievement,
resulting in widening achievement gaps through high school (Muller, Stage, & Kinzie,
2001).
Studies have also found that the quantity of sciences classes is related to
achievement with Latino/a students less likely to take optional science and math courses
(Cole & Espinoza, 2008; Crisp & Nora, 2006, 2012). These differences in course taking
patterns are strong predictors of science achievement. Students from lower SES are also
shown to have a higher likelihood of being tracked into nonacademic or vocational
courses that prepare students for higher education.
Community College Gateway
Nationally, community colleges are the primary entry point for Hispanic students
entering higher education, with 60% starting at community colleges in 2008 (Gandara &
Contreras, 2009). For California’s public higher education system, the percentage of
Hispanic students entering higher education through community colleges is even higher,
ranging from 77.7% to 81.9%, with 14.1% to 16.7% first entering through the
California State University system, and 4.0% to 5.5% entering through the University of
California system between 1996 and 2010 as shown in Table 1 (CPEC, 2012).
8
Table 1
Starting Point for Hispanics Students in CA Higher Education
Starting Point for Hispanic Students
In Public Higher Education for California
1996 - 2010
System
Percent of Native Students
California Community Colleges
77.7 - 81.9%
California State University
14.1 – 16.7%
University of California
4.0 – 5.5%
(CPEC, 2012)
Hispanics start higher education in community colleges more frequently due to a
combination of factors including economics, location, academic qualifications, and a
lack of understanding of the higher education system. As such, the best opportunity to
increase the number of Hispanic students choosing to pursue STEM education and
careers can best be addressed through deeper understanding of students that enter and
successfully transfer from community colleges. The National Science Foundation (NSF)
and Nation Health Institute (NHI) recognizing the disparities in representation for
Hispanic students and workers in particular are among the many foundations that have
funded research and programs to improve preparation for STEM coursework and
graduation rates for URM students in higher education (Crisp & Nora, 2006).
Hagedorn and Purnamasari (2012) report that despite significant expenditures to
find solutions, over $100 million for the Achieving the Dream: Community College
Counts program alone, significant gaps persist for underrepresented minorities in science
and math. Congress, in fact, authorized the NSF to fund programs that encourage
9
underrepresented minority outreach in STEM disciplines with funding re-established in
the 2009 America Competes Act to promote retention and graduation of
underrepresented students (Hagedorn & Purnamasari, 2012). While many programs are
shown to be successful in making gains in achievement rates, these programs are limited
in scope, and do not have improvement effects outside of the program or college site.
Hispanic serving higher educational institutions (HSIs) have also shown success in
increasing the number of students graduating with STEM degrees (Melguizo and Dowd,
2009).
This study acknowledges the gap in Hispanics pursuing degrees in STEM fields
and seeks to understand the personal and institutional variables that contribute to student
success. With the majority of Hispanic students entering higher education through
community colleges, but only a small percentage transferring to four-year institutions,
particularly in STEM fields, it is imperative to understand not only what variables have
the greatest impact on Hispanic student success, but also the personal and institutional
barriers and beliefs that inhibit gains in STEM transfers and ultimately degrees. Figure
2 shows the achievement gap in California of college-aged Hispanics and Hispanics
achieving transfer in STEM areas is -27%, -11% relative to California community
college enrollment, and -5% relative to all Hispanic transfers.
10
% of total enrollment
Hispanic Enrollment and Transfer Representation as a
Percentage of Total CCC Enrollment
46%
43%
43%
29%
26%
26%
28%
29%
30%
28%
30%
27%
21%
21%
22%
22%
22%
24%
20%
23%
20%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
19%
2001
43%
25%
14%
13%
2002
43%
26%
20%
13%
2003
43%
26%
20%
14%
2004
43%
27%
21%
15%
2005
43%
28%
21%
16%
2006
43%
28%
22%
16%
2007
44%
29%
22%
17%
2008
45%
29%
22%
17%
2009
46%
30%
23%
18%
2010
46%
30%
24%
19%
43%
25%
14%
18-24 Pop.
Enrollment
All Transfer
STEM Transfer
44%
45%
46%
43%
43%
43%
Figure 2. Hispanic Enrollment and Transfer Representation (CPEC, 2012)
While gains are shown in overall percentage, there are still significant gaps in
representation relative to the college-aged population, enrollment as a percentage, and
transfers in all disciplines.
Hispanic Student Achievement Gap
The achievement gap represents the disparity between the share of the population
and the share of educational attainment for a particular ethnicity or demographic. In this
11
study, research will focus on the achievement gap of Hispanic students in California
community colleges as compared to the college-going aged population (18-24 year olds)
and enrollments, with further analysis on the transfer rates for Hispanic students in
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) related fields of study.
Figure 3 represents a fictional cohort of high school students graduating in 1998
and progressing through the California public higher education system towards a
doctorate degree to show the relative percentage of the total population reaching each
milestone. The shaded section of Figure 3 outlines the gaps in college preparation for
Hispanic students as compared to college-going aged students (18-24 years old). While
18-24 year old Hispanics make up 42% of the general population in 1998, Hispanics
only make up 31% of high school graduates, and 20.2% of students completing A-G
requirements. These gaps in graduation and college preparation result in the nearly 80%
of California’s Hispanic students interested in furthering their education having to start
at a community college (CPEC, 2012).
12
CA Public Education Pathways
60%
52.42%
47.21%
50%
44.42%
Percent of Polulation
42%
43.75%
39.95%
41.03%
40%
37.70%
38.87%
31%
38.62%
30%
20.19%
23.22%
22.53%
18.72%
20%
16.92%
16%
10%
12.82%
13.14%
5.97%
10.20%
5.40% 3.70%
0%
HISPANIC/STEM
HISPANIC
Gen Pop.
(18-24)
HS
Grads
42%
1998
31%
20.19%
Enrolled
in CA
Public
Higher
Ed.
1999
22.53%
A-G
HS
Grads
Transfer
AA/AS
Degree
Bachelor
Degree
Masters
Degree
Phd/EdD
Degree
2002
13.14%
2002
16%
2005
10.20%
2007
5.40%
2010
3.70%
42%
31%
20.19%
22.53%
18.72%
23.22%
16.92%
12.82%
5.97%
WHITE
37.70%
47.21%
52.42%
41.03%
38.87%
44.42%
38.62%
39.95%
43.75%
ASIAN/PI
12.81%
11.18%
17.38%
13.46%
13.54%
10.66%
19.37%
12.92%
11.80%
Figure 3. CA Public Education Pathways by Ethnicity (CPEC, 2012)
As the cohort in Figure 3 progresses, the Hispanic share of achievement
decreases significantly, the White share of completions increases, and the Asian share of
completions increases for bachelor’s degrees and is relatively flat for other
achievements. The black line in Figure 3 represents Hispanic-STEM pathways in
education which has an additional -5.5% gap for Transfers, -7.2% gap for Associates of
13
Science, -6.7% for Bachelor’s, -7.4% for Master’s and -2.2% for Doctorates in STEM
disciplines relative to the aggregate of Hispanic academic achievements in all
disciplines. When compared to White and Asian ethnicities, Hispanic achievements
gaps in STEM are even greater. White and Asian ethnicities gain relative shares at each
completion, or achievement point along STEM pathways. To put it another way,
Hispanics ages 18-24 made up 42% of California’s population and 31% of high school
graduates, but received only 3.7% of California’s STEM doctorate degrees by 2010.
The Hispanic Student Achievement Gap and STEM
The achievement gap for Hispanics students begins in preschool, persists
throughout education from K-12, into community colleges, and increases with each level
of degree attainment through doctoral degrees, compared to White students, as
demonstrated in the previous section. Achievement gaps for Hispanics are prevalent in
STEM related industries, a direct result of deficiencies in transfer and degree completion
rates. These disparities are significant for the economy and for the Hispanic population
as both STEM related jobs and the Hispanic population are expected to grow
significantly over the next 30 years. Many reports cite the threat to America’s
competitiveness in STEM areas if one of its largest fastest growing groups of people
continues to be underrepresented (Hagedorn & Purnamasari, 2012; Litow, 2008; Rochin
& Mello, 2007; Scott, 2010).
14
Many reports show that the Hispanic population will be the majority for
California by the year 2040, while the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that more
educated workers, particularly in STEM fields are needed for today’s economy and
current projections have the U.S. falling short of skilled workers by 1 million college
graduates by 2025 (Johnson & Sengupta, 2009). Figure 4 shows a projection of the drop
in average incomes in California compared to the U.S. average if achievement gaps are
not changed. These trends–an economy that needs more educated workers, and a
growing population that continues to underachieve in STEM fields–are not trending
upward at the same pace and indicate a looming issue for education.
Figure 4. California Per Capita Income Projection (Kirst, 2006)
15
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports also show that educated workers
make significantly more, which means increases in tax revenue for states to fund
education. A healthy economy, therefore, is aided by an educated workforce, and
public education, through income and property taxes, and is inextricably connected to
the health of the economy.
As an investment in the U.S. and California economies it is imperative to address
achievement gaps for the fastest growing, and soon to be largest segment of our
population by increasing the number of qualified workers through education. From an
ethical and organizational efficiency standpoint, California community colleges need to
address the transfer and completion rates of Hispanics, one of the largest segments of
enrolled students. The persistence of achievement gaps as a percentage of enrollments,
despite numerical gains in educational achievement, demonstrates that access in itself is
not sufficient to make gains in educational attainment for Hispanic students. From an
equity-in-outcomes viewpoint, access alone is not enough to support a population of
students that has economic, cultural, language, preparation and many other barriers,
including being the first in their family to attempt to go to college (Nevarez & Wood,
2010). Whatever one’s viewpoint on the issue of achievement gaps, whether economic
investment, system efficiency or educational equity, addressing the issue for Hispanic
students is imperative to our success as a nation, state, an educational system, and
society.
16
Certificates, Career Technical Education and Transfer Pathways
The national and state focus on access to higher education as the measure of
educational equity has shifted to completion. Federal and state incentives focused on
completion and progress encourage students and community colleges to focus on
certificates and career technical education, typically shorter pathways to completion, that
may not have the math and English course requirements found in transfer pathways. As
part of the President Obama’s education agenda, the president has created incentives that
focus on workforce development through certificate and technical education programs.
Community colleges compete for these “categorical” funds by showing they have
certificate training in place, but these incentives take focus and resources from other
programs and traditional transfer pathways. We must remain aware of what definitions
are being used when calculating success and completion in higher education.
By example, The Road Ahead report by Mullin (2011) shows that completion
from community college has increased significantly in the years between 1989-90 and
2009-10. This report, however, demonstrates the changing definition of completion by
including certificates in these reported outcomes. When the numbers are disaggregated,
certificate growth is at a far greater increase rate than associate degrees and transfers.
Mullin’s report, for example, shows increases that include completions for Hispanic
student s in certificate programs with 450% growth nationally and 290% in California.
The statistics used in this report also show percentage increases based on completion
numbers rather than completions as a percentage of enrollment by ethnicity. When the
17
statistics are measured showing increases as a percentage of enrollment, Hispanics are
vastly overrepresented in career technical education and certificates, and the
achievement gaps for degrees and transfers still persist. In fact, the greatest growth area,
both nationally and in California, are certificate programs requiring less than one year
(CPEC, 2012). This is likely due in part to the need for remedial education, where
Hispanic students make up the majority, and the length of time it would take to reach an
associate’s degree, or be considered ready for transfer. Hispanic community college
students comprise over 40% of basic skills (remedial) enrollment (Community College
Task Force, 2012), and only 2 in 10 complete a certificate, degree or transfer after six
years (Campaign for College Opportunity, 2012).
Trends Towards Career Technical Education
Economics is central to the issues facing community colleges at a national, statewide and individual level. President Obama’s focus on community colleges as key to
the country’s economic competitiveness is clear in the American Graduation Initiative
(2009) and the more recent Community College to Career Fund (2012). These policies
show a focus on community colleges as a solution to meeting the demands of a
knowledge-based economy and recognize that education is critical to nation’s economic
health and competitiveness in an increasingly globalized economy. The Community
College to Career Fund, signals a policy shift toward certificates to fill the immediate
needs of a more skilled work force, as opposed to increasing the number of
18
undergraduate degrees and transfers highlighted in the American Graduation Initiative.
The policy shift is a reaction to the needs of the national economy, but only provides
short-term fix for both students and the economy but focusing on workforce through
certificate programs over innovation which is fostered through baccalaureate degrees.
Many of the students that enter community colleges are choosing career technical
education (CTE) and certificates over transfer pathways. Over the last 20 years,
Hispanic students receiving certificates that require less than one year has increased
1,138%, with associates degrees and 1-2 year certificates showing increases of 383%
and 302% respectively (Mullin, 2011). These data show that many Hispanic students
are taking the shorter route to completion at nearly four times the growth rate. Factors
behind this trend towards certificates, including remediation and economics, are
discussed in Chapter 2. The trend toward certificates is compounded by the demand for
community colleges to focus on completion, and federal incentives to work with
industries to create more workers through certificate programs.
As these trends persist, there are implications for students choosing CTE over
transfer pathways. These students risk not only entering a more limited field, but they
do not truly gain the educational and social capital obtained through liberal arts
components of higher education. The focus on certificates and CTE as the new
definition of success creates workers to fuel the economy and provides skills to the labor
force, but fails to educate students in traditional ways, which has educational attainment
19
implications for future generations as well. Students, who complete certificates, will
have the ability to perform specific and much needed tasks, but will not be given the
critical thinking skills or a degree that allows them to continue their education or
become leaders or innovators in their field. The Chinese Proverb that states “Give a
man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish and you feed him for a
lifetime.” relates to certificates versus baccalaureate degrees. In Pedagogy of the
Oppressed, Freire stated that the only way to empower the oppressed is through
education, but a focus on certificates and technical training, while giving students skills,
does little to liberate their minds, or empower future generations by creating a collegegoing culture. Freire (2010) calls this false charity. If we teach our students technical
skills so they can be employed, but keep them from learning about history, philosophy,
literature, world religions, and other components of a liberal arts education, we keep
them from fully realizing the value of higher education. In today’s world, these students
will not gain the social or cultural capital to affect their own economic mobility and
future educational opportunities, but also lose the opportunity to affect the education and
learning of their children which could have affects for generations well into the future.
20
Implications of Completion as the New Mission
The national and state focus on access to higher education as the measure of
educational equity has shifted to completion. The persistence of achievement gaps as a
percentage of enrollment, despite numerical gains in educational achievement,
demonstrates that access in itself is not sufficient to make gains in educational
attainment for Hispanic students. As the Hispanic population continues to grow, the
implications of educational attainment has ramifications not only for the Hispanic
population itself, but also the economy and competitiveness of the United State and
California as the Hispanic population continues toward the majority. As the Hispanic
population moves from minority to the majority, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
reports that more educated workers, particularly in STEM fields are needed for today’s
economy (BLS, 2008). These trends, an economy that needs more educated workers,
and a growing population that continues to underachieve, particularly in STEM fields,
are headed in different directions and indicate looming issues for education and the
economy.
Many research reports (BLS, 2008; Johnson & Sengupta, 2009; Melguizo and
Wolniak, 2011; Economic Mobility Project, 2011) show that educated workers make
significantly more with each level of degree attainment, which also means increases in
tax revenue for states to fund education. Pew’s Economic Mobility Project (Economic
Mobility Project, 2009) has shown that attaining a degree from community college
increase earnings 29% over workers with only a high school diploma. The same report
21
shows that a college degree quadruples the chances of a person born in the bottom 20%
of national income rising to the top 20% of all wage earners.
$50
$45
$40
$35
$30
$25
$20
$15
$10
$5
$-
Hourly wage - bachelor's degree only
$40
$25
$16
Figure 5. Pay rates by Education and Discipline (Johnson & Sengupta, 2009)
The effect is demonstrated further by level of education and discipline in Figure
5, where an individual with a high school diploma’s wages are $16 per hour, a
bachelor’s are $25 an hour and a graduate degree are $40 an hour. From these numbers,
it is easy to see that underachievement in education by the largest and fastest segment of
California’s population has economic implications not only for the Hispanic populations,
but for the economic health of the state in terms of tax base, competitiveness, and the
22
ability to provide an educated workforce. Also note in Figure 5 that the Science,
Engineering, Math and Technology sectors are the top five sectors for average wage.
The Master Plan and California Policy
The 1960 Master Plan for Higher Education in California was created as a
response to the lack of coordination between the three segments of higher education and
a desire to meet the emerging demand for access to higher education due to population
growth. As early as 1932, the Carnegie Foundation report for the Advancement of
Teaching cited a lack of overarching policy, organizational inefficiency, and inequitable
resource distribution problems in California’s education system (Callan, 2009). Without
a comprehensive plan for coordination and growth, the educational system was subject
to the politics of the legislature and competition both regionally and among the higher
education systems.
The 1960 Master Plan for Public Higher Education in California solidified the
mission and focus of the three separate systems: community colleges, California State
Universities, and the University of California systems. Each of these systems was to
provide overlapping and distinct functions. The community colleges were to provide
open access to basic skills education, general education for transfer to four-year
baccalaureate schools, career and technical certificates, as well as personal enrichment
courses for the local community. The California State University (CSU) systems
23
schools, once called Normal schools, were to provide undergraduate education to the top
one-third of high school graduates in California, and accept transfers from California
community colleges. At the time of the Master Plan, the CSUs could provide
baccalaureate and masters level degrees, and doctoral degrees by working with the
University of California schools. Today, CSUs are also able to offer doctorates in
Educational (Ed.D.), Physical Therapy (D.P.T.), and Nursing Practice (D.N.P.). The
University of California (UC) schools were to provide baccalaureate, masters, doctoral
and professional degrees, and provide undergraduate access to the top one-eighth of high
school graduates in California.
History of California Community College Governance and Leadership
The 1960 Master Plan for Higher Education in California outlined the
governance structure of California’s public higher education, keeping three distinct
systems, and establishing a Chancellor’s office for the community college system for
advocacy and planning, as well as the California Public Education Commission
established to coordinate activities between the higher education systems. At the time of
the Master Plan, local community college districts provided the majority of funding for
community colleges through property taxes, and retained local control of districts and
colleges for the purposes of keeping control over the needs of local students.
24
Today, the governance structure outlined by the Master Plan has resulted in a
decentralized system of 72 districts, with 112 community colleges. The community
college “system,” with its decentralized, local governance, acts more like 112 different
colleges rather than a cohesive system, which has implications for system-wide solutions
to close achievement gaps. As designed, community colleges retain local control over
their degree and certificate offerings, while also offering basic skills and community
enrichment classes such as art, physical fitness and other not-for-credit course.
Community colleges, however, can choose to emphasize one mission, such as technical
education or transfer, or continue to try to meet fulfill all missions (Shulock and Moore,
2007). The disparities in outcomes, even given similar demographics and economies
further shows that community colleges are more decentralized than they are part of a
cohesive system (Shulock and Moore, 2007). The implications of multiple missions,
funding and policies issues on transfer and achievement are further discussed in
Chapter 2.
Educational Leadership and Equitable Outcomes
As achievement gaps persist, and K-12 education continues to produce students
who are unprepared, educational leaders must ask themselves what the ethical
implications are for offering access to a community college system that offers no or little
support to students in the way of counseling and remedial support, and charges for
education they should have already received.
25
The mission of community colleges for the last 50 years has been access.
Fulfilling that mission means letting in all students, regardless of their abilities. While
the UC takes the top one-eighth (1/8th) and the CSU system takes the top one-third
(1/3rd) of high school students, community colleges take everyone. Access and equity
would be less of an issue if URMs were able to get out of community colleges, but
community colleges are not prepared to address the sheer number of issues, including
language barriers, lack of counseling, and the student’s ability to navigate the public
education system. From an equity standpoint, community colleges receive in the
neighborhood of one-fifth of the resources of CSUs, and one-tenth of the resources of
UCs, and have the majority of students needing help (Community College Task Force,
2012). Reports show that somewhere between 60% and 80% of students come in
needing remedial coursework in math and English, and only 15% make it to 4-year
schools after six years (Campaign for College Opportunity, 2012; Community College
Task Force, 2012; Shulock & Moore, 2007).
Leadership at various levels tries to use their authority and resources to address
the problem of achievement gaps and efficiency. The California Community College
Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO), along with the academic senate have drafted a strategic
plan that includes addressing basic skills education. The Basic Skills Initiative (BSI)
outlines specific tasks that community colleges can integrate in seeking to increase the
effectiveness of remedial coursework and thus increase the transfer and completion rate
of these students. California State Assembly and Senate have enacted legislation in
26
attempt to effect change through policy and categorical funding. The people of
California also attempt to affect policy and change through the initiative and referendum
process. As mentioned, policies and categorical funding have limited effect systemically
on 112 different community colleges with different student populations and needs of the
local economy as demonstrated in this chapter.
Effective leadership still has the opportunity to refocus the mission of
community colleges at a local level despite the obstacles of state-wide funding policies
and other initiatives that hinder achievement and student success. There are measures
that community college leaders can take at a local level to decrease disparities in
achievement and make the most of the resources they receive by focusing and fostering
a culture of transfer and degree completion. To accomplish change at a local level,
chancellors, or presidents, depending on the district must understand and embrace
leadership based in social justice and equitable outcomes. While the issues are vastly
more complex when looking at the community college system in its entirety, individual
colleges, with the right leadership, can make changes in how they deliver education.
At Chaffey Community College, leadership eliminated phrasing that carried a
stigma, such as remediation, that leads to tolerance of mediocre practices (Esch, 2009).
By giving positive phraseology to the remediation coursework and support systems, the
college was able to change the mindset and culture to one of success and transfer
oriented students. The college also used data to understand their students and identify
27
where resources were needed. A data-driven strategic planning process to engaged
leadership, faculty and staff and influenced how it delivered future curriculum and
services (Bolman and Deal, 2008; Ikemoto, 2007; Tromp & Ruben, 2009). Models for
success do exist and should be studied, along with a better understanding of which
students are successful, and why, which is the focus of study.
Problem Statement
The achievement gap persists for Hispanic students in California’s higher
education system, who are underrepresented at even greater rates in Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. As part of the public higher
education system, the mission of California community colleges, as established by the
Master Plan for Higher Education, has been access to workforce training, basic courses
in English and math, and certificate and degree programs and preparation for transfer to
four-year institutions. However, underrepresented students do not achieve their goals at
the same rates as White or Asian students. Demographic changes, college readiness,
emerging technologies and job creation for a knowledge-based economy have put
increased scrutiny and pressure on community college leadership to focus on outcomes.
Federal policymakers have focused on workforce training and certificates at community
colleges as a solution to meeting the demand for educated and skilled workers and have
explored incentives to encourage collaboration with corporations. On the state level,
some community colleges systems incentivize their colleges to focus on student
28
outcomes through funding, an option that stakeholders have considered in California.
Focus and incentives on completion, trends for underrepresented students seeking
certificates at greater rates than transfer pathways, and the needs for a skilled and
educated workforce to feed a knowledge-based economy have long-term economic and
educational ramifications for underrepresented students. Despite educational and
economic forces pulling in different directions, some students are successful in attaining
a degree by transferring from community college. The success of these students, their
pathway and factors that encouraged their success, as well as understanding their most
significant barriers, needs to be better understood and studied.
29
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the personal and institutional experiences
and to identify significant factors associated with successful transfer from community
college to Sacramento State in a STEM major for Hispanic students.
Research Questions
Research Question #1: Which personal variables are the most significant for
Hispanic students who have successfully transferred from a community college to
Sacramento State in STEM majors?
Research Question #2: What institutional factors (high school and community
college) were most influential in the success of Hispanic students that have transferred
from community college to Sacramento State?
Research Question #3: What are the pathways and perceived barriers for
Hispanic students who have successfully transferred to Sacramento State in STEM
majors?
Summary of Theoretical Frames
Much research has been done on achievement gaps and their beginnings for
Hispanic students as early as access to preschool with gaps in achievement persisting
30
throughout high school as evidenced by test scores, college preparation, and graduation
rates. Because of these gaps in preparation, test scores, and college readiness, Hispanic
students start their pursuit of high education in community colleges at greater rates,
nearly 80% in California, than any other ethnic group. Community colleges, in turn,
have low success rates in part because of student factors, and in part because of policies
that do not encourage student academic support or focus on completion, and individual
institutional factors that include the community college’s focus on transfer, career
technical education, basic skills or community enrichments classes. This study will
focus on students who have been successful in transferring from a community college to
Sacramento State in a STEM major, by using three theoretical frameworks: Tinto’s
Persistence Theory, Padilla’s heuristic model of Hispanic student success, and
Bourdieu’s Theory of Cultural Capital. Each of these frames brings a distinct and
complimentary view of studying both success factors and potential barriers in
educational achievement for Hispanic student.
Tinto – Persistence/Interactionalist Student Departure Model
In the 1970s Tinto used Durkheim’s theory of suicide to apply concepts of
societal integration to student success, or persistence, in higher education (Tinto, 1975).
The factors that Tinto (1975) identifies includes social and academic components, as
well personal factors that the student brings such as family background, K-12
preparation and economic background, but also a student’s personal determination. In
31
Tinto’s model, a student can be successful in the social integration, but fail
academically. And likewise, a student can be doing well academically, but the lack
social support or fail to feel a sense of belonging, and also dropout. Tinto’s model also
suggests that students may be pulled toward other endeavors, such as an opportunity to
work, employing a cost-benefit analysis, and consciously or unconsciously weigh the
benefits of education over other endeavors.
Tinto’s work on student dropout and
persistence has influenced many research studies seeking to understand the variables
involved in determining whether a student is ultimately successful in reaching their
educational goals, or drops out for one, or a combinations of reasons.
The work of those that have followed Tinto (1975), through both quantitative and
qualitative studies, at single and multi-site institutions, has substantiated Tinto’s model
of pre-existing personal factors, as well as institutional factors that act as variables in
student persistence and retention. Tinto maintains that pre-existing variables, before the
student enters college, have an influence on the student’s retention. These factors
include both personal and academic variables. Personal variables include family values,
culture, language, socio-economic status and parent education levels. Academic
variables include the student’s access to K-12 institutions with high academic standards,
college-going culture in high school, teacher expectations and counseling on what is
required to attend college. Many studies have shown the connection between personal
and academic variables, such as economic status and access to schools with high
academic expectations. Familial education background and cultural factors are similarly
32
connected to pre-college academic preparation and expectations. Studies have shown
that students that are the first in their family to attend college face additional challenges
in navigating the institutional barriers that more experienced families know how to
navigate. Bourdieu calls this type of knowledge cultural capital.
Bourdieu – Cultural Capital
Pierre Bourdieu, in the Forms of Capital (1986), outlined three distinct types of
capital: economic, social and cultural capital. While each form of capital tends to
reinforce the ability to maintain or increase ones economic and social status, cultural
capital provides the knowledge and skills to change one’s economic and social status
through education. Therefore, the study of cultural capital has been useful in examining
the intangible assets that students bring with them to higher education.
Cultural capital is defined as the knowledge, skills, education and advantages
given to a person by way of their economic or social status, which is most often passed
down through parents who guide their children through economic, social and
educational systems. Bourdieu (1986) further defines three types of cultural capital as
Embodied, Objectified and Institutionalized. Embodied Cultural Capital is passed on to
children both intentionally and passively through the language, attitudes and
expectations of parents. It is also often reinforced through socialization and status.
Objectified Cultural Capital is defined as the tools, instruments, or other physical goods
33
that pertain to economic and social status. Scientific instruments, works of art, and
perhaps access to technology, can be seen as objectified capital for children who have
access and understanding of these items, have further increased their cultural capital.
Lastly, Institutionalized Cultural Capital recognizes that academic degrees, credentials,
certificates or other validated qualifications provide access to economic capital through
jobs. Those without validated qualifications, or institutionalized capital, do not have
access to the same opportunities.
Bourdieu, in his 1977 work Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction,
suggested that education leads to social and economic stratification by honoring the
social and cultural capital of elite classes in society. Meaning that through the validation
of higher education and by means of their cultural capital, elite classes tend to get higher
paying jobs than those who have not received the same level of education. Those
without the same level of cultural capital, and thus education, are only afforded
subordinate roles in “working class” positions that typically come with less pay, or
economic capital (Bourdieu, 1977). Bourdieu further suggests that students that lack
cultural capital in school are socialized toward “working class” positions, reinforcing the
cycle of economic and social stratification. This concept is particularly alarming as the
nation’s community colleges increase their focus on career technical education
(certificates) as a form of success and completion as mentioned early in this chapter. By
focusing on certificates, over degrees, we continue to socialize students without cultural
34
capital into “working class” positions, at best, and deny the opportunity to gain cultural
and economic capital for themselves and future generations.
One can see that parents that do not have economic or social capital are not likely
to be able to confer cultural capital along to their children. Institutionalized cultural
capital, however, can be gained through education. Parents that have successfully
navigated higher education to receive a bachelor’s degree are more likely to be able to
pass on that cultural capital, the knowledge of navigating higher education, which would
allow their children to increase their economic and social capital. It is important,
therefore, to continue to push for not only access to higher education, but also to
maintain focus on bachelor’s degrees as the measure of success.
Padilla – Heuristic Model of Hispanic Student Success or Local Expertise Model
In the early 1990s Raymond Padilla suggested a new framework for studying
Hispanic student experiences for variables that are most affective in contributing to
student persistence and success instead of focusing on variables that inhibit success
(deficit models). In Padilla’s Heuristic Model (1991), students come to an institution
with varying levels of preparation and personal variables that affect their ability to
navigate higher education. Padilla’s model focuses on the experiences of students who
have been successful to discover what students are doing to overcome micro, meso and
macro barriers to achieve academic success. Many studies have focused on the factors,
35
or variables that contribute to a student’s lack of academic achievement, including
academic preparation, family and economic issues, as well as socialization and racial
biases. Padilla’s frame, instead, focuses on the heuristic experience-based perspective to
discover what it is that makes some students successful while others do not persist.
Like Tinto (1975), Padilla (1998) suggests that higher education is a black box
where students enter with knowledge and experience, to which they add new knowledge
and experiences that ultimately contribute to their success or cause students to dropout.
The experiences inside the black box are then affected by a student’s pre-college
experiences, including family, academic preparation, economics, language and culture.
Tinto suggests in his 1975 paper on student persistence that students in higher education
are still affected by external factors, such as friends, family and the appeal or need to
work. The “pull” factors can also be “push” factors if family and friends are supportive
or encouraging of a student’s college goals. Likewise, if a family has the economic
ability to financial support a student, this will mitigate or perhaps lessen the need to
work while in college, and allow a student to focus on academics and social aspects of
college. Many studies show that students that attend college fulltime and work less than
20 hours a week have higher success levels than part-time students and students that
have to work more often to support themselves (Shulock & Moore, 2010).
Shulock and Moore’s (2010) report shows that community college students that
attend fulltime are more likely to transfer and/or receive a AA/AS degree. Likewise,
36
student that work less than 20 hours per week are presumably more successful because
they can commit more time towards the academic and social aspects of college.
Operational Definitions
Achievement Gaps – For the purposes of this study “achievement gaps” represent
the differences in test scores, milestone completion, degrees, and transfer rates for
Hispanic students, and other underrepresented minorities, versus the general population,
and specifically White and Asian students. In grammar through high school,
achievement gaps are most often represented by standardized test scores. At the end of
high school, achievement gaps are represented by graduation rates and the percentage of
students meeting A-G requirement. Post-high school, achievement gaps are represented
by college-going rates, matriculation, graduation rates and degrees. Post-baccalaureate,
achievement gaps persist in graduate school, doctorates, professorships, administration
and further disaggregation shows major and industry specific underrepresentation in
STEM fields for Hispanic, which is the focus of this study.
Cultural Capital - The knowledge, skills, education and advantages given to a
person by way of their economic or social status, which is most often passed down
through parents who guide their children through economic, social and educational
systems (Bourdieu, 1986).
37
Career Technical Education (CTE) – A program of study that involves a
multiyear sequence of courses integrating core academic knowledge with technical and
occupational knowledge to provide students with a pathway to postsecondary education
and careers. (California Department of Education, 2012)
Certificates – Certificates include professional skill programs requiring from 1 –
3 years to complete at a California Community College.
Completion – A milestone reached in education, such as a certificate, transfer to
a 4-year institution, or a degree.
Hispanic or Latino –Hispanic and Latino are used in this paper to describe both
males and females. The U.S. Census Bureau (2011) defines Hispanic or Latino as a
person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish
culture or origin.
HSI – Hispanic Serving Institutions are institutions that have a Hispanic
population at or more than 25% of the total student population.
Native students – Students are considered “native” to the institution where they
start their pursuit of higher education. A student that starts as a freshman is considered
native.
Open Access – All interested students are eligible to enroll. Community colleges
have traditional had an “open access” or “open door” policy, meaning they take all
38
students who are interested. According to the 1960 Master Plan, UCs are targeted to
take the top one-eighth (1/8) of high school students, and CSU’s are targeted to take the
top one-third (1/3) of high school students.
STEM – Science, Technology, Engineering and Math in education or profession.
Transfer Pathways – The path students take, or intend to take, entering
community college before transferring to a baccalaureate granting institution.
Underrepresented Minorities (URM) – Minority groups that are
underrepresented statistically as compared to the general or college-going aged
population in education or workforce classification.
Assumption and Limitations
By focusing this study on students at Sacramento State who have successfully
transferred from a community college, any results or findings will be specific to the
demographics and institutions that participating students have attended. There are five
local community colleges in the immediate region, however, students selected for the
study may come from one of 49 community colleges, out of 112 in California. Results
are only applicable to student experiences at represented community colleges, and
further subject to the familial and P-12 educational experiences of participating students.
These experiences are likely to be different than students who grew up in rural
39
environments, or other regions of the state, particularly southern California, where
Hispanic populations can reach 80% of community college populations. Results, when
aggregated or compared to similar studies should provide insight into recurring themes
and variables found to promote student success, and identify potential barriers to student
success as well. While the findings of this study may be significant, the findings may
not be applicable to all California community colleges and the demographics of their
students.
Significance of the Study
Student and organizational factors as identified through the review of literature
will be assessed for correlation through a quantitative survey to find significance in
variables that affect Hispanic student STEM transfer success for students attending
Sacramento State. The qualitative focus groups will provide insight into how students
attribute their success and negotiate family, work and academic obligations and
expectations and factors that students perceive to influence their pathway to and through
community college. Outcomes from both the qualitative and quantitative facets of the
study will inform educational leaders and policymakers of the personal factors and
organizational practices that are most significant as positive or negative variables and
allow administrators to improve practices that act as barriers or continue to focus on
variables that increase student likelihood of success. Findings and suggestions from this
study will also provide further insight into the adversity students must overcome in order
40
to transfer, and provide student voices to the issue of achievement gaps. Without this
contextualization of student perspectives educational leaders and policymakers are at
risk of making resource decisions without fully understanding the issues that lie behind
the problem.
Remainder of the Study
Chapter 1 has given an overview of the facts and factors behind STEM
achievement gaps for Hispanic students. The fact that in California 80% of Hispanic
students start in community college makes it important to study the factors that
successful students feel have been most influential in their transfer to a four-year
institution. The growth of the Hispanic population, the need for more college graduates
to fuel a knowledge-based economy, particularly in STEM disciplines, and the push for
California’s community colleges to focus on completion, which often translates into
certificates, signals a need to better understand factors behind success for the majority of
Hispanic students that start at community college.
Chapter 2 presents a review of literature beginning with the early works on
persistence and retention of underrepresented students to more recent models that
account for pre-college, academic and social factors that contribute to success or act as
barriers. The review of literature also discusses those variables and findings of previous
studies on Hispanic students’ K-12 achievement gaps as well as recent findings that have
focused on STEM and achievement gaps. Chapter 3 discusses the study’s design,
41
including methodology, data collection, data analysis and setting. Chapter 4 presents the
data, with explanations and interpretations related to the study. Chapter 5 will further
discuss the findings, implications and recommendations for academic stakeholders at all
levels, as well as recommendations for future study.
42
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The purpose of this study is to examine the personal and institutional experiences
of Hispanic students who have successfully transferred from a community college to
Sacramento State in a STEM major. Studies that focus on the scarcity of Hispanic
students in STEM disciplines, and particularly through transfer from community
colleges, are limited. However, many of the pre-college personal and academic factors,
as well as the factors affecting students in community college, are the same for Hispanic
students in general. Additional factors that affect student persistence in STEM are also
reviewed in this chapter.
This literature review will focus on the related theories and studies that outline
pre-college personal and academic student factors that impact Hispanic student success
including college readiness, culture, family and economics; community college factors
that affect Hispanic transfer success; and review recent reports and efforts that focus on
Hispanic student success in STEM majors. Previous research on Hispanic student
achievement gaps that do not focus specifically on STEM will also be used.
While many other studies have focused on deficit models, meaning the studentcentric deficiencies behind achievement gaps, or K-12 factors that leave students
unprepared for college, this study will focus on finding which pre-college factors and
community college factors have positive effects, but also those that act as significant
43
barriers to overcome in the pursuit of STEM degrees from the perspective of successful
Hispanic transfer students. Using Tinto’s Model of Student Departure and Persistence,
Padilla’s model of Local Expertise that focuses on student success, and Bourdieu’s
theory of Cultural Capital, as theoretical frames, this study will focus on student
perceptions of success factors and barriers that students navigated before successfully
transferring. The fact is that Hispanic students graduate from high school having
completed A-G requirements at lower rates than White and Asian students and Hispanic
students start their higher educational careers at community colleges at greater rates than
any other ethnic group (CPEC, 2012). For these reasons, one of the greatest
opportunities to increase the number of Hispanic students completing bachelor’s degrees
starts in community colleges for the near-term future. As demonstrated in the report
Divided We Fail (Shulock and Moore, 2010), despite similarities in student profiles and
overall student population, some community colleges matriculate students more
efficiently than others.
The model in Figure 6 represents a summary of the literature review presented in
Chapter 2, showing the factors that influence a Hispanic student’s pathway and
persistence through community college to either a 4-year university, or many in
dropping or stalling out. The model illustrates that students bring with them, from P-12
education, pre-existing personal factors such as family education, socio-economic status,
culture, the influence of mentors and more.
44
Figure 6. Hispanic Student/Community College Pathways Model
The model also shows some of the pre-college academic factors such as quality
of instruction, advising, academic rigor and college-going culture that comes with a
student. These factors are certainly interdependent, and when combined with a student’s
cultural capital and self-efficacy, make up the background that a student brings with
them to the college experience. The student, therefore, is represented by the long bold
box that contains the pre-college personal and institutional factors, and is placed in the
community college environment, which is effected by both social and academic factors
45
as well as personal factors such as family, economics and motivation. The results, once
the student enters the community college environment are an Associate’s degree and/or
transfer, or that the student drops out, or stalls out. This variable in this model will be
tested through the research design outlined in Chapter 3.
2010 California Community Colleges (111)
STEM Transfer Gap
Hispanic STEM Transfer Rate% - Hispanic Enrollment%
50
47
45
40
35
-20% +
30
15% to 19.99%
27
-10% to 14.99%
25
-5% to -9.99%
18
20
-0.01% to -4.99%
15
0.01 to 4.99%
10
7
5% to 9.99%
8
10%+
5
1
2
1
0
-20% +
15% to -10% to -5% to - -0.01% to 0.01 to
19.99% 14.99% 9.99% -4.99% 4.99%
5% to
9.99%
10%+
Figure 7. Community College STEM Transfer Gaps
As Figure 7 shows, most California community colleges have achievement gaps
in transferring Hispanic students in STEM majors, but a few are overrepresented in
terms of the percentage of Hispanic student transfers relative to their percentage of
46
student enrollment. These findings suggest that there is a combination of personal and
institutional factors that facilitates transfer and success for some students. This study is
designed to explore those factors. The remainder of this chapter will discuss related
studies and factors found to be significant in persistence, retention, and ultimately
success or dropout.
Tinto – Persistence/Interactionalist Student Departure Model
Vincent Tinto’s (1975) work on student persistence, retention and dropout for
underrepresented minority students is largely considered foundational in this area of
educational research (Nora, 1987 and Padilla, 1998). Tinto’s student departure model
began in working with Cullen, focusing on student attrition and persistence, and
identified five variables affecting persistence and attrition: a) pre-entry attributes, b)
institutional experiences, c) integration, d) goals and commitment, and e) outcomes
(Crisp, Nora, & Taggart, 2009). Some of the early criticism of Tinto’s model was that it
did take into account two-year colleges, although extensions of his own research and the
methodology of examining causal variable and the interrelatedness, allowed for two-year
colleges to be considered as well.
Tinto’s (1990) work went on to focus on additional factors that include the
process of transitioning from high school to college. The process of transitioning to
college, according to Tinto, includes three phases: separation, transition and
47
incorporation. In fact, Tinto suggests that students must assimilate themselves to the
academic and social institution of higher education and leave their previously known
social and cultural lives behind (Tinto, 1998). There are many academics and
researchers that disagree with this view, particularly for Hispanic students that have been
found to need the support of family, community and culture to persist in their
educational endeavors (Metz, 2002; Tierney, 1992).
As mentioned in Chapter 1, Tinto’s work on dropout and persistence has
influenced many research studies since the 1970’s, seeking to discover what factors lead
to a student’s success or failure in reaching their goals. These studies and models,
founded on Tinto’s work, have highlighted many of the pre-existing personal and
institutional variables in student persistence and retention used in this study.
Raymond Padilla – Heuristic Model of Hispanic Student Success
The study of Hispanic student early departure from college is continued in the
work of Raymond Padilla (1991), who suggested a new approach to studying
achievement gaps for Hispanic students. Padilla maintains that it is important to
understand why some students are unsuccessful, but that it is equally important that
educational institutions understand what factors promote success (Padilla, 1991), so that
those factors may be reinforced or replicated. Following Tinto, Bean, Pace, Nora, et al,
Padilla also maintains that “many factors, including personal and institutional
48
characteristics, family background, economics, precollege educational achievement,
student motivation, and the quality of effort exerted in pursuing a degree” are keys to
student success and departure, along with academic and social integration (Padilla,
1998). Like Tinto, Padilla (1999) illustrates the college experience as a black box,
which allows the researcher to conceptualize the student experience as a process that
includes pre-existing student variables and experiences, as well a “geography of
barriers” that must be navigated during the college experience to be successful, or else
the student will dropout as illustrated in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Padilla’s Geography of Barriers
It is in examining the pre-existing variables that contribute to success or act as
barriers, and in recognizing that students come to college, or as in this study, community
college with set of experiences and skills, that Padilla’s (1998) approach in focusing on
success is useful. In this study, the campus experience occurs at community colleges,
49
and the successful outcome is the transfer to Sacramento State, a four-year institution, in
a STEM discipline.
Padilla’s (1998) experience and success model maintains that a student’s
heuristic knowledge provides a base that students rely on to navigate barriers, building
on previous experience and adding to the local knowledge needed to be successful at a
particular campus. This study borrows this concept by studying students that have
attended a community college and transferred to a four-year institution to better
understand which variables contribute to success and which barriers remain the most
significant.
Padilla states
it would appear that successful college students are those who are academically
talented, are supported in their quest for a college degree, exhibit a high level of
motivation and commitment to their educational goals, exert a quality effort in
their studies, and make themselves at home in the academic and social cultures
of the campus where their previous knowledge and experiences are valued and
enlarged (Padilla, 1998, p.3).
The successful student can be seen as expert in understanding how to be a successful
student possessing both theoretical knowledge and heuristic knowledge Padilla for a
particular campus, or as in this study, an educational pathway. Padilla illustrates the
50
model in Figure 9, categorizing barriers and showing examples of the knowledge
possessed or actions taken by students in order to be successful. These barriers are
categorized into four classes or types: discontinuity, nurturing, presence on campus, and
resource barriers.
Figure 9. Padilla’s Heuristic Student Success Model (Padilla, 1998)
Padilla provides examples of the four types of barriers from the model that are
summarized in Table 2. Further categorization shows the influence on these variables
51
by pre-college and college-centric variables as laid out by Tinto, but the influence of
Bourdieu’s forms of capital can also be seen. The knowledge that students bring with
them and family support (discontinuity and nurturing) can be seen as cultural capital, the
lack the influence of resources as economic capital and the lack of presence as related to
social capital (networks and mentors).
Table 2
Padilla’s Barriers Summary
Barriers
Discontinuity barriers
Examples



Lack of nurturing




Lack of presence on campus





Resource barriers
Padilla (1998)


Transition from a small town to an urban
setting
Students having to learn to be on their own
Choosing between the values of an
immediate job vs. long term value of
gaining an education.
Lack of minority role models
Perceived low expectations of students by
faculty and staff
Lack of family support or understanding
Lack of nurturing itself
Racial isolation
Lack of minority role models and mentors
Cultural isolation
Lack of visibility of minority support
programs
Lack of minority issues or materials in the
curriculum.
Lack of money
Problems with the financial aid system
52
Padilla’s (1998) model is useful in conceptualizing how students gain heuristic or
theoretical knowledge to navigate barriers in higher education, but tends to focus on the
experience inside the “black box,” recognizing pre-existing factors and testing for
students’ ability to adjust to college-life and navigate barriers through pre-existing
knowledge and learned experiences. The “success” model is most useful to this study in
providing a framework, or lens that focuses on students that have been successful.
Bourdieu – Forms of Capital
More recently there has been an increased focus of reports and studies on the
contributing factors to Hispanic achievement gaps in STEM. These reports highlight the
disparities in resources and standardized tests as early as 2nd and 3rd grade. The case
has also been made, particularly in the sciences that parent educational background has a
significant influence on students that choose STEM as a course of study and profession
(Brown & Michael, 2008; Cole & Espinoza, 2008; Hagedorn & Purnamasari, 2012). It
is in these ways that Bourdieu’s Forms of Capital (1986) affects Hispanic students’
educational attainment.
53
Figure 10. Bourdieu’s Forms of Capital
The conceptualization of Bourdieu’s Forms of Capital (1986), which includes
Cultural, Economic and Social, are illustrated in Figure 10 to show how the forms
perpetuate and reinforce one another, but also illustrates how public higher education
allows access to cultural capital, or symbolic capital in the form of a college degree
conferred by a university.
As discussed in Chapter 1, economic capital has influences on access to quality
pre-schools, and quality K-12 schools with access to educational resources and teachers
credentialed in math and science (Hagedorn & Purnamasari, 2012). Social capital,
likewise, has an influence on Hispanic students and their ability to see themselves in
STEM disciplines. Mentors and social circles have been shown to influence Hispanic
54
students’ college-going decisions. Many reports have noted that mentors are an
important component of fostering student interest in science and math, but there are few
Hispanic mentors in STEM disciplines (Brown & Michael, 2008; Cabrera & Villareal,
2012). Junior high and high school rigor and college-going culture have an important
impact on students’ perceptions and interests in science. Crisp, Nora and Taggart (2009)
note that many K-8 students express an interest in STEM disciplines, but by way of
academic experiences and a lack of mentors of similar color, have difficulty seeing
themselves in those disciplines. This early interest is simply not translating into
increased enrollment and success in STEM disciplines.
Cultural capital, as the last of the three forms of capital described by Bourdieu
(1986), also has an influence on student persistence and success. Hispanic students are
often the first in their families to attend college as noted, and as such, parents are not
able to pass on the knowledge of how to navigate higher education, let alone guide K-12
students toward coursework that will prepare them for college. In fact, Hispanic
families, while shown to value education, often have expectations that their children will
stay close to home, work to support themselves, or the family, which has implications
for student choices and ability to afford higher education. This, as well as the economic
expense of attending a 4-year institution, may be a contributing factor in 80% of
California’s Hispanic college-going students starting in community college. For these
reasons, a lack of knowledge of higher education and college preparations, and family
expectations, all have an effect on Hispanic student college choices and courses of study.
55
In combination with the fact that most students in STEM are twice as likely to have a
parent working or degreed in a STEM discipline, a lack of cultural capital reinforces
educational achievement gaps, particularly in STEM. As demonstrated in Figure 10
above, access to public higher education provides access to cultural capital, which in
turn provides access to economic and social capital in turn. Access alone, however, has
been shown to not be enough to increase completions. More study is needed on how and
what works in promoting Hispanic student success in STEM.
STEM and Hispanic Students - Focused Studies
While the research on Hispanic students and achievement gaps continues to
develop and grow, research on Hispanic students and STEM achievement gaps is still a
relatively new focus of study. Most studies focus on using variables such as economics
and pre-college academics to determine which students are missing from STEM
education, in an attempt to isolate predictive variables. Other research papers report on
the current state of underrepresented minorities in STEM education, the various
measures that are being taken through the NSF and other entities, and the effects that an
under-filled pipeline of STEM graduates will have an our economy and international
competitiveness. A review of studies and reports on Hispanic students and achievement
gaps, and in STEM areas where available, follows.
56
The 2006 white paper on representation and participation of P-12 Hispanics in
STEM for the HACU (Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities) conference
noted that despite increases in population percentage Latinos make up only 3% of the
labor force in STEM (Crisp & Nora, 2006, 2012). Crisp and Nora also note that science
literacy is lower for P-12 Hispanic students, attributable in part to lower economic status
and the quality, or a complete lack of qualified science resources and science teachers in
schools that economically challenged students attend. The whitepaper also reports that
gaps in math and science are noted as early nine years of age for Latinos students as well
as additional gender gaps for Latinas. These gaps persist into high school where only
4% of 10th grade high school Latinos are proficient in math, as compared to 20% of
White students, with achievement gaps in A-G requirements following.
57
Figure 11. Nora’s Student Engagement Model
Crisp, Nora, Taggart’s study of student and environmental factors that predict
majoring and earning a STEM degree at Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) was based
58
on Nora’s Student Engagement Model in Figure 11. Nora’s model postulates that a
student’s interaction and engagement with the college affect both persistence and degree
completion. As demonstrated in the model, pre-college factors such as high school
academics and “pull factors” such as family obligations and overall commitment to
college influence persistence and completion. The 2009 study examined the
demographic, pre-college, and environmental and college related factors impacting
interest and decisions in the pursuit of STEM degrees. Recognizing that low numbers of
Hispanics earn STEM degrees despite increased numbers in college attainment
generally, this study found that STEM pursuit was related to high school academics,
gender, SAT scores, as well as performance in “gate keeper” science and math classes
(Crisp, Nora, & Taggart, 2009). Pull factors such as family and work obligations,
however, were not found to be significant in their effect on degree attainment.
Pre-College Factors
Previous research on student persistence, retention, and dropouts recognizes the
influence of pre-college factors on student success in higher education (Bean, 1980;
Hurtado, et al, 2008; Padilla 1993; Tinto, 1975). These pre-college factors, while often
interrelated, can be further defined as personal and academic factors. Personal factors
include parent education levels, economics, culture, mentors, language and family
expectations. Academic factors included K-12 academic rigor, access to quality teachers
and academic programs.
59
Tinto (1975), in his Theory of Student Retention and Attrition, found that precollege factors have an impact on a student’s social and academic integration. Tinto’s
original study, in 1973, focused on what happens to the student when he or she gets to
college. Based in Durkheim’s theory of suicide, Tinto postulated that students must
assimilate to higher education both social and academically. Student’s that focused on
one or the other, were likely to depart college for social reasons, or depart due to poor
academic performance. To give further distinction to the reasons behind student dropout
or persistence, Tinto summarized that students were affected by pre-college factors that
include family background, individual attributes, and pre-college schooling (Tinto,
1975).
A study on the academic and environmental factors impact on Hispanic college
degrees found that pre-college variables were better predictors of success for students
that started higher education in community colleges (Arbona & Nora, 2007). For
example, pre-college variables such as academics, economics, family and culture had
more influence on student success for community college students than for students that
start at four-year institutions. This study also found that Hispanic students with lower
academic preparation and achievement in high school were unlikely to use community
college as a mechanism to transfer and ultimately obtain a four-year degree. Arbona and
Nora (2007) also found positive connections for Hispanic students that had friends that
had similar college expectations, suggesting that community plays a large part in
college-going decisions.
60
Family/Parent Education Level
Parent education level has been found to have a significant influence on student
success in higher education, particularly in STEM disciplines (Melguizo & Wolniak,
2011). Given that many Hispanic parents, and particularly recent immigrants, likely
have not attended college, parent education presents a barrier to Hispanic student
choosing STEM as a discipline of study. Brown and Michael (2008) in their report on
trends for careers in mathematics and science recognize that a lack of mentors and role
models of similar ethnicity has an influence on underrepresented students seeing
themselves as being able to pursue and succeed in these careers. Parent encouragement
and involvement in particular were found to have a significant influence on student
interest and learning in science and math and ultimately student self-efficacy and
expectations of success (Brown & Michael, 2008).
Students from families without a higher education background, let alone in a
STEM discipline, have not received the cultural capital from their parents that other
students may have received (Cole & Espinoza, 2008). Meaning, that because their
parents have not attended college, they likely do not understand the academic
requirements, nor do they fully understand the options available for financing higher
education. Therefore, these parents are unable to help their children navigate their way
to higher education by pushing them toward the right coursework in K-12 education.
The report Still at Risk (Hess, 2008) showed that students who have at least one parent
that has attended college are more likely to do well in K-12 education than other
61
students, performing one to two letter grades better in most cases. It follows then that
students with parents that have attended college are better prepared when entering higher
education and are more likely to attend 4-year universities. The influence of family
academic history is more evident in STEM disciplines where students pursuing STEM
degrees are more likely to have at least one parent with a STEM degree (Rochin &
Mello, 2007).
Cultural Expectations
Culture also has a great influence on educational attainment for Hispanic
students. Many families in Hispanic cultures value hard work and supporting the family,
particularly immigrant, migrant and farm-working families, over higher education (Diaz,
2012). Hispanic families are often larger, with expectations that older children,
particular females, will help take care of younger siblings, while males are expected to
work to help support the family. There are also expectations that Hispanic children will
still close to home, geographically, which can also have implications on higher
education opportunities (Kerr & Robinson-Kurpius, 2004). This may partially derive
from the agricultural background of many Hispanic families where work and effort are
highly valued, but spending time and money on higher education that does not have
immediate benefits may appear to go against cultural norms. Recently, reports on
attitudes towards higher education, and science, show that Hispanic families value
education at similar or greater rates than other groups, however, this has yet to translate
into higher completion rates (Arbona & Nora, 2007).
62
Language
Language is a tremendous barrier for many Hispanic students where English is a
second language (ESL). ESL students have been shown to struggle with English
proficiency and therefore underperform in K-12 education. As the vast majority of K-12
education is done in English, mastery of the English is critical to academic performance.
These students are also more likely to have parents that cannot help them overcome
English as a barrier as they primarily Spanish language speakers, or are also English as a
second language speakers themselves. Immigrant parents are also likely to have
received very little, if any, formal schooling in English beyond the 8th grade level, let
alone the high school or college level. Students that start kindergarten in English
speaking schools, start off behind in educational achievement, but are able to minimize
gaps by the 3rd grade level (Reardon and Galindo, 2009). These achievement gaps,
however, are not closed and in fact often increase starting in junior high school when it
comes to math, science, and college prep level coursework through high school (Muller,
Stage, & Kinzie, 2001).
Pre-college Academics
Pre-college academics has an influence on college preparation and ultimately
college success through academic rigor, access to quality math and science, advising,
and academic mentors. Issues with educational equity, access and outcomes to
programs begins as early as pre-school (Gandara, 2006). As mentioned in Chapter1,
63
families in lower economic classes typically cannot afford to send children to private
daycare, or quality preschools and only recently have some school districts offered preschool opportunities. Test scores show notable achievement gaps for Hispanic students
as early as 2nd grade, which persist throughout K-12 education. In STEM areas, Crisp
and Nora (2006, 2012) noted that Hispanic students are more likely to be taught science
and math by teachers not majoring or credentialed in that field due to funding inequities
and teacher experience levels. A lack of access to high-quality math and science
instruction, further discourage an interest in mathematics or science. A number of
studies recognize that teacher expectations and advisors in K-12 education have a
significant influence on student self-efficacy (Kerr & Robinson-Kurpius, 2004; Crisp &
Nora, 2006, 2012). Students, especially underrepresented minority students, who come
from families without a higher education background, are more likely to need or rely on
academic mentors or guidance and need to see successful professionals that look like
themselves than do other students (Hagedorn & Purnamasari, 2012). In STEM fields,
both in academics and in industry, Hispanics are the most underrepresented ethnic group
(Cole & Espinoza, 2008; Crisp, Nora, & Taggart, 2009; Gandara, 2006; Gates, 2007)
and therefore, students are more unlikely to find professionals and potential mentors in
STEM disciplines.
64
Community College/Institutional Factors
Recognizing that most Hispanic students, nearly 80% in California, start their
higher education pathways in community college, there are institutional factors that act
as support to or barriers to transfer. With 112 community colleges in California and no
common data system, we only have estimates of how many students are successful in
transferring. Dr. Nancy Shulock of IHELP estimates that only 15% of students that
intend to transfer are actually successful in transferring (Shulock & Moore, 2007). As
demonstrated in Chapter 1, Figure 1, there are even greater achievement gaps in transfer
and success for STEM disciplines. Despite these numbers, Figure 7 in this chapter
shows that some community colleges are more successful than others in transferring
students to 4-year institutions. Community college factors that influence transfer and
completion rates include financial aid, academic counseling, remedial education,
academic experiences, academic support, academic bias, transfer/articulation practices
and local and state policies. There are also personal factors that continue to affect
students such as their need to work to support themselves and their ability to adapt
academically and socially. It has also been noted that despite efforts and funds
expended to increase underrepresented minorities’ representation in STEM disciplines
by Congress, the NSF, NHI and foundations, little is known as to what works or why.
Crisp, Nora and Taggart (2009) reported that there were over 200 programs to promote
STEM participation in the U.S., but with no gains relative to Hispanic population
increases. Reports call for a better understanding of what works at institutions that have
65
shown positive numbers in STEM transfer or degrees so that best practices can be
studied and replicated (Crisp & Nora, 2006, 2012; Dowd, Malcom, & Bensimon, 2009)
In Benchmarking the Success of Latina and Latino Students in STEM the
researchers cite the need for a better understanding of exemplary practices (Dowd,
Malcom, & Bensimon, 2009). In this report, which is the first in a series sponsored by
the National Science Foundation on Pathways to STEM Bachelor's and Graduate
Degrees for Hispanic Students and the Role of Hispanic Serving Institutions the
researchers reviewed the practices at the top 25 HSIs awarding STEM degrees and found
that Hispanic students are represented proportionately to the student population. This
finding suggests that these institutions are doing something to encourage STEM
participation among Hispanic students, but also reminds us that more studies are
required to better understand best practices at these universities. Other studies note that
colleges that serve under-represented minority students, such as HSIs, have increased
levels of academic and social support, mentors of similar color, as well as a sense of
community for underrepresent minority students which increases engagement in the life
of the university (Hurtado, Cabrera, Lin, et al., 2008; Whittaker & Montgomery, 2012).
These issues have been shown to be highly important factors in the retention and
persistence. Debbie Santiago, researcher at Excellencia in Education suggests that HSIs
have become HSIs because of their location initially, but students may then choose them
because of perceptions that these institutions are “Hispanic friendly” (Santiago, 2011).
66
Economic Implications of STEM Achievement Gaps
Reports on the economic implications of achievement gaps in education and
employment gap in industry are demonstrated in studies examining the cause and effect
of the underrepresentation in STEM majors and disciplines from academics, foundations
and corporate vantage points. These reports (Cole & Espinoza, 2008; Crisp, Nora, &
Taggart, 2009; Gandara, 2006; Hagedorn & Purnamasari, 2012) show that the current
rate of population growth, for Hispanics in particular, when coupled with the need for
more college graduates in STEM disciplines, signal a looming threat not only to the
Hispanic demographic, but the national economy as well. When the largest and fastest
growing segment of a nation’s population is not trained and educated to fill emerging
jobs, growing disparities in economic mobility for underrepresented groups naturally
follows. It is imperative, therefore, that achievement gaps for Hispanic students in
STEM be better understood so that parents and educational stakeholders can replicate
those actions that have a significant effect on student success.
Institutional Success Factors and System Policies
In addition to academic preparation and personal factors, institutional factors at
the community college level are affected by system-wide policies and laws, which in
turn affect the mission, focus, and spending flexibility at the community college level.
Each of the 112 community colleges serves a different population of students, with
extreme differenced in some cases. For example, in 2008, Cosumnes River Community
67
College, an urban college in South Sacramento, has a Hispanic enrollment of 13%,
where Porterville Community College in central-rural California has a Hispanic
population over 51%. Table 3 below, shows a sampling of campus types in northern,
central and southern California, along with the 2008 total enrollment and share of
Latinos based on total enrollments. The table also shows 2010 Latino STEM transfer
rates as a percentage of all STEM transfer by institution, as well as Latino transfer rates
to public education in all disciplines.
Table 3
Examples of Community College Types and Latino Representation
California Community
College/Location and Type
College of the Redwoods/
Northern-Rural
Compton College – Center/
Southern-Urban
Cosumnes River/
College Northern-Urban
De Anza College/
Northern-Urban
East Los Angeles College/
Southern-Urban
Fresno City College/
Central-Urban
Irvine Valley College/
Southern-Urban
Los Angeles City College/
Southern-Urban
MiraCosta College/
Southern-Multi
2010
Latino
2010
STEM
Latino
Transfers Transfers
%
(%)
(#transfers)
Latinos
2008
Total
Enrollment
2008
Latinos
% of
enrollment
509
6,610
8%
0% (0)
7%
1,705
4,923
35%
100% (1)
55%
1,840
14,009
13%
6% (6)
13%
4,250
26,173
16%
5% (15)
11%
20,985
34,612
61%
35% (40)
51%
10,482
25,191
42%
22% (40)
31%
1,53
14,516
11%
5% (7)
10%
7,760
19,429
40%
23% (13)
34%
3,675
15,429
24%
17% (18)
21%
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Porterville College/
Central-Rural
West Los Angeles College/
Southern-Urban
Woodland Community/
College Northern-Rural
2,171
4,259
51%
67% (14)
58%
3,318
12,670
26%
0% (0)
30%
1,332
3,020
44%
22% (2)
32%
(CPEC, 2012)
Table 3 demonstrates the wide variation in college populations served by each
institution, but also the variation in the size and type of institution (single or multiple
campus) and variation in transfer rates. Why some institution perform better than others
is certainly worthy of study, but we must also note that funding policies should be a not
a one-size-fits-all scenario. IHELP and Dr. Shulock make multiple references for the
need for more flexible spending for community colleges at the local level to meet the
needs of local students (Shulock and Moore, 2010; Community College Task Force,
2012).
California Community College Policy and Structure
California community colleges have traditionally had an open door policy,
meaning that any interested citizen has access to higher education, career technical
education and certificate programs. Since the 1960 Master Plan outlined the roles of
each of the three sectors of public higher education in California, the primary focus of
community colleges has been access to higher education by preparing students for
transfer, awarding terminal degrees, or increasing job-skills through certificate
69
programs. Policy and organizational structure, however, have at times hampered the
success of fulfilling the mission for California’s community colleges.
Shulock (2011) identified two environmental changes that highlight the
shortcomings of a community college system that has not evolved: The emergence of a
knowledge based economy, and the need to rapidly change community college focus to
meet environmental (needs of the economy and changing demographics) factors. The
inability to evolve and adapt quickly have led to California’s decline in competitiveness
and student outcomes, relative to other states. Shulock identifies college readiness and
transfer as two major issues. College readiness is a major issue for community colleges
who have, traditionally, provided open access to all students, regardless of how well
they are prepared. A major obstacle to improving readiness is the lack of state-wide
assessment and testing, and therefore, communication to high schools as to what it
means to be college-ready. Transfer, despite new legislation (SB 1440), remains an
issue as 112 different community colleges and still means 112 different implementations
for creating associate degrees that transfer to UCs and CSUs. These issues highlight
systemic issues, namely the lack of authority for the California Community College
Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO) and exposes the weakness of a decentralized, locally
governed community college system, that create barriers to student success.
In addition, given the move to a “knowledge economy” since the 1960 Master
Plan, California projects a need for an additional one-million college graduates by the
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year 2025 (Johnson & Sengupta, 2009; Johnson, 2010). We are currently projected to
fall short based on college-going and graduation rates. This fact has changed the
paradigm of community college mission from access to completion at a national
(American Graduation Initiative, 2009) and state-wide level (Community College Task
Force, 2012). Dr. Shulock’s testimony to the Little Hoover Commission highlights the
need for more graduates as key to California’s economic status and competitiveness
(Shulock , 2011). A more recent article by IHELP does recognizes that certificates are
an important component of workforce development (Shulock, Moore, Jez, and
Chisholm, 2012), but notes its many complexities and silos as barriers to success.
The national focus that has moved from access to completion further highlights
the fact that funding for community colleges is based on enrollment and not completion.
Essentially, community colleges are incentivized to enroll students, but not help them
complete their goals. Dr. Shulock’s testimony, as well as IHELP’s report Divided We
Fail (2010) and the Community College Task Force Recommendations (2012) highlight
that there is no incentive for community colleges to help students after they have been
counted on the census date (third week of the semester). Community college funding is
largely determined by enrollment numbers, creating what some might call a “perverse
incentive” to retain students rather than matriculate them.
Policy reform for categorical funding is also needed to allow community colleges
flexibility in how they deliver education and their resources. There are an
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overwhelming number of policies that restrict how funding is utilized including the
“50% law” in California that restricts investment in counselors, tutors, financial aid,
advisors, librarians, and all manner of support personnel (Shulock, 2011). These support
personnel are most needed in community college to help first-time college going
students navigate a curriculum and system that is currently designed not to help. Again,
the students that most need help are typically the underrepresented minority and lowincome students that come from families that have never attended college. This is a
barrier to promoting economic liberation for these sub-groups of students that may be
the first in their family to attend college.
While policymakers and community colleges focused on access, other
researchers have highlighted the inefficiencies and the racial disparities of our higher
education system, and the implications of the lack of preparation of students in K-12
education (Cabrera & Villareal, 2012; Crisp, Nora, & Taggart, 2009; Gandara, 2006).
Today, with projected shortages of college educated workers, the demands of a
knowledge-based economy, community colleges and the Hispanic population are
positioned to be one of the biggest pieces of the solution in increasing college-educated
graduates.
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Community College Leadership
The Master Plan, and policy-makers failed in their leadership responsibilities by
ignoring emerging demographic trends and not focusing on a true public education
system that promotes success from K-16 (Callan, 2009). Strategic planning through an
informed data-driven decision making process (Ikemoto, 2007; Nevarez and Wood,
2010) is a powerful process for effectively leading an organization and tackling issues of
social justice and equity. Collecting and interpreting data and trends to head-off issues
and to inform decision making is essential to strategic planning just as much as creating
a mission, goals and objectives (Aloi, 2005).
Equity in education, however, is not only about getting in, but also giving
students an equal chance to complete a certificate or degree. By focusing solely on
access, our community college system has ignored the increasing minority population
that has very different challenges than when the system was designed. Today, collegepreparedness, clear pathways and support for students needing remedial coursework are
clearly barriers to success.
Critical Race Theory (CRT), and other post-modernist theories, asks us to look at
systems and policies to assess the status quo, and who it benefits. We know that there is
an achievement gap between White students and under-represented minority (URM)
students, and therefore must assume that the current system benefits the White students
more than the URM students. Post-modernists theories suggest disaggregating data to
73
find the barriers to achievement and understand why those barriers exist. In the case of
remediation, URMs often have barriers that include poor preparation, lack of collegegoing culture in their families, language barriers, and economic barriers as discussed in
this chapter. Uncovering these issues also uncovers possible interventions including
learning centers, counseling and mandatory orientation, culturally relevant curriculum
and pedagogy, and increased access to financial aid.
CRT also asks us to assess who is in charge of the current system and the
organizational structure and power arrangement that maintain the status quo. Leadership
in higher education tends to be Caucasians who have made it through the system and do
not have the same perspective or point of reference as URMs. Additionally, faculty tend
to have the same racial profile, and do not reflect the racial make-up of their students, at
any level in education, and more so in higher education. The racial profile of
Sacramento State, the site of this study, relative Sacramento County, is shown in Table 4
below.
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Table 4
Sacramento State Racial Demographics/Representation
CSUS Faculty, Staff, Student, and Community Racial Demographics
Year – 2010
Faculty
Staff
Students
Sacramento
County
10.5%
1.3%
14.5%
20.5%
32.7%
51.4%
African American
4.2%
9.2%
7.6%
American Indian
.7%
.3%
1%
Asian American
11.9%
14.6%
18.1%
Latino
6.5%
15.7%
19.1%
All Minorities
23.2%
39.7%
45.8%
White/Caucasian
72.8%
54.9%
47.2%
Multi-racial/
3.5%
1.9%
11%
4.4%
Other reported
(University Fact Book: Chapter 1, Faculty and Staff, 2010; The Fall 2010 Sac State
Student Body, 2010; Quick Facts - Sacramento County, California , 2010)
The racial profile of faculty also has its own influences on students, who tend to
see faculty that are not the same color as themselves and therefore do not see themselves
succeeding in higher education. Note in Table 4 that despite the relatively proportional
student and staff representation for Hispanics relative to Sacramento County, Hispanic
faulty remain underrepresented. The gap between Hispanic students (19.1%) and faculty
(6.5%) on Sacramento State’s is nearly 13%. Faculty are natural mentors for students of
color, who typically have not had many mentors at home or school, and a lack of
mentors and representation in college presents issues for student retention and success
(Nevarez & Borunda, 2004).
From a social justice viewpoint, we need to know who is being left out of
education, but also what factors lead to success. Simply providing access will not stop
the economic stratification and achievement gap issues faced by underrepresented
75
students, the education system and the economy. Retaining students that are admitted to
community colleges requires greater concentration on the language, pedagogy barriers,
academic support and counseling (Ogbu & Simmons, 1998; Phelan, Davidson, & Yu,
1998). Access, without addressing other issues, may leave students with loan debt
worse off than when they started. By focusing, not only on access, but other issues and
barriers that prevent equity in education, we have the opportunity to improve outcomes
for all students in attaining the educational goals (Bailey and Smith, 2006).
In most cases, underrepresented minority students are the first in the family to go
to college, and face system, language and financial barriers. In California, institutional
barriers include a lack of comprehensive K-16 education system that clearly articulates
pathways toward matriculation at every level. We expect that students will be able to
navigate a system that largely under-prepares them for college, and to further navigate
their way out of remedial courses and community colleges. By having a decentralized
governance model not only among community colleges and higher education, but also
from K-12, California is challenged in its efforts to affect change on a system-wide
level.
These challenges manifest themselves disproportionately against
underrepresented students that are first-generation college-goers and families that have
no experience navigating the system. By creating a system-wide pathway, and
communicating expectations to students and parents, public education can take a step in
76
the right direction. Culturally effective pedagogy (Gay, 2004) and support services have
been shown to remove known barriers to success (Phelan, Davidson, & Yu, 1998). True
equity in education focuses not only access, but preparation and completion as well.
To address achievement gap issues, educational leaders should take a purposeful
view towards equitable outcomes in their strategic planning. If part of California
community colleges’ mission is to provide degrees and transfer, leadership needs to
better address barriers in a proactive manner. In Community College Leadership and
Administration (2010), Nevarez and Wood recommend a six-step approach to addressing
achievement gap issues in community college shown in Figure 12.
Design
Implement
Understand
Assess
Identify
Revise
Figure 12. Achievement Gap Action Model (Nevarez & Wood, 2010)
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1. Identify – challenges and barriers;
2. Understand – create dialogue with constituents, conduct a needs assessment;
3. Design – prevention and intervention strategies, institutional policies and
practices;
4. Implement – institutionalize programs, services, policies as core functions;
5. Assess – Measure effectiveness of efforts through qualitative, quantitative and
mixed-methods analysis; and
6. Revise – Eliminate, recreate, modify or expand efforts based on analysis
(Nevarez & Wood, 2010). This model of planning and assessment provides the
type of guidelines a community college leader can follow in addressing
achievement and eliminating gaps at a local level.
While open access to community colleges provides opportunity to all comers, an
increasingly diverse student population and a lack of focus on student success has led to
issues of inequity in the persistence and completion rates of underrepresented minorities.
This inequity has financial ramifications for these diverse students and for the State of
California. With Hispanics reaching 50% of California’s population and the percentage
of completion by Hispanics being among the lowest levels, it is easy to see the projected
effects of decreasing education levels for what is the majority of the state. Without
changes to the system, and changes to the mission, from access to completion, the
78
achievement and income gap will persist, and California’s economy will continue to lose
its competitive edge. The greatest opportunity to affect change and outcomes in
community colleges is through effective leadership with a view towards equitable
outcomes, at a local level.
Summary
Chapter 1 provided an overview of the convergence of achievement gaps, public
education and the demand for more educated workers, particularly in STEM disciplines.
Achievement gap issues for Hispanic students and the public education pipeline from
pre-school through high school, and into community college were also discussed.
The literature review in Chapter 2 discussed the seminal authors and research
that informed this study and make up the theoretical framework. These authors and
works include Tinto’s work on student retention, persistence and drop-out, Bourdieu’s
theories on cultural capital and their influence on education, and Padilla’s student
success centered approach to studying achievement gaps for Latino/a students. The
literature review also provided additional findings and reports influenced by the works
of the seminal authors as they pertain to achievement gaps, underrepresented student
population and STEM education as available. Previously models and studies are
reviewed to provide additional insight to factors that affect student success in STEM and
in higher education. Additionally, California public education policy, particularly for
higher education, is reviewed to give the reader an overview of the mission and
79
complexity of providing education through the largest public higher education system in
the U.S.
Chapter 3 will discuss the research methodology used for this study, which has
been informed by this literature review. Chapter 4 will report on the findings from the
survey and focus group interviews discussed in Chapter 3. The meaning and
interpretations of those findings will be discussed in Chapter 5, along with
recommendations for future research.
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Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the mixed-methods research design of this study that uses
both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Chapter 3 also includes the role of
the researcher, the research questions, setting and context of the research, sample,
instrumentation, data collection and analysis techniques. The purpose of this study is to
examine the personal and institutional experiences of Hispanic students who have
successfully transferred from a community college to Sacramento State in a STEM
major. Recommendations will be made from the findings on what organizational
practices and beliefs have a positive effect on STEM transfer rates, and should be
considered by California community colleges seeking to improve outcomes for Hispanic
students. This study will address the following research questions:
Research Question #1: Which personal variables are the most significant for
Hispanic students who have successfully transferred from a community college to
Sacramento State in STEM majors?
Research Question #2: What institutional factors (high school and community
college) were most influential in the success of Hispanic students that have transferred
from community college to Sacramento State?
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Research Question #3: What are the pathways and perceived barriers for
Hispanic students who have successfully transferred to Sacramento State in STEM
majors?
Research Design
This study used a sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach in collecting
by collecting both quantitative and qualitative data (Creswell, 2009). Quantitative data
was be collected by survey to currently enrolled Sacramento State students that have
successfully transferred from community college into a Science, Technology,
Engineering, or Math (STEM) major. Survey questions asked students demographic
and education background information, as well their perspectives on the influence of
personal and academic variables in relation to their student experience through their
educational pathways to community college and ultimately Sacramento State. SPSS
version 20 was used to describe and summarize survey data, as well as to examine the
level of association between variables such as student life, family support, barriers,
success factors, and preparation for college.
The survey was followed by two focus groups from the same population as a
form of member-checking, to gain further depth and understanding of the survey
responses and the further validate the data collected. Focus group interview questions
were designed around the variables from the survey, and a semi-structured methodology
82
was used to allow for follow-up questions during the focus group interviews. Focus
group data was analyzed using open-coding to discover themes from student responses.
Creswell (2009) refers to this mixed-method approach as explanatory, where data
collection and analysis is followed up qualitative inquiry for convergence and
differences.
The explanatory mixed-methods approach was useful in discovering the
relationship between personal and institutional variables through the quantitative
analysis. The following qualitative approach through the two focus groups allowed the
researcher to further explore the reasons behind significant correlations and add further
context and student perspectives to the study. The analysis of the survey responses and
the findings through the focus group interviews together enriched this study by
personalizing the findings in a way that neither approach could have done on its own.
Role of the Researcher
The researcher in this study works at Sacramento State in the Office of
Advancement. Having worked in higher education for over 16 years, it is easy to see the
advantages of students that have had access to education and the organizational and
other situational barriers that many students must overcome in an effort to receive an
education. As an administrator, the researcher seeks to understand what organizational
components are most effective in reducing achievement gaps. The researcher in this
83
study is of Hispanic and Caucasian ethnicities. Both of the researcher’s parents have
college educations. The researcher will conduct the qualitative focus group interviews
by administering the survey in person to group of students unknown to the researcher.
The researcher will administer the quantitative survey through email and the internet at
Sacramento State. Names of respondents will not be recorded.
Setting and Sample
The population sample for this study will be drawn from California State
University, Sacramento (Sacramento State). Sacramento State is one of twenty-three
(23) universities in the California State University system, and has approximately 28,000
students, with over 24,000 undergraduates. The undergraduate population is 57%
women, and 43% men, with the Hispanic student population making 19% of the total
student population (Office of Institional Research, 2012). With nearly 55% of
undergraduate students transferring from a community college, the average age of
Sacramento State undergraduate students is 24 (College Portrait, 2012).
The sample for this study includes Hispanics students that have entered as
transfers and are enrolled in the College of Engineering and Computer Science (ECS)
and the College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics (NSM). These students are STEM
majors as defined by Sacramento State’s Office of Institutional Research for tracking
purposes. The sample includes 254 students from 49 different California community
84
colleges. There are 147 ECS students representing Civil Engineering, Construction
Management, Computer Science, Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering.
There are 107 NSM students representing Biology, Chemistry, Geology, Mathematics,
and Physics.
Table 5
Latino Student Transfer Representation in STEM at Sacramento State
ECS
Native
Transfer
NSM
Native
Transfer
Latino
536
389
147
Latino
388
281
107
Total
2844
1376
1174
Latino/
Total ECS
19%
28%
13%
Latino Transfer Gap University (%)
19%
+9%
-6%
Total
2489
1312
1065
Latino/
Total NSM
16%
21%
10%
Latino Transfer Gap University (%)
19%
+3%
-9%
As shown in the Table 5, there is a significant gap in the rates the Hispanic
students transfer into both ECS and NSM, relative to the 19% Latino share of the total
Sacramento State undergraduate enrollment percentage. While Latino students are well
represented proportionate to total university percentage in Engineering and Computer
Science majors (19% ECS v. 19% University), Latino undergraduates are
underrepresented in Natural Science and Mathematics majors 16% NSM v. 19%
University). The low percentage of total population for the Latino transfer population in
ECS (13%) and NSM (10%) is problematic as 80% of all Latino students access public
85
higher education through California’s community colleges, as mentioned in Chapters 1
and 2.
The initial survey will be distributed to all students who have identified
themselves as Latino, who have transferred to Sacramento State from a community
college and are currently enrolled in a Science, Technology, Engineering or Math
(STEM) major. Students will have the option to submit their names for the focus group
phase of the study at the end of the electronic survey.
Survey Response Rates
There were sixty-nine (69) responses to the electronic survey, with fifty-eight
(58) completing 100% of the questions. The response rate given the 254 eligible
participants was 27%, with 22% completing the survey. Twenty students responded that
they would be interested in participating in the follow-up focus group interviews.
Instrumentation and Materials
Quantitative data
Quantitative data was collected by electronic survey during the fall semester of
2012. The demographic, background questions and variables were designed through the
literature review and based on related research in Hispanic achievement gaps and
86
student persistence. No previous survey instruments were found. The survey questions
were tested by students and researchers for understanding and purpose.
Qualitative data
Qualitative data was collected from the focus group interviews in the spring
semester of 2013 and through the open-ended questions on the online survey distributed
by email in the fall semester of 2012. The focus group questions were designed to
follow-up on findings from the quantitative data and explore factors behind pathways to
and through community college.
Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis
Quantitative data were collected from the survey distributed by email and
collected online to Hispanic STEM transfer students at Sacramento State. Survey
questions were designed around variables found in the literature review on
underrepresented minority students’ persistence, dropout, transfer rates, and
achievement gaps in higher education. Demographic and education background
information were collected electronically. The following information was asked in the
electronic survey:
o Demographics and Education information

Sex, Age, English as a Second Language (ESL)
o Community college pathway
87

Institution, units taken, transferable units, degree, assessments
taken
Additional questions were designed on a four-point Likert scale that forced
respondents to choose either positive or negative responses, with an option to provide
additional information in an open-ended response box. The following variables were
asked electronically in regards to Research Question #1: Which of the following
personal variables are the most significant for Hispanic students who have successfully
transferred from a community college to Sacramento State in STEM majors?:
o Parent education
o Personal challenges – Finances
o Personal challenges – Academic and Social Life
o Family Emotional Support
o Community/Mentor Support
o Contributors to success – Family and Friends
o Contribution to success – Personal Motivation
The following variables were asked electronically in regards to Research
Question #2: What institutional factors (high school and community college) were most
influential in the success of Hispanic students that have transferred from community
college to Sacramento State?:
88
o Number of remedial courses
o Pre-college preparation for higher education
o Institutional factors including financial aid, advising, or academic support
o Was race/ethnicity an issue?
o Institutional experience including faculty expectations, participation in
student life
o Participation in Academic or Student Life
o Contribution to success – College faculty support
o Contribution to success – high school academics
o Inspiration – high school STEM courses
o Inspiration – high school summer STEM programs
o Inspiration – high school STEM teachers
o Inspiration – community college STEM courses
o Inspiration – community college STEM professors
Variable data collected were entered into the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) by the researcher. A Pearson Correlation analysis conducted to
determine whether or not there were significant relationships among the selected
variables. The responses were analyzed to find correlations between identified
variables, with significant correlations reported in Chapter 4.
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Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis
This study used a basic qualitative research approach (Merriam, 2009) to
uncover recurring themes in factors that affect Hispanic student pathways and transfer
from community colleges in STEM disciplines. The qualitative focus groups were
conducted on the Sacramento State campus and scheduled to last one hour. Two focus
groups were scheduled with three students each. Refreshments were provided.
The focus group interviews were conducted through semi-structured, open-ended
questions influenced by Creswell (2009) methodology for focus group interviews. The
focus group questions were designed to provide further narrative on depth to the
quantitative electronic survey, and through questions found in the literature review. The
focus group questions are represented below.
Focus Group Interview Questions:
1. Tell me about your pathway in pursuit of a degree in Science, Technology,
Engineering or Math (STEM)?
2. How did your high school academic experience prepare you for college?
3. Why did you start at a community college experience?
4. How or where did you learn about how to navigate through college? Meaning,
where did you get your information about college? Were your parents/family
helpful? HS? Web?
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5. Tell me about your experience in community college.
6. What were the biggest Community College factors (professors, counseling,
financial aid) that contributed to your success?
7. What were you biggest personal barriers that you had to overcome?
Family/Friends, Job/Economics Self-confidence/ Language
8. Who would you say was MOST influential in your pursuit of a degree?
9. How did being Hispanic/Latino was an issue while in high school or at
community college?
10. What or who motivates you to pursue your baccalaureate degree in STEM?
11. What are your biggest concerns now that you’ve come to Sacramento State?
12. What was the biggest influence (family/belief in self) in reaching this point in
your education?
13. Based on your experience, what advice would you give another
Hispanic/Latino/a student interested in a STEM degree?
14. Is there anything else about your journey/path that you would like to share?
The semi-structured focus group interviews were recorded and transcribed. The
researcher examined the transcriptions to check for accuracy. The researcher used an
open-coding system (Merriam, 2009) to analyze the transcription for recurring themes
and practices. These themes will be reported on in Chapter 4.
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Protection of the Participants
The quantitative, online survey collected demographic information, but did not
ask for personably identifiable information that could attribute answers to a particular
respondent. Online participants confirmed their consent after reading the consent
information form to participate in the study. Participants were allowed to exit the survey
at any time. All participants in the study will be over the age of 18.
The focus group interviews were recorded and collected information for use in
this study. No identifiable information will collected or attributed to participants by
name. Participants had the opportunity to decline participation in the focus group and
signed consent forms that outline the procedures used in this study. Participants for the
electronic survey and the focus group interviews were volunteers. All recordings will be
deleted at the conclusion of the study.
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Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Chapter 4 includes the results of this study’s quantitative survey data, with
additional qualitative information from open-ended questions, and qualitative responses
collected in the focus groups. The quantitative survey data address Research Question #1
and #2 as shown in Table 6. Qualitative survey data and focus group data provide
additional information from the student’s perspective on Questions #1 and #2, and also
address Research Question #3 regarding factors influencing student pathways through
community college. The chapter is sectioned by results from the quantitative data,
followed by a summary of significant themes, and a summary of themes from the
qualitative electronic survey data. Qualitative data from the focus groups is then
presented in the next section. A profile of the six focus group participants is followed by
a summary of themes found in the qualitative focus group transcriptions for research
questions #1-#3.
The purpose of this study is to examine the personal and institutional experiences
and to identify significant factors associated with successful transfer from community
college to Sacramento State in a STEM major for Hispanic students. The findings and
recommendation seek to inform educational leaders and policymakers regarding the
success factors and challenges to increasing the number of Hispanic students in STEM
disciplines and the STEM workforce. This study examined the following research
questions.
93
Research Question #1: Which of the following personal variables in Table 6 are
the most significant for Hispanic students who have successfully transferred from a
community college to Sacramento State in STEM majors?
Research Question #2: What institutional factors (high school and community
college) in Table 6 were most influential in the success of Hispanic students that have
transferred from community college to Sacramento State?
Table 6 outlines the personal and institutional variables that were researched in
this study.
Table 6
Research Variables for Questions #1 and #2
Research Question #1 - Personal Variables
Father’s Education
Mother’s Education
English as a Second Language
Personal Challenges – Finances
Personal Challenges – Adjustment to College
Family Emotional Support
Community/Mentor Support
Contribution-Family
Contribution-Personal Motivation
Contribution-Friends/Family
Research Question #2 - Institutional
Variables
Number of Remedial English Courses
Number of Remedial Math Courses
Number of Remedial Writing Courses
Pre-college Academic Preparation
Institutional/Community College Factors
Race not an issue at Community College
Faculty Expectations at Community College
Participation Academic/Student Life
Contribution to success - Faculty Support
Contribution to success - HS Academics
Inspiration - HS STEM courses
Inspiration - HS Summer STEM programs
Inspiration - HS Teachers
Inspiration - Community College STEM
Success
Inspiration – Community College Professors
94
Focus group data was used to find qualitative data in support of answering
Research Questions #1 and #2 as well as Research Question #3: What are the pathways
and perceived barriers for Hispanic students who have successfully transferred to
Sacramento State in STEM majors?
This study used a sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach by collecting
both quantitative and qualitative data (Creswell, 2009). Quantitative data was collected
by surveying currently enrolled Sacramento State students that have successfully
transferred from community college into a Science, Technology, Engineering, or Math
(STEM) major. Focus group interview questions were designed around the variables
from the survey, and a semi-structured methodology was used to allow for follow-up
questions during the focus group interviews. Focus group data was analyzed using
open-coding to discover themes from student responses. Creswell (2009) refers to this
mixed-method approach as explanatory, where data collection and analysis is followed
up qualitative inquiry for convergence and differences. The theoretical framework used
theories on persistence and retention and cultural capital through the lens of successful
Hispanic STEM transfer-students at Sacramento State.
95
Report of Quantitative Data
The quantitative data collected in the electronic survey address Research
Questions #1 and #2. A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to discover
significant relationship among the 25 variables and the convergence between personal
and institutional variables.
Significance is indicated by “p” which identifies the probability of a Type I error.
In order to reach statistical significance, the “p” value must be less than or equal to .05.
The correlation coefficient is represented by the symbol “r,” which falls within the range
of -1 to 1. Effect size is measured using Cohen’s scale: .1 (low); .3 (medium); and .5
(high). An “r” of .7 or above indicates a collinear relationship, meaning that the two
variables are too similar and should be combined into one variable. A positive
correlation “r” indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable increases, wile
a negative correlation “-r” indicates that as one variable increases the other variable
decreases.
Report of Quantitative findings for Research Question #1 – Personal Variables
Table 7 displays significant correlations found between Gender and factors
found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
96
Table 7
Significant correlations with Gender
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Gender”
My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree
r
p
Effect
Size
N
.276*
p<.05
LowMed
57
The correlation between variables Gender and My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(57) = .276*, p<.05.
Note: Women were more likely to be inspired by High School STEM courses than men.
Table 8 displays significant correlations found between Father's Education and
factors found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 8
Significant correlations with Father’s Education
Variables with significant
correlations to “Father's Education”
r
p
Effect
Size
N
Mother's Education
.529**
p < .01
High
64
Race was not an issue at
Community College
.388**
p < .01
Med
59
The correlation between variables Father's Education and Mother's Education
was significant, r(64) = .529**, p < .01. The correlation between variables Father's
97
Education and Race was not an issue at Community College was significant, r(59) =
.388**, p < .01. Survey respondents that reported father’s with higher education levels
also reported feeling that race was not an issue.
Table 9 displays significant correlations found between Mother's Education and
factors found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 9
Significant Correlations with Mother’s Education
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Mother's Education”
r
p
Effect
Size
N
Father's Education
.529**
p < .01
High
64
English as a Second Language
.433**
p < .01
MedHigh
64
My family was emotionally
supportive of my education
Race was not an issue at
community college
HS summer programs inspired me
to pursue STEM
.265*
p<.05
Low-Med
62
.352**
p<.01
Med
59
-.288*
p<.05
Low-Med
56
My community college professors
inspired me to pursue STEM
-.264*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
The correlation between variables Mother's Education and Father's Education
was significant, r(64) = .529**, p < .01. The correlation between variables Mother's
Education and English as a Second Language was significant, r(64) = .433**, p < .01.
98
The correlation between variables Mother's Education and My family was emotionally
supportive of my education was significant, r(62) = .265*, p<.05. The correlation
between variables Mother's Education and Race was not an issue at community college
was significant, r(59) = .352**, p<.01. The negative correlation between variables
Mother's Education and HS summer programs inspired me to pursue STEM was
significant, r(56) = -.288*, p<.05. The negative correlation between variables Mother's
Education STEM and My community college professors inspired me to pursue STEM
was significant, r(58) = -.264*, p<.05.
Table 10 displays significant correlations found between English as a Second
Language and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and
pathways.
Table 10
Significant correlations with English as a Second Language
Variables with significant
correlations to “English as a Second
Language”
r
p
Effect
Size
N
Mother's Education
.433**
p < .01
MedHigh
64
HS summer programs inspired me
to pursue STEM
-0.278*
p < .01
High
56
The correlation between variables English as a Second Language and Mother's
Education was significant, r(64) = .433**, p < .01. The negative correlation between
99
variables English as a Second Language and HS summer programs inspired me to
pursue STEM was significant, r(56) = -0.278*, p < .01.
Table 11 displays significant correlations found between Finances were a
personal challenge and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement
and pathways.
Table 11
Significant correlations with Finances were a Personal Challenge
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Finances were a personal
challenge”
r
p
Effect Size
N
High School academics prepared
me for college
.269*
p<.05
Low-Med
59
It was not difficult to adjust to
college
.358**
P<.01
Med
61
I had community/mentor support
.279*
p<.05
Low-Med
61
.330*
p<.05
Med
57
.299*
p<.05
Low-Med
57
Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success
.327*
p<.05
Med
57
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.399**
p<.01
Med
57
My community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
100
The correlation between variables Finances were a personal challenge and High
School academics prepared me for college was significant, r(59) = .269*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables Finances were a personal challenge and It was not difficult
to adjust to college was significant, r(61) = .358**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables Finances were a personal challenge and I had community/mentor support was
significant, r(61) = .279*, p<.05. The correlation between variables Finances were a
personal challenge and My community college experience was helpful in my transfer
success was significant, r(57) = .330*, p<.05. The correlation between variables
Finances were a personal challenge and Community College faculty had high
expectations of me was significant, r(57) = .299*, p<.05. The correlation between
variables Finances were a personal challenge and Community College faculty
contributed to my academic success was significant, r(57) = .327*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables Finances were a personal challenge and My high school
teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(57) = .399**, p<.01.
Table 12 displays significant correlations found between It was not difficult to
adjust to college and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and
pathways.
101
Table 12
Significant correlations with It was not Difficult to Adjust to College
Variables with significant
correlations to
“it was not difficult to adjust to
college”
No. of remedial writing courses
High School academics prepared
me for college
Finances were a personal
challenge
I had community/mentor support
My community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success
r
p
Effect Size
N
-.289*
p<.05
Low-Med
57
.416**
p<.01
Med-High
59
.358**
P<.01
Med
61
.314*
p<.05
Med
61
.262*
p<.05
Low-Med
57
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
.331*
p<.05
Med
57
My HS academics contributed to
my success in community
college
.551**
p<.01
High
57
My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college
.282*
p<.05
Low-Med
57
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.301*
p<.05
Med
57
The negative correlation between variables It was not difficult to adjust to
college and No. of remedial writing courses was significant, r(57) = -.289*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables It was not difficult to adjust to college and High School
academics prepared me for college was significant, r(59) = .416**, p<.01. The
102
correlation between variables It was not difficult to adjust to college and Finances were
a personal challenge was significant, r(61) = .358**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables It was not difficult to adjust to college and I had community/mentor support
was significant, r(61) = .314*, p<.05. The correlation between variables It was not
difficult to adjust to college and My community college experience was helpful in my
transfer success was significant, r(57) = .262*, p<.05. The correlation between
variables It was not difficult to adjust to college and Community College faculty had
high expectations of me was significant, r(57) = .331*, p<.05. The correlation between
variables It was not difficult to adjust to college and My HS academics contributed to my
success in community college was significant, r(57) = .551**, p<.01. The correlation
between variables It was not difficult to adjust to college and My family contributed to
my academic success in community college was significant, r(57) = .282*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables It was not difficult to adjust to college and My high school
teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(57) = .301*, p<.05.
Table 13 displays significant correlations found between My family was
emotionally supportive of my education and factors found to be influential in Hispanic
student achievement and pathways.
103
Table 13
Significant correlations with My family was Emotionally Supportive of My Education
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My family was emotionally
supportive of my education”
Mother's Education
No. of remedial English courses
r
p
Effect Size
N
.265*
-.275*
p<.05
p<.05
Low-Med
Low-Med
62
60
I had community/mentor support
.526**
p<.01
High
62
Race was not an issue at
community college
.299*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
My community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success
.390**
p<.01
Med
59
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
.283*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college
.411**
p<..01
Med-High
58
The correlation between variables My family was emotionally supportive of my
education and Mother's Education was significant, r(62) = .265*, p<.05. The negative
correlation between variables My family was emotionally supportive of my education and
No. of remedial English courses was significant, r(60) = -.275*, p<.05. The correlation
between variables My family was emotionally supportive of my education and I had
community/mentor support was significant, r(62) = .526**, p<.01. The correlation
between variables My family was emotionally supportive of my education and Race was
not an issue at community college was significant, r(58) = .299*, p<.05. The correlation
104
between variables My family was emotionally supportive of my education and My
community college experience was helpful in my transfer success was significant, r(59) =
.390**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My family was emotionally supportive
of my education and Community College faculty had high expectations of me was
significant, r(58) = .283*, p<.05. My family was emotionally supportive of my
education and My family contributed to my academic success in community college was
significant, r(58) = .411**, p<.01.
Table 14 displays significant correlations found between I had
community/mentor support to attend college and factors found to be influential in
Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 14
Significant correlations with I had Community/Mentor Support to Attend College
Variables with significant
correlations to
“I had community/mentor
support to attend college”
r
p
Effect Size
N
High School academics prepared
me for college
.378**
p<.01
Med
60
.279*
p<.05
Low-Med
61
.314*
p<.05
Med
62
.526**
p<.01
High
62
.268*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
Finances were a personal
challenge
It was not difficult to adjust to
college
My family was emotionally
supportive of my education
My community college
experience was helpful in my
105
transfer success
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
.319*
p<.05
Med
58
My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college
.320*
p<.05
Med
58
Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success
.378**
p<.01
Med
58
My HS academics contributed to
my success in community
college
.454**
p<.01
Med-High
58
My friends/social support
contributed to my success in
community college
.284*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.598**
p<.01
High
58
My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM
.338**
p<.01
Med
58
The correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to attend
college and High School academics prepared me for college was significant, r(60) =
.378**, p<.01. The correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to
attend college and Finances were a personal challenge was significant, r(61) = .279*,
p<.05. The correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to attend
college and It was not difficult to adjust to college was significant, r(62) = .314*, p<.05.
The correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to attend college and
My family was emotionally supportive of my education was significant, r(62) = .526**,
106
p<.01. The correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to attend
college and My community college experience was helpful in my transfer success was
significant, r(58) = .268*, p<.05. The correlation between variables I had
community/mentor support to attend college and Community College faculty had high
expectations of me was significant, r(58) = .319*, p<.05. The correlation between
variables I had community/mentor support to attend college and My family contributed
to my academic success in community college was significant, r(58) = .320*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to attend college and
Community College faculty contributed to my academic success was significant, r(58) =
.378**, p<.01. The correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to
attend college and My HS academics contributed to my success in community college
was significant, r(58) = .454**, p<.01. The correlation between variables I had
community/mentor support to attend college and My friends/social support contributed
to my success in community college was significant, r(58) = .284*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to attend college and My
high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(58) =
.598**, p<.01. The correlation between variables I had community/mentor support to
attend college and My community college professors inspired me to pursue STEM was
significant, r(58) = .338**, p<.01.
107
Table 15 displays significant correlations found between My family contributed
to my academic success in community college and factors found to be influential in
Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 15
Significant correlations with My Family Contributed to my Academic Success in
Community College
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college”
High School academics prepared
me for college
My family was emotionally
supportive of my education
r
p
Effect Size
N
.336*
p<.05
Med
56
.411**
p<.01
Med-High
58
I had community/mentor support
.320*
p<.05
Med
58
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
.315*
p<.05
Med
58
Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success
.284*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
My HS academics contributed to
my success in community
college
.427**
p<.01
Med-High
58
My friends/social support
contributed to my success in
community college
.369**
p<.01
Med
58
108
The correlation between variables My family contributed to my academic success
in community college and High School academics prepared me for college was
significant, r(56) = .336*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My family
contributed to my academic success in community college and My family was
emotionally supportive of my education was significant, r(58) = .411**, p<.01. The
correlation between variables My family contributed to my academic success in
community college and I had community/mentor support was significant, r(58) = .320*,
p<.05. The correlation between variables My family contributed to my academic success
in community college and Community College faculty had high expectations of me was
significant, r(58) = .315*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My family
contributed to my academic success in community college and Community College
faculty contributed to my academic success was significant, r(58) = .284*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables My family contributed to my academic success in
community college and My HS academics contributed to my success in community
college was significant, r(58) = .427**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My
family contributed to my academic success in community college and My friends/social
support contributed to my success in community college was significant, r(58) = .369**,
p<.01.
Table 16 displays significant correlations found between My personal motivation
contributed to my success and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student
achievement and pathways.
109
Table 16
Significant correlations with My Personal Motivation Contributed to My Success
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My personal motivation
contributed to my success”
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
r
p
Effect Size
N
.331*
p<.05
Med
57
The correlation between variables My personal motivation contributed to my
success and Community College faculty had high expectations of me was significant,
r(57) = .331*, p<.05.
Table 17 displays significant correlations found between My friends/social
support contributed to my success in community college and factors found to be
influential in Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 17
Significant correlations with My friends/Social Support Contributed to My Success in
Community College
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My friends/social support
contributed to my success in
community college”
It was not difficult to adjust to
college
I had community/mentor support
r
p
Effect Size
N
.282*
p<.05
Low-Med
57
.284*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
110
My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college
.369**
p<.01
Med
58
My HS academics contributed to
my success in community
college
.348**
p<.01
Med
58
The correlation between variables My friends/social support contributed to my
success in community college and It was not difficult to adjust to college was significant,
r(57) = .282*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My friends/social support
contributed to my success in community college and I had community/mentor support
was significant, r(58) = .284*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My
friends/social support contributed to my success in community college and My family
contributed to my academic success in community college was significant, r(58) =
.369**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My friends/social support contributed
to my success in community college and My HS academics contributed to my success in
community college was significant, r(58) = .348**, p<.01.
Report of Quantitative finding for Research Question #2 – Institutional Variables
Table 18 displays significant correlations found between No. of remedial English
courses and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and
pathways.
111
Table 18
Significant correlations with Number of Remedial English Courses
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Number of Remedial English
Courses”
No. of remedial math courses
My family was emotionally
supportive of my education
Race was not an issue at
community college
r
p
Effect
Size
N
.570**
p < .01
High
61
-0.275*
p < .05
High
60
-.343**
p<.01
58
The correlation between variables Number of Remedial English Courses and No.
of remedial math courses was significant, r(61) = .570**, p < .01. The negative
correlation between variables Number of Remedial English Courses and My family was
emotionally supportive of my education was significant, r(60) = -0.275*, p < .05. The
negative correlation between variables Number of Remedial English Courses and Race
was not an issue at community college was significant, r(58) = -.343**, p<.01.
Table 19 displays significant correlations found between No. of remedial math
courses and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and
pathways.
112
Table 19
Significant correlations with Number of Remedial Math Courses
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Number of Remedial Math
Courses”
r
p
Effect Size
N
No. of remedial English courses
.570**
p < .01
High
61
No. of remedial writing courses
My family was emotionally
supportive of my education
.497**
p < .01
Med-High
59
-.261*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
The correlation between variables Number of Remedial Math Courses and No. of
remedial English courses was significant, r(61) = .570**, p < .01. The correlation
between variables Number of Remedial Math Courses and No. of remedial writing
courses was significant, r(59) = .497**, p < .01. The negative correlation between
variables Number of Remedial Math Courses and My family was emotionally supportive
of my education was significant, r(58) = -.261*, p<.05.
Table 20 displays significant correlations found between No. of remedial writing
courses and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and
pathways.
113
Table 20
Significant correlations with Number of Remedial Writing Courses
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Number of Remedial Writing
Courses”
No. of remedial math courses
It was not difficult to adjust to
college life
Race was not an issue at
community college
r
p
Effect Size
N
.497**
p < .01
Med-High
59
-.289*
p < .05
Low-Med
57
-.347*
p<.01
Med
56
The correlation between variables Number of Remedial Writing Courses and No.
of remedial math courses was significant, r(59) = .497**, p < .01. The negative
correlation between variables Number of Remedial Writing Courses and It was not
difficult to adjust to college life was significant, r(57) = -.289*, p < .05. The negative
correlation between variables Number of Remedial Writing Courses and Race was not
an issue at community college was significant, r(56) = -.347*, p<.01.
Table 21 displays significant correlations found between High School academics
prepared me for college and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student
achievement and pathways.
114
Table 21
Significant correlations with High School Academics Prepared me for College
Variables with significant
correlations to
“High School academics
prepared me for college”
No. of remedial math courses
Finances were a personal
challenge
It was not difficult to adjust to
college
r
p
Effect Size
N
-.261*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
.269*
p<.05
Low-Med
59
.416**
p =.01
Med-High
59
I had community/mentor support
.378**
p<.05
Med
60
My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college
.336*
p<.05
Med
56
My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree
.270*
p<.05
Low-Med
56
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.405**
p<.05
Med-High
56
The negative correlation between variables High School academics prepared me
for college and No. of remedial math courses was significant, r(58) = -.261*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables High School academics prepared me for college and
Finances were a personal challenge was significant, r(59) = .269*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables High School academics prepared me for college and It
was not difficult to adjust to college was significant, r(59) = .416**, p <.01. The
correlation between variables High School academics prepared me for college and I had
115
community/mentor support was significant, r(60) = .378**, p<.01. The correlation
between variables High School academics prepared me for college and My family
contributed to my academic success in community college was significant, r(56) = .336*,
p<.05. The correlation between variables High School academics prepared me for
college and My high school STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was
significant, r(56) = .270*, p<.05. The correlation between variables High School
academics prepared me for college and My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a
STEM degree was significant, r(56) = .405**, p<.01.
Table 22 displays significant correlations found between My community college
experience was helpful in my transfer success and factors found to be influential in
Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 22
Significant correlations with My Community College Experiences was Helpful in My
Transfer Success
Significant Correlations with
Variables with significant
correlations to
“my community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success”
Finances were a personal
challenge
It was not difficult to adjust to
college
My family was emotionally
supportive of my education
r
p
Effect Size
N
.330*
p<.05
Med
57
.262*
p<.05
Low-Med
57
.299*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
116
I had community/mentor support
.268*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
.313*
p<.05
Med
58
.468**
p<.01
Med-High
58
Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success
.499**
p<.01
Med-High
58
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.269*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM
.294*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
Race was not an issue at
community college
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
The correlation between variables My community college experience was helpful
in my transfer success and Finances were a personal challenge was significant, r(57) =
.330*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My community college experience was
helpful in my transfer success and It was not difficult to adjust to college was significant,
r(57) = .262*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My community college
experience was helpful in my transfer success and My family was emotionally supportive
of my education was significant, r(58) = .299*, p<.05. The correlation between variables
My community college experience was helpful in my transfer success and I had
community/mentor support was significant, r(58) = .268*, p<.05. The correlation
between variables My community college experience was helpful in my transfer success
and Race was not an issue at community college was significant, r(58) = .313*, p<.05.
117
The correlation between variables My community college experience was helpful in my
transfer success and Community College faculty had high expectations of me was
significant, r(58) = .468**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My community
college experience was helpful in my transfer success and Community College faculty
contributed to my academic success was significant, r(58) = .499**, p<.01. The
correlation between variables My community college experience was helpful in my
transfer success and My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was
significant, r(58) = .269*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My community
college experience was helpful in my transfer success and My community college
professors inspired me to pursue STEM was significant, r(58) = .294*, p<.05.
Table 23 displays significant correlations found between My personal motivation
contributed to my success and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student
achievement and pathways.
Table 23
Significant correlations with Race was not an Issue in Community College
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Race was not an issue at
community college”
Father's Education
r
p
Effect Size
N
.388**
p<.01
Med
59
Mother's Education
.352**
p<.01
Med
59
No. of remedial English courses
-.343**
p<.01
Med
58
118
No. of remedial writing courses
-.347**
p<.01
Med
56
My family was emotionally
supportive of my education
.390**
p<.01
Med
59
My community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success
.313*
p<.05
Med
58
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
.375**
p<.01
Med
58
The correlation between variables Race was not an issue at community college
and Father's Education was significant, r(59) = .388**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables Race was not an issue at community college and Mother's Education was
significant, r(59) = .352**, p<.01. The negative correlation between variables Race was
not an issue at community college and No. of remedial english courses was significant,
r(58) = -.343**, p<.01. The negative correlation between variables Race was not an
issue at community college and No. of remedial writing courses was significant, r(56) = .347**, p<.01. The correlation between variables Race was not an issue at community
college and My family was emotionally supportive of my education was significant, r(59)
= .390**, p<.01. The correlation between variables Race was not an issue at community
college and My community college experience was helpful in my transfer success was
significant, r(58) = .313*, p<.05. The correlation between variables Race was not an
issue at community college and Community College faculty had high expectations of me
was significant, r(58) = .375**, p<.01.
119
Table 24 displays significant correlations found between Community College
faculty had high expectations of me and factors found to be influential in Hispanic
student achievement and pathways.
Table 24
Significant correlations with Community College Faculty had High Expectations of Me
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Community College faculty had
high expectations of me”
Finances were a personal
challenge
It was not difficult to adjust to
college
My family was emotionally
supportive of my education
r
p
Effect Size
N
.299*
p<.05
Low-Med
57
.331*
p<.05
Med
57
.283*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
I had community/mentor support
.319*
p<.05
Med
58
My community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success
.468**
p<.01
Med-High
58
Race was not an issue at
community college
.375**
p<.01
Med
58
My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college
.315*
p<.05
Med
58
My personal motivation
contributed to my success
.331*
p<.05
Med
57
Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success
.517**
p<.01
High
58
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.469**
p<.01
Med-High
58
120
My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM
.436**
p<.01
Med-High
58
The correlation between variables Community College faculty had high
expectations of me and Finances were a personal challenge was significant, r(57) =
.299*, p<.05. The correlation between variables Community College faculty had high
expectations of me and It was not difficult to adjust to college was significant, r(57) =
.331*, <.05. The correlation between variables Community College faculty had high
expectations of me and My family was emotionally supportive of my education was
significant, r(58) = .283*, p<.05. The correlation between variables Community College
faculty had high expectations of me and I had community/mentor support was
significant, r(58) = .319*, p<.05. The correlation between variables Community College
faculty had high expectations of me and My community college experience was helpful
in my transfer success was significant, r(58) = .468**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables Community College faculty had high expectations of me and Race was not an
issue at community college was significant, r(58) = .375**, p<.01. The correlation
between variables Community College faculty had high expectations of me and My
family contributed to my academic success in community college was significant, r(58) =
.315*, p<.05. The correlation between variables Community College faculty had high
expectations of me and My personal motivation contributed to my success was
significant, r(57) = .331*, p<.05. The correlation between variables Community College
121
faculty had high expectations of me and Community College faculty contributed to my
academic success was significant, r(58) = .517**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables Community College faculty had high expectations of me and My high school
teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(58) = .469**, p<.01.
The correlation between variables Community College faculty had high expectations of
me and My community college professors inspired me to pursue STEM was significant,
r(58) = .436**, p<.01.
Table 25 displays significant correlations found between I participated in
academic and student programs at community college and factors found to be influential
in Hispanic student achievement and pathways
Table 25
Significant correlations with I Participated in Academic and Student Programs at
Community College
Variables with significant
correlations to
“I participated in academic and
student programs at community
college”
r
p
Effect Size
N
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.281*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
My success in community
college STEM courses inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.278*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
122
My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM
.530**
p<.01
High
58
The correlation between variables I participated in academic and student
programs at community college and My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a
STEM degree was significant, r(58) = .281*, p<.05. The correlation between variables I
participated in academic and student programs at community college and My success in
community college STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant,
r(58) = .278*, p<.05. The correlation between variables I participated in academic and
student programs at community college and My community college professors inspired
me to pursue STEM was significant, r(58) = .530**, p<.01.
Table 26 displays significant correlations found between Community College
faculty contributed to my academic success and factors found to be influential in
Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 26
Significant correlations with Community College Faculty Contributed to My Success
Variables with significant
correlations to
“Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success”
Finances were a personal
challenge
r
p
Effect Size
N
.327*
p<.05
Med
57
123
I had community/mentor support
.378**
p<.0q
Med
58
My community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success
.499**
p<.01
Med-High
58
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
.517**
p<.01
High
58
My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college
.284*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
HS summer programs inspired
me to pursue STEM
.266*
p<.05
Low-Med
56
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.376**
p<.01
Med
58
My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM
.400**
p<.01
Med-High
58
The correlation between variables Community College faculty contributed to my
academic success and Finances were a personal challenge was significant, r(57) =
.327*, p<.05. The correlation between variables Community College faculty contributed
to my academic success and I had community/mentor support was significant, r(58) =
.378**, p<.01. The correlation between variables Community College faculty
contributed to my academic success and My community college experience was helpful
in my transfer success was significant, r(58) = .499**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables Community College faculty contributed to my academic success and
Community College faculty had high expectations of me was significant, r(58) = .517**,
124
p<.01. The correlation between variables Community College faculty contributed to my
academic success and My family contributed to my academic success in community
college was significant, r(58) = .284*, p<.05. The correlation between variables
Community College faculty contributed to my academic success and HS summer
programs inspired me to pursue STEM was significant, r(56) = .266*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables Community College faculty contributed to my academic
success and My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was
significant, r(58) = .376**, p<.01. The correlation between variables Community
College faculty contributed to my academic success and My community college
professors inspired me to pursue STEM was significant, r(58) = .400**, p<.01.
Table 27 displays significant correlations found between My HS academics
contributed to my success in community college and factors found to be influential in
Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 27
Significant correlations with My High School Academics Contributed to My Success
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My High School academics
contributed to my success in
community college”
It was not difficult to adjust to
college
I had community/mentor support
r
p
Effect Size
N
.551**
p<.01
High
57
.454**
p<.01
Med-High
58
125
My family contributed to my
academic success in community
college
.427**
p<.01
Med-High
58
My friends/social support
contributed to my success in
community college
.348**
p<.01
Med-High
58
My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree
.327*
p<.05
Med-High
58
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.447**
p<.01
Med-High
58
The correlation between variables My HS academics contributed to my success in
community college and It was not difficult to adjust to college was significant, r(57) =
.551**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My HS academics contributed to my
success in community college and I had community/mentor support was significant,
r(58) = .454**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My HS academics contributed
to my success in community college and My family contributed to my academic success
in community college was significant, r(58) = .427**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables My HS academics contributed to my success in community college and My
friends/social support contributed to my success in community college was significant,
r(58) = .348**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My HS academics contributed
to my success in community college and My high school STEM courses inspired me to
pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(58) = .327*, p<.05. The correlation between
variables My HS academics contributed to my success in community college and My
126
high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(58) =
.447**, p<.01.
Table 28 displays significant correlations found between My high school STEM
courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and factors found to be influential in
Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 28
Significant correlations with My High School STEM Courses Inspired Me to Pursue a
STEM Degree
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree”
Gender
High School academics prepared
me for college
r
p
Effect Size
N
.276*
p<.05
Low-Med
57
.270*
p<.05
Low-Med
56
My HS academics contributed to
my success in community
college
.327*
p<.05
Med
58
HS summer programs inspired
me to pursue STEM
.288*
p<.05
Low-Med
56
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.379**
p<.01
Med
58
My success in community
college STEM courses inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.412**
p<.01
Med-High
58
127
The correlation between variables My high school STEM courses inspired me to
pursue a STEM degree and Gender was significant, r(57) = .276*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables My high school STEM courses inspired me to pursue a
STEM degree and High School academics prepared me for college was significant, r(56)
= .270*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and My HS academics contributed to my success
in community college was significant, r(58) = .327*, p<.05. The correlation between
variables My high school STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and HS
summer programs inspired me to pursue STEM was significant, r(56) = .288*, p<.05.
The correlation between variables My high school STEM courses inspired me to pursue
a STEM degree and My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was
significant, r(58) = .379**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My high school
STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and My success in community
college STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(58) =
.412**, p<.01.
Table 29 displays significant correlations found between HS summer programs
inspired me to pursue STEM and factors found to be influential in Hispanic student
achievement and pathways.
128
Table 29
Significant correlations with High School Summer Programs Inspired Me to Pursue
STEM
Variables with significant
correlations to
“High school summer programs
inspired me to pursue STEM”
Mother's Education
English as a Second Language
Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success
r
p
Effect Size
N
-.288*
-.278*
p<.05
p<.05
Low-Med
Low-Med
56
56
.266*
p<.05
Low-Med
56
My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree
.288*
p<.05
Low-Med
56
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.355**
p<.01
Med
56
My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM
.320*
p<.05
Med
56
The negative correlation between variables HS summer programs inspired me to
pursue STEM and Mother's Education was significant, r(56) = -.288*, p<.05. The
negative correlation between variables HS summer programs inspired me to pursue
STEM and English as a Second Language was significant, r(56) = -.278*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables HS summer programs inspired me to pursue STEM and
Community College faculty contributed to my academic success was significant, r(56) =
.266*, p<.05. The correlation between variables HS summer programs inspired me to
129
pursue STEM and My high school STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree
was significant, r(56) = .288*, p<.05. The correlation between variables HS summer
programs inspired me to pursue STEM and My high school teachers inspired me to
pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(56) = .355**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables HS summer programs inspired me to pursue STEM and My community
college professors inspired me to pursue STEM was significant, r(56) = .320*, p<.05.
Table 30 displays significant correlations found between My high school
teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and factors found to be influential in
Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 30
Significant correlations with My High School Teachers Inspired Me to Pursue a STEM
Degree
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My high school teachers
inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree”
High School academics prepared
me for college
Finances were a personal
challenge
It was not difficult to adjust to
college
r
p
Effect Size
N
.405**
p<.01
Med-High
56
.399**
p<.01
Med
57
.301*
p<.05
Med
57
I had community/mentor support
.598**
p<.01
High
58
My community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success
.269*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
130
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
I participated in academic and
student at community college
.469**
p<.01
Med-High
58
.281*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success
.376**
p<.01
Med
58
My HS academics contributed to
my success in community
college
.447**
p<.01
Med-High
58
My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree
.379**
p<.05
Med
58
HS summer programs inspired
me to pursue STEM
.355**
p<.01
Med
56
My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM
.554**
p<.01
High
58
The correlation between variables My high school teachers inspired me to pursue
a STEM degree and High School academics prepared me for college was significant,
r(56) = .405**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My high school teachers
inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and Finances were a personal challenge was
significant, r(57) = .399**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My high school
teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and It was not difficult to adjust to
college was significant, r(57) = .301*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My
high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and I had community/mentor
support was significant, r(58) = .598**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My
131
high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and My community college
experience was helpful in my transfer success was significant, r(58) = .269*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree and Community College faculty had high expectations of me was significant,
r(58) = .469**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My high school teachers
inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and I participated in academic and student at
community college was significant, r(58) = .281*, p<.05. The correlation between
variables My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and Community
College faculty contributed to my academic success was significant, r(58) = .376**,
p<.01. The correlation between variables My high school teachers inspired me to pursue
a STEM degree and My HS academics contributed to my success in community college
was significant, r(58) = .447**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My high
school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and My high school STEM
courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(58) = .379**, p<.01.
The correlation between variables My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a
STEM degree and HS summer programs inspired me to pursue STEM was significant,
r(56) = .355**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My high school teachers
inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and My community college professors inspired me
to pursue STEM was significant, r(58) = .554**, p<.01.
132
Table 31 displays significant correlations found between My success in
community college STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and factors
found to be influential in Hispanic student achievement and pathways.
Table 31
Significant correlations with My Success in Community College STEM Courses Inspired
Me to Pursue a STEM Degree
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My success in community
college STEM courses inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree”
I participated in academic and
student at community college
r
p
Effect Size
N
.278*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
My high school STEM courses
inspired me to pursue a STEM
degree
.412**
p<.05
Med-High
58
My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM
.430**
p<.01
Med-High
58
The correlation between variables My success in community college STEM
courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree and I participated in academic and
student at community college was significant, r(58) = .278*, p<.05. The correlation
between variables My success in community college STEM courses inspired me to
pursue a STEM degree and My high school STEM courses inspired me to pursue a
STEM degree was significant, r(58) = .412**, p<.05. The correlation between variables
My success in community college STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree
133
and My community college professors inspired me to pursue STEM was significant, r(58)
= .430**, p<.01.
Table 32 displays significant correlations found between My community college
professors inspired me to pursue STEM and factors found to be influential in Hispanic
student achievement and pathways.
Table 32
Significant correlations with My Community College Professors Inspired Me to Pursue
STEM
Variables with significant
correlations to
“My community college
professors inspired me to pursue
STEM”
Mother's Education
r
p
Effect Size
N
-.264*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
I had community/mentor support
.338**
p<.01
Med
58
My community college
experience was helpful in my
transfer success
.294*
p<.05
Low-Med
58
.436**
P<.01
Med-High
58
.530**
p<.01
High
58
Community College faculty
contributed to my academic
success
.400**
p<.01
Med-High
58
HS summer programs inspired
me to pursue STEM
.320*
p<.05
Med
56
My high school teachers inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.554**
p<.01
High
58
Community College faculty had
high expectations of me
I participated in academic and
student at community college
134
My success in community
college STEM courses inspired
me to pursue a STEM degree
.430**
p<.01
Med-High
58
The negative correlation between variables My community college professors
inspired me to pursue STEM and Mother's Education was significant, r(58) = -.264*,
p<.05. The correlation between variables My community college professors inspired me
to pursue STEM and I had community/mentor support was significant, r(58) = .338**,
p<.01. The correlation between variables My community college professors inspired me
to pursue STEM and My community college experience was helpful in my transfer
success was significant, r(58) = .294*, p<.05. The correlation between variables My
community college professors inspired me to pursue STEM and Community College
faculty had high expectations of me was significant, r(58) = .436**, p<.01. The
correlation between variables My community college professors inspired me to pursue
STEM and I participated in academic and student at community college was significant,
r(58) = .530**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My community college
professors inspired me to pursue STEM and Community College faculty contributed to
my academic success was significant, r(58) = .400**, p<.01. The correlation between
variables My community college professors inspired me to pursue STEM and HS summer
programs inspired me to pursue STEM was significant, r(56) = .320*, p<.05. The
correlation between variables My community college professors inspired me to pursue
135
STEM and My high school teachers inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was
significant, r(58) = .554**, p<.01. The correlation between variables My community
college professors inspired me to pursue STEM and My success in community college
STEM courses inspired me to pursue a STEM degree was significant, r(58) = .430**,
p<.01.
Summary of Quantitative Data
The electronic survey addressed factors identified through the literature review
that affect Hispanic students, achievement gaps and persistence in STEM disciplines.
Question #1 addressed personal variables, and Question #2 addressed institutional
variables. This section will list a summary of the significant factors in answering
Questions #1 and #2, as well as listing the convergence of factors between Questions #1
and #2 that were found to be significant.
Research Question #1 addressed personal factors such as parent education,
English as a second language (ESL), finances, adjustment to college, family emotional
support, community and mentor support, and personal motivation.
Parent Education – Mother’s and Father’s education level was shown to have an
effect on students’ perception of race issues in community college. As parent education
levels rise, students were less likely to feel that race was an issue in community college.
136
English as a Second Language (ESL) – 53% of survey respondents indicated the
English was their second language. There was a negative correlation with a low effect
size with English learner students being less inspired by high school STEM programs
than students whose first language was English.
Finances – Participants who indicated that finances were a significant personal
challenge also indicated that adjustment to college was an issue. Those that indicated
that finances were less of an issue, or not an issue, also indicated that adjustment to
academic and social life in college was not an issue.
Adjustment to College –In addition to correlations with finances, there was a
strong correlation for students that found adjustment to college to be easier and also felt
better prepared for college academics. These students also felt some level of support
from their community and mentors, community college faculty and other community
college institutional factors such as financial aid and academic support.
Family Emotional Support – Students that felt a high level of family support for
pursuing higher education were also likely to feel they had support from their
community and/or mentors, and that race was not an issue in community college. These
students were also likely to feel that community college added to their success and that
community college faculty also had high expectations of them.
Community and Mentor Support - Students that felt that community and mentor
support was significant in their success also felt they had higher levels of family support,
137
felt prepared for college and found inspiration from their high school and community
college professors and programs.
Personal Motivation – Personal motivation was scored high for nearly every
participant, and as such, little significance could be found in trends with other variables.
However, there was some positive correlation with those that felt that faculty had high
expectations and those that felt more strongly that their own personal motivation was
significant to their success.
Research Question #2 addressed institutional factors such as number of remedial
courses, pre-college academic preparation, community college factors, race as in issue in
community college, faculty expectations, participation in academic and student life,
contributors to success (high school and community college), and inspiration for
pursuing a STEM degree.
Remedial Courses – Students that had to take higher number of remedial English
courses felt lower levels of support from their family. Students that had to take higher
levels of remedial math courses felt less prepared by their high school academics.
Students that took higher numbers of remedial writing courses were more likely to feel
that race was an issue in community college and had a harder time adjustment to college
life. All remedial coursework types correlated with one another.
138
Pre-college Academic Preparation – Students who felt prepared by their high
school academics also reported having an easier time adjusting to college, finding
support from their community and/or mentors and being inspired by their high school
STEM teachers. Students that felt less prepared also indicated taking a higher number of
remedial math courses. There was also a significant correlation for students who felt
less prepared by high school academics and those indicating that finances were as issue.
Institutional/Community College Factors – Students that felt that community
college factors such as financial aid, counselors and academic support contributed to
their success in transferring also felt that family support and community college
professors’ expectations were contributing factors.
Race not an Issue at Community College – Students that indicated that race was
not a significant factor in community college also indicated higher levels of family
support and that community college professors had higher expectations. Students that
took more remedial courses were more likely to feel that race was an issue in community
college.
Faculty Expectations at Community College – Respondents that indicated that
faculty had higher expectations of them also indicated that race was not an issue,
community college contributed to their success, and that high school and community
college professors were a factor in their success. Those that also indicated that finances
139
and adjustment to college were less of an issue in community college and had higher
levels of family support also report higher faculty expectations.
Participation Academic/Student Life – Students who indicated higher levels of
participation in academic and student life activities in community college also found
inspiration for pursuing a STEM degree from their community college professors as well
as their success in high school and community college STEM courses.
Contributors to success – Students that indicated that college faculty and high
school academics preparation contributed to their academic success and transfer also
indicated having fewer issues with finances and adjustment to college and higher levels
of family support.
Inspiration – Students that were inspired by their high school teachers and
STEM courses also felt better prepared for college, indicated that finances were less of
an issue or not an issue, and felt higher levels of community and mentor support. These
students also participated more in student life and academic activities and had an easier
time adjustment to college life. Students that found some inspiration from the
community college professors likewise found inspiration from their high school
professors and STEM courses. There was a negative association for students with lower
levels of mother’s education indicating that they did not gain inspiration from their
community college professors.
140
Qualitative Data - Summary of Themes from open-ended survey responses
The following section reports on themes found in review of the open-ended
questions from the electronic survey reflected in Research Question #1: Which of the
following personal variables are the most significant for Hispanic students who have
successfully transferred from a community college to Sacramento State in STEM
majors?
Table 33
Summary of Themes for Open-ended Survey Responses – Question #1
Personal Themes/Factors
Finances
Social Life
Family Support
Community
Role models
Positive
+
+
+
Negative
-
Finances – Money was an issue for many students. While families were
emotionally supportive of their educational pursuits, most often students had to rely on
work and financial aid to help them along the way.
I do not come from a family that has attended college, but I had always
known i wanted to attend college. My parents are not able to help me financially
but they do support me emotionally and have not questioned why I am in school,
on the other hand they are proud of me.
141
Social life – Students reported that because of work or other family obligations
they had no or little time for student life or club activities. Work was also reported to
interfere with time devoted to studying. Older students also reported that they often felt
out of place socially.
I have a wife, kid, and mortgage to pay. Many people look at me and
wonder why I struggle in school and why I don't participate in more college
programs. I don't have that liberty!
(Regarding challenges) One of them is financially, because my parents
don’t have any money to support me in my education, so I have to work. I am
working a full-time job and attend to school so it is very difficult because I don’t
get involved as much as I would like to get involved with college life or
organizations.
Family – Students reported that their parents were most often supportive and
encouraged pursuing higher education, but often students were on their own in figuring
out how to navigate enrollment, financial aid and transfer pathways. A number of
students reported having siblings that had gone to community college before them, and
they were very helpful in navigating the enrollment and transfer process. Most reported
not having a family-mentor that had matriculated from higher education, but a few
mentioned having an uncle that worked in a STEM discipline.
I am very independent. I worked almost full time and attended school full
time to help pay for my education. My family didn't really help me financially.
They did what they could but I never asked too much of them. I was the one
doing all the research on loans and scholarships. I would ask my parents for
their taxes to fill out the FAFSA and just have them sign on the dotted line. I
would give them money from my work as well.
142
Community – Students reported that it was helpful to go to a high school that had
a college-going culture. Some students also reported that they had friends that also
supported one another and had additional encouragement.
I live in a town and went to a high school with high college bound rates. Being
surrounded by peers who are college bound encouraged me to do so as well.
Role models – A few students mentioned that a high school teacher or
community college professor was influential as a mentor or role model in encouraging
the pursuit of a STEM discipline. A number of students mentioned wanting to be a role
model for other Hispanic students, or for a younger sibling(s).
I like science since I was in middle school, by the time I got to high
school, in Mexico, I had to choose a major to focus on and I chose Biology. I
enjoyed all my biology courses, especially microbiology. I really admired one of
my high school professors. He has a lot of knowledge and is very passionate
when he teaches.
The following section reports on themes found in review of the open-ended
question from the electronic survey that are reflected in Research Question #2: What
institutional factors (high school and community college) were most influential in the
success of Hispanic students that have transferred from community college to
Sacramento State?
143
Table 34
Summary of Themes for Open-ended Survey Responses – Question #2
Institutional Factors – High
School or Community
College
Counselors/Staff
Financial Aid
Support Programs
Inspiration
Positive
+
+
+
+
Negative
-
Counselors/Staff – Students had a wide variety of experiences with community
college counselors and staff. An equal number of students reported having negative
experience such as receiving bad advice on class taking patterns, as had positive
experiences. Some students also reported feeling some discrimination such as being
grouped, or put into to easier majors.
In community college, I wish the path to transfer was clearer. My specific
counselor rushed me into choosing a major, when I probably should have just
transferred with just the general ed. credits. I did not know what major I wanted
to be until after I transferred. I wasted too much time in community college
because of this, and overcrowding.
My community college was awesome. They definitely were organized and I knew
from the start all the classes I would need to take in order to graduate. They had
many math tutoring rooms. They should get them for physics as well though. My
community college had one engineering counselor and she was very good.
Financial Aid – Most students reported that financial aid was necessary for their
ability to go to college, but a few mentioned that it was difficult to navigate. Students
144
also reported having to do all of the paperwork and research as their parents did not
know how to fill out the forms.
I worked almost full time and attended school full time to help pay for my
education. My family didn't really help me financially. They did what they could
but I never asked too much of them. I was the one doing all the research on loans
and scholarships. I would ask my parents for their taxes to fill out the FAFSA
and just have them sign on the dotted line.
Support programs – A number of students also reported that math tutoring
programs, or rooms were very helpful in their success. The transfer academy was helpful
for a number of students. A few students specifically mentioned MESA (Math
Engineering Science Achievement) and SHPE (Society for Hispanic Professional
Engineers). Other students mentioned that these programs were not available at their
school or they were not aware of them.
I was a part of a very small Engineering club where we went on field
trips. It wasn't until my last year at community college that I became aware of
the Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers. I learned so much from this club
and it was very nice to have a club where I got the chance to meet other Hispanic
engineer majors. I am still in touch with them and most went to great schools.
Everything in my college was really helpful. The staff and counselors
really helped me make sure I was on track to transfer. I even participated in the
transfer academy program which is a program that helps students transfer and
they even block off classes for transfer academy students only. Because of the
impacted classes it really helped.
145
Inspiration – Students found inspiration for their pursuit of STEM from a variety
of sources. Many students noted having a natural interest in math and science from an
early age. Some students had parents that worked in an associated industry and others
were able to explore disciplines in community college and found their way to STEM.
I showed strength in STEM courses in elementary school, so most
teachers I had while I was growing up steered me in that direction.
My family has members who work in a STEM profession. It is my family
who encouraged me to follow a path down a Stem discipline.
Report of Qualitative Data
Qualitative data was collected through two focus groups to further explore
variables for research questions #1 (personal variables) and #2 (institutional factors), but
also to explore the student’s pathway through community college by addressing
Research Question #3: What are the pathways and perceived barriers for Hispanic
students who have successfully transferred to Sacramento State in STEM majors?
Audio data from the two focus groups were transcribed and open-coding was used to
find recurring themes addressing the research questions.
Focus Group Participant Profiles
Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology. Academically prepared for
college but could not afford to leave home and pay the price of four-year university
tuition. Her aunt had health issues which added to family financial issues. Her parents
146
came from Mexico and Spanish was the primary language at home. This student did not
experience race issues in community college except that she wasn’t considered Mexican
enough for some in her high school and she also was once told that she got accepted to a
competitive academic camp because she was Mexican by a student who didn’t get in.
This student also developed some health issues which delayed her academics through
community college. She had a very good and enriching experience in community
college, working with many faculty members and participating in academic programs.
One project offered her the opportunity to participate in a NASA program where
students conducted experiments on a zero-gravity plane. She recalls after nearly 5 years
at community college one professor telling her it was time to move on. This student has
an older sibling who was not on a great path and wants to be an example for her younger
sister.
Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering. Went to a private high
school, but did not feel he was pushed to be prepared for college. Spanish was the
primary language at home. English and writing were an issue as an ESL student, but
community college allowed the time and opportunity to work on writing skills. A
younger sibling even helped in this area of academics. Race was not considered an
issue. Money was very much a concern. This student used the fee-waiver to pay for
tuition at community college and received a scholarship from a local foundation to pay
for books. His parents and grandmother encouraged him to go to college and get an
education. Going to community college and staying close to home allowed for transition
147
time to being independent and managing his own schedule. It was difficult to leave
home and family when he came to Sacramento State. This student participated in SHPE
and MESA which was helpful in getting to know professors and professionals. This
student has a real sense of wanting to be an example for other Latino students.
Participant #3 – Male, 21, Engineering. Academically prepared to go to a fouryear school, but chose to stay home and get first two years done at community college.
Finances were very much an issue and he was very conscious of the debt he would incur
going straight to four-year university. His father passed away when he was 10 and he
moved to the U.S. when he was in seventh grade. His mother remained single and
worked a labor intensive job while supporting him and his brother and sister. This
student’s older brother went to the same community college in the same major and took
four years to transfer. By showing him the way, it took this student only two years to
transfer. The student also recalled that he was once on the wrong path. In his
sophomore year a teacher told him he was hanging around with the wrong kids (gang
members) and he would end up in jail or dead. This student decided to change his ways
and concentrate on school. He enrolled himself in AP classes and raised his GPA to
focus on becoming an engineer like his father and brother.
Participant #4 – Female, 39, Biology. This student’s path is different than most
others. She is a mother of a four year old. She finished high school in Mexico and did
not come to the U.S. until her twenties. This student started in community college to
148
learn English and decided to explore other classes, finding a connection with science.
Her husband encouraged her to pursue education and helped to navigate the way through
the web. He has a college education. Her biggest challenge has been academic English.
She has connected with a group of Asian students who have adopted her and really help
with her education. She did not experience or feel that was race was ever an issue,
although her husband cautioned her to trust no one. This student has a sense of wanting
to be a role model for her daughter.
Participant #5 – Female, 24, Biology. This student was academically prepared
for college but started in community college to save money. She took AP courses in
high school but still felt that most of the classes were too easy. She also thought that
community college offered her more time to adjust to being independent. She is not sure
was mature enough, or ready to go directly to a 4-year school. She also mentioned a
sense of wanting to be a role model for her younger sister and having an older sister who
also went to college. Spanish was the primary language in her home growing up, but
she learned English very quickly in school and it hasn’t been an issue for her. This
student also showed an early interest in science, as did her older sister. She also
mentioned that her parents pushed her to get an education.
Participant #6 – Male, 21, Computer Science. This student’s father bought him
and his older brother an old computer to work on and they became interested in
computers. His father who worked in construction also pushed for him to get an
149
education threatening that he could work with his hands, or work with his brain. Seeing
how hard his father worked, he decided to work with his brain. His older brother went
to a school in Arizona in computer science and has been helpful in explaining things that
he didn’t quite get during a lecture. He mentioned that his brother had the ability to
explain things in terms and manner that he understood. While Spanish was the primary
language at home, race was not considered an issue as this student does not “appear”
Hispanic. Money was a factor in starting off at community college, especially with a
brother already at a four-year university. While it wasn’t stated, the researcher got the
impression that the parents pushed and sacrificed a lot for the children’s education.
Summary of Qualitative Data – Focus Groups
The following sections provide an overview and summary of the findings from
the two focus groups conducted in this study. The focus groups covered the three
research questions regarding personal factors, institutional factors, and factors and
barriers influencing student pathways through community college. In addition to the
tables, examples of student comments are included for each theme.
150
Table 35
Summary of Focus Group Participant Responses by Theme
Q1 - Personal Themes/Factors
Finances/Economic Status
- Parent Economics
- Financial Aid
Family
- Emotional Support
- Education Background
- Encouragement
- Role model
ESL
Q2-Institutional Factors
High School or Community
College
HS Preparation for college
HS Teachers/Counselors
CC Counselors/Staff
CC Information
Academic Clubs/Programs
Academic Support
Q3-Pathways and Perceived
Barriers
Economics/Cost
Adjustment/Transition
Tuition
Race/Culture
Preparation for college
Self-determination
#1
Focus Group Participants
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+/-
+
+
-
+
+/+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+/-
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Q1 – Focus Groups – Personal Factors
Research Question #1: Which of the following personal variables are the most
significant for Hispanic students who have successfully transferred from a community
college to Sacramento State in STEM majors?
151
Table 36
Summary of Focus Group Responses – Question #1
Q1 - Personal Themes/Factors
Finances/Economic Status
- Economics
- Financial Aid
- Work
Family
- Emotional Support
- Education Background
- Encouragement
- Role model
ESL
Self-determination
Positive
Negative
+
-
+
+
+
+
Theme: Finances/Economic Status
Financial status had a major impact on why many of the students that
participated in the focus group started their higher education pathway at community
college. Financial aid and the Board of Governors fee-waiver were also used and a
necessary part of access to higher education for these students. Financial aid is list as
both a positive and a negative in Table 36 because it allowed access to higher education
but it was often difficult for first generation families to understand and navigate. There
was also a notable sensitivity to incurring too much debt along the way.
My mom was a single mom. My dad died when I was 10 … so she didn't really
have the money to send me to a full university … I had thought about it you
know, I was accepted to some other universities … but I thought about it because
I knew I was going to get loans and the loans were … I would've been in debt for
another $20,000 … if I had not gone to a community college. And I realized
152
because my brother went to community college and he's two, three years older
than me … I thought I could do it and I noticed that he … he saved a lot of
money and mom didn't have to pay for anything, financial aid pretty much
covered all … and my living expenses were paid by mom and that's pretty much
why I chose to go to a community college.
- Participant #3 - Male, 21, Civil Engineering student
Each of participating students noted that they were able to save money, and
lessen debt-load, by going to college locally and staying at home. Access to economic
capital was a major theme with all of the participants in their pathway through
community college.
… the expenses was a lot and I didn't really have a job or anything and my mom
said, "You know …" well, actually both my parents said, "As long as you go to
school, you know, you don't have to worry about paying rent here at home. Just
go to the community college, take the necessary classes you need." That's pretty
much why I chose it and also you know, you learn about like college classes are
like. One my high school teachers said “if you go to university you're going to
pay around $1,100." I guess that was the price then. "If you go to community
college, you pay $60 a unit. That's like a whole different ball game and you're
going to … in most of my cases your test scores are low, you're going to start low
again so you don't want to pay for all the remedial classes at $1,000 a pot
rather, you should do that at community college and just take care of all your …
your lower division or your remedial classes."
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
Another student, who also had medical cost concerns, expressed some sticker
shock over the price of a four-year university as the reason she started at community
college. Although ultimately she thought it was for the best and allowed her more time
to transition to college life, another theme that emerged from the focus groups.
153
I couldn't afford it. That was the big thing. I went … I was actually planning on
going to a university and I clicked Total or Fill out the Application and it said, I
owed $20,000 and I was like, "Oh, I can't afford that." So I had to cancel
everything and I cried.
- Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
Theme: Family
Another theme that emerged was that families were emotionally supportive and
encouraging, but there was a lack of cultural capital from the parents in the family in
how to navigate college and financial aid. Cultural capital was also present in older
siblings, and sometimes younger siblings in helping with academics. Although there
were some examples of an older sibling being a role model and helping to navigate the
community college and transfer process, most students had to figure it out for
themselves. Family was also a source of inspiration and motivation for pursuing and
education. Also emerging was the sense of wanting to be a role model for a younger
sibling or family member.
Cultural Capital
It was a kind of figure it out yourself kind of thing … they were supporting me the
whole way, you know. Go to college and things like that but I also had to figure
out how to pay for it because they … my dad worked two jobs and my mom
worked a job and we were … my aunt … we lost our house and everything
because she got diagnosed with cancer so all of our money went to her and we
were really financially unstable at the time … I mean I talked to my dad and he
was like, my dad never cries. But when he cries, you know it's serious. And so he
was really upset and he knows that that's what I wanted but it wasn't … at the
time it wasn't realistic
- Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
154
I got my older brother to help me too because he already knew all that
(programming) stuff. So if I needed help I would just ask my brother and he’d
just tell me. The teacher would explain it really complicated. My brother
explained it in five minutes and I understood it. I guess he knew how to explain it
better.
- Participant #6 - Male, 21, Computer Science
Role models
I think my brother was a big role model because he was doing the same major as
I was and he was already in community college two years prior before I got there
and basically, he transferred to Sac State the same year, same major, same
standing. He was a little bit behind because he was … that he didn't know a lot of
English and had to learn real quick. We came from Mexico when he was in
sophomore year in high school and so he had to catch up on English work and in
the community college he was behind a lot and that affected his prerequisite he
was doing. When I got to community college, he helped me a lot because he knew
what the classes I had to take, all the prerequisites. He pretty much never talked
to a counselor in community college.
- Participant #3 - Male, 21, Civil Engineering
Theme: Inspiration/Motivation
Students received inspiration from family members in various ways. Students
with college educated parents mentioned that they were motivated and inspired by their
parents’ professions. However, these parents received their education in Mexico and
their were still issues with understanding how to navigate college in America. Cultural
capital was both a positive and negative regarding parents’ education and the
understanding of how to navigate higher education.
155
I've always been inclined towards the science area. My mom was nurse and my
dad was pilot so they were kind of orienting me towards that. I grew up in that
environment.
- Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
I think it was both my parents because since I was little, my dad when we were
living … when we lived in Mexico he was an engineer. He was one of my role
models of me becoming for an engineer and my mom seeing her hard work after
my dad died kind of inspired me.
- Participant #3 - Male, 21, Civil Engineering
Other students found motivation and inspiration from their parents and
grandparents. Students had the sense that they had opportunities that their parents and
grandparents didn’t have, and were also motivated by how hard their parents had to
work and the type of labor intensive jobs they worked.
The only reason I did it is because my parents always pushed me. They always
wanted me to get an education. That’s the only reason I didn’t fail high school. I
graduated and everything. They were a big inspiration because they wanted me
to continue to college.
- Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
My grandmother was one and my parents. Like now my parents are really my …
my inspiration or my backbone to keep going to college because like my mom
and dad they just filed bankruptcy and they're trying to find ways and means to
make it … the more they have to struggle, the more it tells me you know what,
you can do it. You can finish it. You're two years away, just finish it now you
know you finished every class that you had and you overcame every hurdle that
you had to just to get to this point and you didn't get here this far just to stop you
know. You need to finish it out you know, finish out strong.
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
My dad was like, if you don’t go to school then you’re going to come and work
with me. He works in construction so I was like “No.” He always tells me “You
156
either want to work with your brain or with your hands.” So I’m going to choose
my brain.
- Participant #6 - Male, 21, Computer Science
Students also had the sense of wanting to be a role model for a younger sibling
and even other Latinos. In some cases, the student was pushed by the parents as the
oldest child, but others were internally motivated by wanting to set a good example by
being successful and showing that it can be done.
My family, but specifically little sister. My older sister and my little sister were
best friends. When we got older my older sister kind of … was making some
rough decisions with her life and was … and so my little sister, that was her role
model and when she saw that she was like "You were my role model. What
happened?" and so after that I was like, "Heck, I want to be a role model." So
um … so that kind of brought us all together. I think my little sister. I call her
every day and she talks to me. - Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
Theme: English as a Second Language (ESL)
All of the focus group participants indicated that English was their second
language, but most did not feel it was a barrier. A couple of students did have some
issues with language and writing, particularly academic English and writing.
(Regarding race) … Most of the time I didn’t think too much about it, but I was
careful. The only thing that I noticed is why I failed the class, but I was thinking
it’s not because they are White and they are racists. It’s because they use other
language, the more high English. They used other kinds of words that I didn’t
even know when I was taking the test.
- Participant #4 - Female, 39, Biology
157
For me, it was kind of a struggle because me I had to … because I didn’t know
how to write in high school and I couldn't even put two words together. I didn't
know what a fragment was until I got to junior college and like, my … one of my
English teachers, she actually helped me out a lot and as well as my younger
sister because my sister was a good writer.
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
Q2 – Focus Groups - Institutional Factors
Research Question #2: What institutional factors (high school and community
college) were most influential in the success of Hispanic students that have transferred
from community college to Sacramento State?
Table 37
Summary of Focus Group Responses – Question #2
Q2-Institutional Factors
High School or Community College
Preparation for college
Information
Counselors/Staff
CC Professors
Academic Clubs/Programs
Positive
Negative
+
+
+
+
+
-
Theme: Preparation for College
Students had both positive and negative feelings of being prepared for college by
their high school education. Some felt that they were not pushed in high school, and
therefore not prepared for the academic rigor of college. Students that enrolled in AP
courses, however, felt like they were better prepared.
158
I think it was really helpful. It's really helpful as long as you take advantage of it
because it's pretty much you. It’s all on you. You got to take as much AP classes
as you can, take advantage of the help of your teachers and pretty much, you got
to …. you've got to be on top of things and it helped a lot I mean when I got to
college … the AP classes they prepared me for college.
- Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
Honestly, I didn’t feel like high school was a challenge for me. I just went, I took
the course. I didn’t really try a lot. It was like here, take a test, you get the grade.
There wasn’t a lot of challenges, but what challenged me was taking the AP
classes and also some of the teachers were helpful that way. In general I don’t
think high school prepared me for college.
- Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
Theme: Community College Information
A number of the students got their information about community college from
high school teachers, counselors or family members. Most had to learn about the
financial aid process on their own because their parents did not understand the system.
First thing I got it (transfer information) from an instructor, no I remember. It
was a letter or email that I received that I can get my GE. From there I started
reading, just reading. Also my husband he knew.
- Participant #4 - Female, 39, Biology
I learned from my sister because she also went to community college. She
graduated from the same community college.
- Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
159
Theme: Counselors/Staff
Students mentioned that generally academic counselors and staff were helpful in
their progress and ability to transition to a four-year university. Most students also
relied on information from family members as well as information on the community
college website and transferrable classes. One student mentioned that she had inside
access having gotten a job in the academic counseling center.
I had the chance to work at the guidance division at the community
college, so I had the counselors at my availability. I got to know them on a more
personal basis. They were the ones that were able to guide me personally just
because I got to know them and became good friends with one of the counselors.
She guided me step by step on what to do.
Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
Yes, I definitely went to a counselor for academic. I met with them throughout my
college experience or throughout my years at the community college, I’d visit
them probably at least once a semester just to make sure I was on the right path
and I was taking the right classes and make sure that the classes transferred
because not always do the classes transfer.
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
I just went by the paper that they gave us, the transferable classes that we can
take that are transferable to other CSUs and UCs. I went by that and also visited
my counselor probably once a semester.
- Participant #6 - Male, 21, Computer Science
Theme: Community College Professors
Community college professors were also seen as integral to success through
guidance, motivation, support and opportunities.
160
Being there for five years and then having your teacher’s say, "What are you still
doing here?" And it was kind of embarrassing so … I had a tutor go into my job
and she said, "I love you and I love seeing you but next time I come in here, I
don't want to see you." So … They expected more.
- Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
I think it was the professors. They were more … it wasn't like high school they
were on your back, they kept giving you homework or whatever. Pretty much
they gave me more opportunities like she said internships. My community college
had a good internship program. We have to take class with four units. We had to
go like every Thursday. And then at end of the semester, they got you an
internship for summer at graduate school or any company that hires interns. And
at the end of the semester, you had an internship insured like you had to finish. It
was paying also so that was a … I think it was good.
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
… having a good networking basis with your professors like there's an internship
that … I approached my professor, I said you know, "There's an internship at
Georgia Tech University do you think I'm ready for it?" She goes, "No, I don't
think you're ready for that one." She gave me a moment. She goes, "You're ready
for this one though." And it was an internship in undergrad research in UC
Santa Barbara. It was a full paid … expenses are paid for and it was a good
experience because it allowed me to know the science … in school … you have
to study this book. Study this. Study these molecules,” but you don't really know
until you actually go do it on something. You know and that was what was
beneficial about the internship is because I was applying the … the principles I
was learning at chemistry and I approached with my project.
- Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
Theme: Academic Clubs/Programs
A few of the students in the focus groups participated in programs like MESA
(Mathematics Engineering Science Achievement), which they felt was helpful in their
academic and social support.
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I got involved with organizations that helped me out with both leadership roles,
group activities, networking skills. Those were the things that helped me a lot, a
lot … the MESA program helped me a lot and having a good communication
with my professors was key too because my professors were able to understand
me personally you know. They understood like what I was going through to get to
the necessary steps to … to come to a … a four-year institution.
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
I got into a program known as MESA, which is Mathematics Engineering
Science Achievements and that really helped a lot because they had on-site tutors
for all subjects in the STEM major and we were … the MESA program itself was
more with the professors so the professors would always … they always made an
effort to always work with us so that we can pass.
Participant #3 - Male, 21, Civil Engineering
Q3 – Focus Groups – Pathways and Perceived Barriers
Research Question #3: What are the pathways and perceived barriers for
Hispanic students who have successfully transferred to Sacramento State in STEM
majors?
Table 38
Summary of Focus Group Responses – Question #3
Q3-Pathways and Perceived Barriers
Economics/Cost
Adjustment/Transition
Tuition
Race/Culture
Self-determination
Positive
+
+
+
+
Negative
-
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Theme: Economics/Cost
Economic status and the cost of education was a primary reason behind starting
at community college for all of the focus group participants, although one student
originally began at community college to learn English. This student did state that the
low cost of community college allowed her to take, and retake classes at a much cheaper
rate, and continue her education into other subjects. Location and the ability to stay
home at lowe cost was also factor in students starting the educational pathway at
community college.
It was money reasons. It was more expensive to go to CSU or UC right away, so
I did it to save money … It’s always cheaper to attend a community college and
just get your GE classes or your basic sciences classes done and then focus on
your upper division classes, your major classes at a CSU.
- Participant #3 - Male, 21, Civil Engineering
I wanted to go to community college because it was right next to my house, like
ten minutes walking. Also, my older brother went to college in Arizona and then
the whole debt crisis thing happened. My parents were into a lot debt, so I didn’t
want to get myself into more debt. I didn’t really pay for the community college
because I got the fee-waiver. I didn’t pay tuition. That’s why I decided to go
there for a while.
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
During community college I was working two jobs, so it might be I guess the
thing I had to do. Balancing school and both jobs was tough. Community college
was flexible.
- Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
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Theme: Adjustment/Transition
There was sense from a number of students that starting at community college
allowed them time to adjust to being independent, managing their own schedules and
prioritizing activities.
It helped me learn how to prioritize because you can't really put stuff off the
night before like I did in high school and you also have to learn how to work
together or sometimes just kind of reach out and ask someone if they want to
study with you.
- Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
(Community college) got me used to the environment of organizing my schedule,
prioritizing my … my daily life you know, scheduling my schedule as to when I
should do things like study, work, my fraternity, my family because I … I have to
prioritize all those things now and it's pretty good. That's one of the good quality
things of community college they teach you how to prioritize your time, your
daily life.
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
Students in the focus group all mentioned money as the primary reason for
starting at a community college, but a few students also mentioned that starting at
community college was a good thing because they were not sure they were mature
enough to go straight to college.
I did it to save money and also to stay at home and get used to the fact of being
independent and slowly transition from depending on my parents fully and to
transition slowly into being independent.
Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
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I had to go to community college because of cost, but it was worth it because I
don't know that I was really mature enough to transfer yet or live on my own so
weaning definitely. I mean I don't worry about it. I feel like it's good.
- Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
Theme: Work
Nearly all of the focus group students worked while going to community college
and continue to work since having transferred. Work presented a significant barrier to
the time allotted for studies and student life activities, but also gave students inspiration
for finishing their education.
I work retail and I work 40 plus hours a week and I go to school five days a week
and it's hard and lately, I feel like I just haven't really had a day off you know. I
get off at 10 and study till 3 am. I get up at 6 and then I walk to school and um,
so it just … it just inspires me and it really makes me want to work towards what
I really want to do and be outside and not be indoors all day so that just reminds
me of what I want to do.
- Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
Theme: Race/Culture
Race and culture were an issue in underlying ways for these students. While
most students did not feel that race was an issue in community college, there were some
mentions of cultural expectations to work, parents focusing on work over education, and
other students making mention of students being “white-washed” because of their
academic success.
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The only setback is kind of the culture Latino culture is more inclined for work.
They don't … some do push their children to achieve a high education but most
of the culture is about work, work, work. They only worry about work, our
parents and they're not really worried about my children and their grades. They
worry about work and they forget about their children's education that's why my
mom but I understood that it was because she worked 40 hours a week.
- Participant #3 - Male, 21, Civil Engineering
I didn’t feel it was an issue. I feel like I was treated the same in high school. I
don’t feel like I was given the lesser education in high school just because I’m a
Latina or in college. I figure if you do the work in college it reflects who you are.
If you put the effort, it’s going to show what you know. I don’t feel like I was ever
discriminated or given special privileges just because of who I am.
- Participant #5 - Female, 24, Biology
They said I was whitewashed and a lot of the times, I feel like Hispanics,
Mexicans all that they kind of … it's almost like they cut you down for being
smart.
- Participant #1 - Female participant, 25, Biology
Theme: Self-determination
Self-determination, or inspiration, to persist and complete their education came
from a variety of sources that have been covered in other themes including: parents,
siblings, a sense of wanting to be a role model, wanting to have a purpose, wanting a
different way of life at work and taking advantage of the opportunities that others did not
have.
I'll go to work but you know, I'll probably have like a little enthusiasm to go to
work knowing that I'm not going to work as a custodian for the engineering firm.
I'm going to be the engineer, the one that plans the plans not the one that's going
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to be … the one that's the janitor or something like that, yeah.
- Participant #3 - Male, 21, Civil Engineering
We also inspire other kids young as they're Latino and the same backgrounds …
we came from your situation. We are here for you. We can help you out. The
same goes for the MESA program, the SHPE (Society of Hispanic Professional
Engineers) and all that. Those are the programs that actually help you to see
those … those Latinos that area going up in space or they are designing that next
bridge for another train station or just designing the next cure for cancer. Those
are the things … those people that inspire us to keep going forward … other than
my parents and my grandmother.
- Participant #2 - Male participant, 25, Civil Engineering
Conclusion
This study used a sequential-exploratory mixed methods approach to investigate
personal and institutional factors, as well pathways and barriers affecting Hispanic
students that successfully transferred to Sacramento State in a STEM discipline through
the following research questions:
Research Question #1: Which personal variables are the most significant
for Hispanic students who have successfully transferred from a community
college to Sacramento State in STEM majors?
Research Question #2: What institutional factors (high school and
community college) were most influential in the success of Hispanic students
that have transferred from community college to Sacramento State?
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Research Question #3: What are the pathways and perceived barriers for
Hispanic students who have successfully transferred to Sacramento State in
STEM majors?
An electronic survey was distributed to Hispanic transfer students majoring in a
STEM discipline at Sacramento State. Quantitative data was analyzed using Pearson
correlation to find significance among personal and institutional variables. Parent
education, socio-economic status, language, family emotional support and
community/mentor support all played significant roles in answering research question
#1. Remediation, academic preparation, community college factors such as counselors
and academic support, high school teachers and faculty, and academic and student life
all played significant roles in answering research question #2. Qualitative data for openended questions from the electronic survey were also analyzed for recurring themes.
Counselors and staff were found to have both positive and negative influence, and
financial aid was seen as necessary, but often difficult to navigate, while academic
support programs played a key role in success and inspiration from a variety of sources,
including family.
Data from two focus groups were transcribed and coded for recurring themes to
answer research questions #1-#3. Socio-economic status played a significant role in
students beginning their pathway at community college. Family emotional support
language and self-determination were largely the reasons behind student inspiration,
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motivation and persistence. Other factors such as high school preparation, and parent
education background were found to have both a positive and negative influence in
student backgrounds.
Chapter 5 concludes this study with a summary of the findings, conclusions and
discussion. Significant findings will also be presented in context of the theoretical
frames, along with recommendations for leadership, policy implications, and
suggestions for future research.
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Chapter 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The impetus for this study is the persistence of achievement gaps in STEM
disciplines for Hispanic students, at the same time that the Hispanic population
continues to grow toward the majority in California and the United States. Achievement
gaps in STEM disciplines have economic ramifications for the Hispanic population,
which in turn has an effect on the economy and competitiveness of the U.S. and
California. In California, eighty percent (80%) of Hispanic students start public higher
education in community colleges. This study focused on Hispanic students who have
been successful in transferring from a community college to a four-year public
university to better understand which personal and institutional (high school and
community college) factors have been influential in their persistence and transfer
success, and to better understand factors influencing student pathways to and through
community college. The theoretical frameworks for this study included Tinto’s
Persistence/Interactionalist Student Departure Model, Bourdieu’s Theory of Cultural
Capital and Padilla’s Latino Student Success Model. These three bodies of work
provided the lens for this study, which was further informed through the literature
review. This study was designed to answer the research questions through an
explanatory mixed-methods approach.
The remainder of this chapter provides a summary and interpretation of the
significant findings in this study. While many of the findings are supported by the
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literature review and the theoretical frames, there are some significant additions to what
is already known. First, while we know that family support is critical to student success,
the concept of either explicit or implied permission to pursue higher education for
Hispanic students was not found in the literature review. Second, participants in this
study mentioned that starting at community college allowed them more time to transition
to higher education and independence. This finding, as well as the student profiles in
Chapter 4, led to the development of the Hispanic Transfer Student Profile concept
introduced in the Summary and Discussion of Findings section. Recommendations for
Action are discussed in the next section with Leadership and Policy Implications
following. Chapter 5 concludes with Recommendations for Further Study, Conclusions
and Reflections sections.
Summary and Discussion of Findings
As discussed in Chapters 1 and 2 personal variables such as family education,
socio-economics, culture, mentors, language and family expectations affect student
education and aspirations all along the education pathway. These factors influence
access to quality education in P-12 education and ultimately play a role in the students’
educational pathway to and through community college. As illustrated in Chapter 2,
students bring with them to higher education personal factors and academic background,
which are affected by students’ levels cultural capital and self-efficacy. Students in
community college continue to be affected by personal factors such as family emotional
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support and expectations, economics and internal motivation, while seeking to continue
their education as they experience the social and academic aspects of community
college. A brief summary of significant findings is included below, with further
interpretations in context of the theoretical frames included in the Interpretation of
Findings section.
Family - Family was the most significant contributing factor to student success in
this study. Family played a role in providing emotional support, often providing a push
to continue to pursue an education. Family also acted as a source of inspiration, with
students wanting to take advantage of opportunities that their parents and grandparents
did not have. Many of the students made mention of the labor intensive, low paying
work their parents endured and strived for something more meaningful, wanting the
opportunity to “work their brains, and not their hands.” While the parents of most
respondents had a high school education or less, siblings did add cultural capital by
acting as role models, sharing knowledge and showing the way through community
college. Students also had a sense of wanting to be a role model for younger siblings,
which provided an additional sense of motivation and inspiration for their persistence.
Economics - Socio-economic status played a significant role in students’
educational pathway in this study. These findings show the linkages in the cycle of
cultural, economic and social capital and how a lack of economic and social capital can
play a significant role in gaining cultural capital through public education. Clearly, there
are links between economic status and quality education that manifest in student
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perceptions of academic preparation, inspiration and feelings of community support.
Economics was also the primary reason students started at community college,
highlighting the importance of access by way of financial aid.
Community and Mentor Support – Literature suggests that underrepresented
students have a paucity of role models and mentors which plays a role in students
pursuing STEM education. Students in this study that continued to pursue STEM
education felt that community and mentor support was significant in their success. The
majority of students had a mentor or role model that encouraged them to pursue a STEM
degree, while 74% found that support and encouragement from their high school
teachers. These same students felt better prepared for college and found inspiration
from their community college professors and programs as well. The significance of
these findings suggests that some students are able to find surrogate role models through
teachers and community college professor despite race.
Community College Faculty, Counselors and Staff - Keeping in mind students in
this study were ultimately successful in transferring to a four-year university;
participants generally had positive feelings on community college’s role in their success.
Eighty-four percent (84%) of respondents indicated that faculty played a key role in their
success. Findings for counselors and staff were mixed in their reviews, however, closer
to 50%/50%. A number of students in this study felt they were given bad advice, which
led to the wrong pathway. While research suggests that getting students into a line of
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study earlier leads to higher transfer success rates, there is clearly not one pathway for
all students. Students who lack cultural capital by way of parent education and/or
exposure to various industries need more to time explore their natural interests and
talents and will be less likely to understand or be able to articulate or advocate for their
interests. The literature review on cultural capital has shown that a lack of exposure to
STEM disciplines limits students’ knowledge of, interest in and understanding of the
pathways to STEM professions.
Transition – The concept of “transition time” was a surprising finding in this
study. Spending time at community college allowed students to adjust to being
independent, and in some cases discover what they wanted to study, while others
mentioned that they were not ready to leave home. By balancing work and academics,
in the safe environment of home, students felt that their community college experience
allowed them to figure out how to manage their personal, work and academic priorities.
A few students mentioned that pulling away from family was difficult. This additional
time to transition and mature may be tied to culture and the closeness of family in
Hispanic communities. We often think that starting at a four-year university would be
best for everyone, but some students need more time to transition to being independent.
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Interpretation of Findings
The interpretation of findings in this study are examined through theoretical
framework provided by Tinto (1975), Bourdieu (1977) and Padilla (1998) to answer the
research questions regarding personal and academic factors that affect success and act as
barriers and influence student pathways. The section introduces the concept of Hispanic
Transfer Student Typologies as a tool for identifying and communicating student needs.
Finally, the section concludes by reviewing the model Hispanic Student/Community
College Pathways Model introduced in Chapter 2 and providing revisions and discussion
per the findings in this study.
As displayed and discussed in Chapters 1 and 2, Tinto’s (1975) model of student
persistence in higher education includes personal and academic background factors that
the student brings with them to higher education such as family background and
economics, K-12 education and the students personal determination. Tinto also asserts
that a student’s engagement in the social and academic aspects of the higher education
environment are critical to a student’s success (Tinto, 1975). The findings of this study
clearly show that student personal factors such as language, parent education and
economics play critical roles in student success. The social and academic aspects of
college life, however, were not available, or not an option for many of the students in
this study due to other concerns such as work and family obligations.
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Tinto (1975) refers to these obligations as “pull” factors in his work on student
integration, but despite a lack of participation, students in this study do persist and have
been successful in transferring to a four-year university. Tinto also suggests that
student’s focus on education can be pulled away by the opportunity to work, suggesting
that students make a conscious or unconscious choice to work rather than focus on their
studies. Given some of the responses from participants in this study, working was not a
choice, but rather an economic reality as students transitioned to being independent.
Students that were able to afford the time take advantage of academic and social clubs or
programs certainly benefited from a higher level of interaction and support from their
fellow students and professors, enriching their experience in community college. A
number of students mentioned being able to participate in internships and special
projects, adding to their experiential understanding of their chosen academic discipline,
but most students in this study were not able to take advantage of these opportunities.
We often think of college as a transformational experience where students learn
to think critically and discover themselves philosophically, but for many students the
experience through community college is more transactional. Certainly students in this
study made mention of being allowed to mature and learn time management and
prioritization skills as they transitioned from high school to being more independent.
This type of learning, or real-life education, should not be undervalued. The low cost of
tuition and living expenses, if they were able to live at their parents’ home, and the
ramifications of repeating courses or needing an increased amount of time to discover
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their path were a significant finding of this study. Researchers and academics are often
concerned with the efficiency at which students reach certain milestones, including
transfer and graduation, and with good reason. Academic and transfer pathways should
be clear, and students who know what academic field they would like to pursue should
be able to do so with minimal wasted effort and in the most efficient manner possible.
However, many students need extra time to repeat courses and brush up on basic skills,
or to find the academic field that best suits them. This is often an overlooked advantage
of the low-cost and accessibility of community college.
Like Tinto (1975), Padilla’s (1998) Heuristic Model of Latino Student Success
acknowledges that students come to an institution with varying levels of preparation and
personal variables that affect their ability to navigate higher education. Both Tinto and
Padilla provide a “black box” model to demonstrate that students bring with them, their
previous personal and academic experiences. Padilla’s model, shown in Figure 13
below, adds lines to illustrate the geography of barriers that students must navigate to
attain a college degree.
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Figure 13. Padilla's Geography of Barriers
Also discussed in Chapter 2, is the influence of both Tinto (1975) and Bourdieu
(1977) that can be seen in Padilla’s (1998) work. Padilla’s barriers are classified as
discontinuity, lack of nurturing, lack of resources and lack of presence. Discontinuity
and nurturing, are demonstrated through the knowledge that students bring with them
and family support (cultural capital), the lack the influence of resources (economic
capital) and the lack of presence in missing networks and mentors (social capital).
Padilla’s model suggests that we focus on the experiences of students who have been
successful and the actions they take to discover what students are doing to overcome
barriers and achieve academic success. This study takes that approach by focusing on
students who have been successful in transferring to a four-year institution in a STEM
discipline.
As discussed in the findings, nurturing by way family emotional support was a
primary component in the success of students in this study. Parents play a pivotal role
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by encouraging and enabling students to attend community college, even if they don’t
have the economic resources to support the cost of higher education. Nurturing in
Padilla’s (1998) model also includes minority mentors that enable and encourage
students to see themselves in STEM professions. As demonstrated in the literature
review, Hispanics professionals are severely underrepresented in STEM disciplines, but
students in this study did receive mentorship in high school and community college from
teachers and professors, despite race. Issues of discontinuity are also present in this
study. A number of students mentioned that community college allowed them additional
time to transition to independence and into an unfamiliar education environment.
Despite a lack of education and higher education background of parents, students
in this study were able to overcome this barrier. Siblings were found to play a
significant role in filling in the gaps of cultural capital and continuity, particularly in
providing the knowledge of how to navigate and strategically plan education pathways.
Students, and parents by way of their own sacrifices and push toward education, also
had a sense that the sacrifices and hard work they were putting in would be worth it.
Where parents were unable to provide nurturing or continuity in education through their
own experiences, students were able to figure it out on their own, certainly relying on
teachers, faculty and staff at community college to fill in the gaps in knowledge. As
Padilla (1998) outlines in his Heuristic model, students that are able to seek out
information, and find networks of support, have learned to navigate, and have become
experts in overcoming barriers to their education.
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Lack of presence in Padilla’s (1998) model was also factor as found in this study
and as discussed the literature review. Students noted that Hispanic role models and
mentors were missing in high school and community college. A number of students
were able to overcome the lack of presence of Latinos by participating in MESA
programs where they were available. Lack of presence according to Padilla also
includes curriculum that is culturally relevant, but students in this study noted that
STEM fields are more objective, meaning that the answer is either right or wrong, which
seemed to take race, or culture, out of the equation for those students. The last of the
barriers Padilla addresses in his model is the lack of resources. Economics is a central
theme in the quality of education lower income families receive as well as the primary
reason students in this study started their pursuit of a degree at community college.
Students in this study were able to access higher education with the help of fee-waivers,
the low cost of tuition at community college and with the help of financial aid. Many
students noted that they had to figure out how to pay for community college on their
own, often having to explain and fill out the forms for their parents. With the positive
impression of financial aid and staff at community college as noted early in the findings,
student resourcefulness and staff expertise were helpful in assuring access for
participating students.
The last of the theoretical frames for this study was Bourdieu’s (1977) Theory of
Cultural Capital. Cultural capital is the knowledge, skills, education and advantages
given to a person by way of their economic or social status. Cultural capital is typically
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passed down through parents who guide their children through economic, social and
educational systems. Parents and families in this study have been shown to lack
economic resources and most do not maintain status by way of a college degree.
Bourdieu defines the three types of cultural capital as Embodied, Objectified and
Institutionalized. Embodied Cultural Capital is present in the findings in this study and
was most evident through the attitudes and expectations of parents. The “push” or
encouragement that parents provide is a type of embodied cultural capital, although it is
certainly not reinforced through socialization and status in the case of most Hispanic
students.
Objectified Cultural Capital is defined as the tools, instruments, or other physical
goods that pertain to economic and social status. Again, students in this study, with
limited economic resources, are less likely to have access to scientific instruments and
technology, which are given as examples of the types of objectified capital. Children
who have access to these items have increased their cultural capital though
understanding and exposure. As an example, a focus group student in this study was
given access to a computer, which spurred his interest in learning more about computers.
Other students noted exposure to STEM through a sibling’s interest, or other family
members, which provided a form of cultural capital through that exposure. The lack of
exposure at home, for most students, highlights the importance of access to quality
STEM education and programs in K-12 education. Eighty-one (81%) of respondents in
this study reported that they never participated in a STEM based program in grammar or
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high school. Unfortunately, students that live in economically challenged
neighborhoods tend to go to economically challenged schools with limited resources and
access to programs.
Institutionalized Cultural Capital such as academic degrees, credentials, and
certificates provide access to economic capital through higher paying jobs. Most parents
in this study, more than 75%, had less than a college education and many worked lower
paying, labor intensive jobs according to survey and focus group respondents.
Figure 14. Bourdieu's Forms of Capital
There was a significant lack of cultural capital in this study in terms of parents’
education levels and access to and knowledge of scientific instruments and technology.
Parents were able to provide a form of embodied cultural capital by creating the
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expectation that students should pursue higher education. This is not an easy task given
that the parents of most students in this study lack the access to economic and social
capital as shown in Figure 14. As discussed in Chapter 2, cultural capital is the most
attainable form of capital by way of public higher education, demonstrating the
importance of access, support programs and clearer pathways to a degree.
Each of the theoretical frames in this study were found to be relevant and
validated by the findings. Concepts and factors in Tinto’s (1975)
Persistence/Interactionalist Student Departure Model that act to support students or act
as barriers were present in various forms. While student integration into the academic
life of the institution are required to matriculate, students were found to participate less
in student life because of their need to work and the transactional nature of their
community college experience. Motivation, or inspiration in this study, was also found
to come from a variety of sources including parents and siblings. In addition to their
own internal motivation and sense of wanting to take advantage of an opportunity,
students found motivation by seeing how hard their parents worked, or by seeing a
sibling succeed.
Padilla’s (1998) student success model is useful as a theoretical frame in
studying the experiences of successful students, so those experiences can be better
understood and replicated if possible. The categorization of barriers Padilla present as
discontinuity, lack of nurturing, lack of presence, and lack of resources are useful in
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studying and classifying the experience of Hispanic STEM students in this study. While
each of the barriers was present in the findings, the lack of presence in curriculum, or
culturally relevance and reference, was not noted by students given the nature of STEM
curriculum. When students spoke of the curriculum, they had an appreciation of the fact
that there was a right or a wrong answer in STEM, and that their success was based on
the objective nature of the subject. Students did note that there was a lack of presence
when it came to mentors, professionals, teachers and professors, in their STEM
experiences, and in some majors, a lack of Hispanic student peers as well. Most of the
students in this study were able to bridge the gap in Hispanic mentors by connecting
with teachers and professors, regardless of race.
Lastly, Bourdieu’s (1997) Cultural Capital was present in most variables and
barriers discussed in this study. While economics and education background were
certainly found to be barriers, parents were able to provide a form of embodied cultural
capital by creating the expectation, or providing a “push” towards higher education.
This “push” may act as tacit, or explicit, approval for students to pursue higher
education. For many Hispanic students, approval and support of the pursuit of high
education is not a given, adding complexity and stress to the choices students must
make. Hispanic students often continue to navigate and negotiate between their
academic and personal lives (Phelan, Davidson, & Yu, 1998), and that negotiation
continues into college. Access to economic capital also played a central role in students
staring their higher education pathway at community college. Cultural capital is
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accessible through public higher education, providing access to degrees and economic
capital through higher paying jobs, paving the way to social capital. The model
continues with future generations having higher levels, or better access to cultural capital
by way of their parents’ education and increased economic mobility.
Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies
In addition to the findings discussed thus far, a pattern of student typologies
emerged in analyzing the data and uncovering factors behind student pathways.
Students generally fell into two broad categories of those that were academically
prepared, and those that needed at least some work on basic skills in math, writing and
English. There was also a noted effect on the time that it took each student to transfer to
a four-year institution based on their needs and pathway. A general description of each
student typology based on student profiles in this is included below. The size of each
circle in Figure 15 is meant to represent the number of students in community college
that wish to transfer to a four-year university. The vast majority of students in
community college, estimated at over 80%, need remedial coursework and are
represented by the larger circles.
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Academically
Prepared
Basic Skills/Remedial
7+
Need
Language and
Basic Skills
6
5
Focused
Prepared
Self-Reliant
Prepared
Learning to be
Independent
4
3
Need some
Basic Skills
Self-Reliant
Persistent
Exploring
Education
2
Years to Transfer/Degree
Transactional
Transitional
Exploratory
Remedial
Figure 15. Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies
Transactional (academically prepared) – Academically prepared with a clear
education pathway. Economics is the primary reason for starting at community college.
Family is a driver and source of information and inspiration. High self-reliance and
focus on goals. Transfer in 2-3 years, depending on economics and full-time status.
Transitional (academically prepared) – Academically prepared, clear
education pathway. Economics is the primary reason for starting at community college,
but also needs time to transition to independence. Community/mentor support in high
school and community college is also a factor. Family is a driver and source of
inspiration and information. Focused on goals and learning to be independent. Transfer
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in 2-4 years, depending on economics and full-time status.
Exploratory (basic skills) – Needs some language, writing, and/or math skills.
Clearer path to educational goals, and participates in student/academic life. Time to
transition to independence may also be a factor. Transfer in 3-6 years, depending on
economics and number of remedial courses.
Remedial (basic skills) – Needs language, writing, and/or math skills, and time
to find the right path. Low-cost/opportunity at community is a primary driver.
Language may be a significant barrier. Self-reliant and persistent and having to work
may be biggest threat. Transfer in 4-8 years, depending on economics, remedial
coursework, and time to finding education pathway.
These categories are broad, and certainly students can cross boundaries described
in each typology, depending in their economic status, personal and academic
backgrounds. A concept like the Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies could be further
developed into a questionnaire, much like a personality test, generalized and combined
with student academic assessment tests to provide a better understand of student
backgrounds and readiness for college. This type of assessment would provide
academic counselors a more in depth perspective and understanding of the individual
and their needs and goals in creating an academic plan.
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Figure 16. Hispanic Student/Community College Pathways Model
The Hispanic Student/Community College Pathways Model originally presented
in Chapter 2 and shown in Figure 16 shows the personal and academic components of
this study. The revised model in Figure 17 shows additional components and concepts
from the findings of this study that show the effect of factors that contribute to success
or act as barriers. The findings suggest that personal factors act as “push” factors, or
drivers, by supporting, motivating and inspiring to continue their pathway through
higher education. Absent these drivers, factors such as the need to work, or lack of
emotional support make act as barriers that are too much to overcome. Positive factors
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in this model are labeled in green and point toward transfer to show their influence on
success. Negative factors, or barriers, are shown in red and push against student
progress. Likewise, institutional factors such as academic advising, academic mentors,
support and instruction can act as “catalysts” in propelling a student toward transfer or a
degree, or as “inhibitors” by delaying progress, or not providing the type of support
Hispanic students in community college need. Community college leadership and
education policy are also shown in the model in yellow to demonstrate the opportunity
and threat that these components have on community college students.
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Figure 17. Revised Hispanic Student/Community College Pathways Model
As discussed in Chapter 2, community college leadership at the local level has
the opportunity to take an equity based approach to student success by focusing
resources and efforts on practices that aid in student success and transfer. Leadership
that does not take this approach by actively understanding and analyzing barriers
remains a threat to any progress in minimizing, if not eliminating achievement gaps.
Likewise, educational policies that affect access to, and the quality of education
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resources, counseling and support remain both opportunities and threats. Changes to the
financial aid process, or limits to the amount of financial aid a student can receive, must
be thoughtfully conceived so that access is not limited. The low cost of tuition and
access to financial aid are shown in green in Figure 17 as they provide access to higher
education for students. This access, however, is always under threat from changing
budget environments and policies that focus on efficiency without in depth
understanding of student pathways.
Recommendation for Actions
The findings of this study provide valuable quantitative and qualitative
information for state-wide, K-12 and higher education leaders. As noted in Chapter 1,
the public education system does not operate as one system, but operates in separate
silos with little opportunity to make systemic changes that affect the efficiency of
student pathways from K-16 education. With that reality, the opportunity to affect
change lies with leaders in their respective silos, by working across boundaries and at
the local level. The findings in this study suggest the following actions, particularly for
Hispanic students and in respects to STEM education:
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Table 39
Recommendations for Action
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. English intensive programs from P-3
2. Provide information for parents in
multiple languages:
- College prep course information as
early as sixth grade
- Community college information
- Financial Aid workshops
3. Provide access to STEM
programs/summer programs in grades 312 for underrepresented students
ACTION/STAKEHOLDERS
P-12 Educators
4. Training for
Teachers/Professors/Counselors on
student pathways and challenges
5. Provide STEM support programs such
as MESA and internships in community
college
6. Maintain access through Financial
Aid/Fee-waiver
7. Create clearer pathways for transfer
P-16 Stakeholders
P-16 Partnerships
Community Colleges
Public College System
Public/Private Partnerships
between Education, Industry
and Foundations
Community College,
Foundations and Industry
Federal and State
Policymakers
Public College System
1. English intensive programs from P-3
The literature review and responses from open-ended questions and focus group
participants indicate that students that started school at the kindergarten level in the U.S.
had an easier time adjusting to learning in English. The findings of this and other
studies suggest that K-12 educators should provide English intensive support for ESL
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students from pre-school through the third grade. Providing students with better
preparation in English will allow students to excel in other subjects as well.
2. Provide information for parents in multiple languages:
- College prep course information as early as sixth grade
- Community college information
- Financial Aid information
Educators from pre-school through 12th grade should partner in providing
information on college preparatory coursework beginning at the latest in sixth grade
where advance math work such as algebra begins. Algebra is a significant gate keeper
for STEM education, and parents of most underrepresented students have little
experience in understanding how to guide their students to higher education. The CSU
system provides free information on the pathway to college in five different languages.
An example of this information in Spanish and English is available at:
http://blogs.calstate.edu/college/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/HTGTC-Handoutspanish.pdf. P-12 educators should partner with the community college, CSU and UC
systems to provide this type of information and information on financial aid in multiple
languages. Community colleges should also continue to reach out to high schools and
provide parents and students with enrollment and financial information.
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3. Provide access to STEM programs/summer programs in grades 3-12 for
underrepresented students
The vast majority of students that participated in this study indicated that they
did not have access to or did not participate in STEM and summer programs while in
K-12 education. These types of programs provide exposure to STEM majors, allowing
students hands-on experience in computers and sciences, exposure that they likely do
not have access to at home or at school. One example of this type of program is
Academic Talent Search (ATS) at Sacramento State, which provides summer
programming in many subjects, including STEM. The program is targeted to provide
underrepresented students free or low-cost access. The program is supported by
partnerships with Sacramento State, private foundation and corporate partners. This
type of program also provides exposure to a college campus, allowing students to
become familiar with and see themselves in that environment. More information on
ATS can be found at: http://edweb.csus.edu/projects/ats/
4. Training for Teachers/Professors/Counselors on Student Pathways and Challenges
Findings in this study indicate that impact on students, particularly for students
that lack mentors and role models, can come from teachers, professors and counselors
in high school and community college. By providing additional training on the type of
barriers to knowledge that students face, educational professionals will better informed
and prepared, and have a deeper level of understanding of why students lack certain
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types of knowledge. This study showed that students that were able to connect with
teachers and professors found inspiration and support from them despite race.
Providing additional assessment information like the Hispanic Transfer Student
Typologies concept, along with academic assessments, would better prepare
counselors in guiding and preparing academics plans. Often times teachers, professors
and counselors may mistake a lack of knowledge for a lack of ability. Providing
additional information will foster understanding, and lead to more equitable outcomes.
5. Provide STEM support programs such as MESA and internships in community
college
Most four-year universities have academic clubs such as the Math and
Engineering Student Achievement (MESA) that provides students the opportunity to
interact with peers, professors and professionals. Students in this study were only able
to participate in limited ways in programs such as STEM due to availability at their
community college, or time constraints due to work or other obligations. Students that
were able to participate felt that the programs added significant value by sending signals
to professors that they were more committed to their education. These students reported
getting extra support and advice, including access to internships and professionals. An
increased number of internships, particularly paid internships, would provide further
context and career opportunities in specific disciplines. Students that were able to
participate in internship noted that they provided insight into the types of careers they
were interested in and a deeper understanding of the curriculum. Paid internships are
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particularly important as many underrepresented students would not be able to afford to
participate due to economic obligations. These efforts would require a greater
commitment of community college to provide funding and staff support for partnering
with professionals and corporations.
6. Maintain access through Financial Aid/Fee-waiver
Economics was the primary reason students in this study began their pursuit of a
degree at community college. Without access to financial aid and the Board of
Governors fee-waiver program, most students would not be able to afford higher
education at all. Attaining more equitable outcomes is one of the primary purposes of
this study in understanding what enables success. Access is primary, and any changes to
financial aid formulas or the fee-waiver process threaten to limit access. Certainly
policymakers can cite efficiency as the reason to how financial aid and fee waivers are
administered and certainly eliminating students that take longer to matriculate would
increase efficiency. Policies that place the burden on students to assume even more debt
by attending fulltime, or that require students to achieve certain milestones or be left out,
must be carefully examined and study for their effect. These policies assume that
students make a choice to work and attend part-time. Limiting access by limiting
financial aid or fee-waivers, must be better examined.
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7. Create clearer pathways for transfer
Despite legislation and efforts thus far to create clearer transfer pathways, a
number of students reported taking extra coursework that they felt or found not to be
required to transfer. That said, a number of students also reported receiving good
information from counselors and websites on the requirements for transferring in their
chosen discipline. The mixed review shows that information needs to be more clear,
available and that community colleges and four-year institutions need to continue to
work toward clear transfer pathways. This may require additional training for
counselors, professors and staff as well.
Leadership and Policy Implications
The case is made in Chapter 1 that Hispanic achievement gaps in STEM majors
and ultimately in STEM professions is an issue worthy of our attention. Chapter 1 gave
an overview of the facts and factors behind STEM achievement gaps for Hispanic
students and presenting the fact that 80% of Hispanic students start their higher
education pathway in California community colleges. With the projected growth of the
Hispanic population, and the economy’s need for more college graduates to fuel a
knowledge-based economy, particularly in STEM disciplines, there is a need to better
understand factors that encourage success and act as barriers for Hispanic community
college students, which was the purpose of this study. The findings presented in Chapter
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4 and discussed in Chapter 5, present information useful for education leaders and
policymakers.
Leadership for California’s community colleges exists at both the state-wide
level through the California Community College Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO) and at
the local level in 72 district offices and 112 individual community colleges. The
CCCCO’s role is to advocate for resources and policy and provide leadership and
support to the community colleges. The findings in this study suggest that the CCCCO
should continue to advocate and ensure access for students through student financial aid
and fee-waivers, and less restrictive policies that affect local leadership’s ability to use
resources where they are most needed. This includes training in effectively
communicating with underrepresented minority students and to promote better
understanding of student needs and readiness.
In planning and looking at the recommendations of the California Community
College Student Success Task Force (SSTF), educational leaders must assure that access
is not affected by trying to increase efficiency, and that students that need more time to
find their way are not forced out of education by way of restrictive financial aid policies
and mandates. Despite legislation that dictates articulation between the community
college system and the CSU and UC systems, clear transfer pathways remain an issue at
112 separate community colleges. Leaders should continue to focus on clearer transfer
pathways, and develop system-wide assessments that provide consistent feedback to K-
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12 educators. The CCCCO played a significant role in the coordination and ultimately
the recommendations of the Student Success Task Force (SSTF) assigned to make
recommendations on best practices and policies to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of the community college system. The SSTF made twenty-two
recommendations in nine thematic areas:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Increase student readiness for college
Strengthen support for entering students
Incentivize successful student behaviors
Align course offering to meet student needs
Improve the education of Basic Skills students
Revitalize and re-envision professional development
Enable efficient statewide leadership and increase coordination among colleges
Align resources with Student Success recommendations
Review Outcomes-Based Funding
While generally the recommendations make sense to increase efficiency in
transfer, degrees and certificates, recommendations in areas #2-#4 provide some concern
for students that participated in this study. Recommendations in areas #2-#4 suggest
more accountability by students for student outcomes, but do not take into account the
different student typologies suggested in the findings of this chapter, and also suggest
that students can afford to make choices such as attending full time. As discussed
previously, forcing students to pick a program or discipline does not work for students
that are still exploring their options. Other students may only be able to afford to take
classes part-time due to economic constraints or work obligations. Leaders should focus
on making the path clear and efficient for students that know the path they would like to
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take, and provide more career and academic counseling for students that do not come to
community college with preset notions.
On a local level, community college districts and individual colleges should
focus on effective leadership and equity based outcomes to create a transfer culture and
reduce achievement gaps. College leadership should continue to invest resources in
programs such as transfer academies, academic clubs and internships that educate and
support students toward their education goals. Community colleges should also adopt a
customer service oriented culture that keeps in mind that each interaction with a student
can make a difference. The participants in this study drew inspiration and knowledge
from nearly every facet of community college, from faculty to staff, and from counselors
to web-based information.
More effective community outreach by community colleges and four-year
universities is needed to disseminate information to students and parents during K-12
education. In the recommended actions, the CSU’s How To Get To College posters and
pamphlets are cited as the type of information, in multiple languages, that parents need
to understand how to provide the right type of push for their students. Community
colleges need to participate in disseminating this information to their communities,
given there are 112 community colleges. By working with communities on the
requirements for being prepared for higher education, students and parents will better
200
understand the types of courses they need to take, and therefore come to college more
prepared.
Conclusion
The foundation of the Educational Doctorate program at Sacramento State is
built on transformational leadership, policy analysis and data-based decision making.
Transformation leadership as a concept implies that leaders are able to lead an
organization by transforming culture to meet the organization’s mission, while also
taking a humanistic approach (Bess & Dee, 2008). One of the primary missions of
community colleges is to provide access to higher education through certificates and by
way of transfer to four-year institutions. Implied in the mission of public education is
that leaders will provide education equitably. Meaning that not only are we going to
provide access to higher education, but that access must come with an equal chance to
succeed. As noted in Chapters 1 and 2, the failings of the education system are noted in
the persistence of achievement gaps for underrepresented minority students. These
failings stem from a lack of leadership and vision that did not take notice of or focus on
demographic trends, and created a system that has an inability to anticipate and react to
emerging trends based on both education policy, system design and funding.
Despite the challenges that community college leadership face, there are
opportunities to affect change at the local level. As shown in Chapter 2, Figure 7, there
are a number of community colleges that transfer more than their relative Hispanic
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population in STEM disciplines. While this study focused on student perceptions, a
better understanding of the leadership, programs and culture that promote success at
these community colleges would provide evidence for what works. Community college
leaders must not only be transformational in their leadership by creating and
encouraging a culture that focuses on student success, but leaders must also be
transformative by seeking a deeper understanding of student barriers to success that are
rooted in economics, culture and other student background factors. The transformative
leader is an advocate for proportional representation across the organization, and
demands equity in outcomes (Nevarez, Wood and Penrose, 2013, p. 145). The
community college leader, who is responsible for the gateway to higher education for
underrepresented students, has an obligation to ensure that the organization takes steps
to ensure equitable outcomes for all students, faculty and staff. Absent this mindset,
community college leaders are perpetuating the status quo by providing a product where
students are allowed to enter community college, but little is done to support their
success. The education system favors those with economic means, who have better
access to quality schools and are often more prepared for higher education. If our
educational leaders and policymakers do not embrace the moral obligation to do better,
and to do what is right, the status quo will persist, and the results will remain the same.
California is unique in its richness of diversity, which also presents unique issues
that need to be addresses in public education. The rapidly changing demographics of
California require a more informed and flexible system to adapt to changes in
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demographics and the workforce needs of the economy. Policies that restrict the use of
funds at a local level continue to hamper innovation and leadership’s ability to adjust to
student and workforce needs. At the same time, our local and state-wide leaders need a
deeper understanding of the data and issues at hand to make better, more informed
decisions. We must be wary of the misuse of data that can misrepresent the truth, or
lead to false conclusions. We cannot assume that because successful students entered a
line of study and reached certain milestones more quickly, that this pathway works for
all students. This pathway is not a choice for most students. Most students come to
community college and are not prepared to focus on one line of study, cannot attend
fulltime due to economics, or need significant help with their basic skills. Each of these
obstacles lengthens the time to completion, and each is often a more significant barrier
than the data on its own would suggest. Students that transfer in a shorter period of time
are most likely to have been successful no matter where they started.
The pathway for each student is different, often laden with unique combinations
of personal, economic, cultural and academic challenges. An assessment tool, such as
the Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies model presented in this chapter, combined
with academic assessment scores, would provide academic counselors and leaders, with
a deeper understanding of the student population by providing insight to the level of
preparation, knowledge and capital that students bring with them. This type of
combined assessment would allow for a more personalized approach to student success.
As we move forward, we should not be looking for one formula for student success, but
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rather trying to find the right combination of ingredients through academic advising,
counseling, and programs, that make a better recipe for student success.
Recommendation for Further Study
The findings of this study are generally applicable to the Hispanic student
population, and more specifically to Hispanic students interested in STEM degrees. The
purpose of this study was to hear from Hispanic students generally regardless of sex, or
specific ethnicities that are classified as Hispanic. This study was also limited to transfer
attending one four-year university Sacramento State. Future research might also include
a focus on developing the Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies. While this study was
focused on Hispanic STEM transfer students, the results are generally applicable to all
Hispanic transfer students. Recommendations for future study come from the significant
findings of this study, as well as suggestions from the literature review. The
recommendations for further study are listed below.
Recommendations Based on the Findings
1)
Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies: Hispanic Transfer Student Typologies as
a concept was also introduced in this chapter. Further research should explore
the concept by examining factors that add to the model. Specific methods could
then be developed to assess and identify student typologies, ultimately leading to
more efficient communication and matriculation of these students in community
college. Student typologies allow faculty and staff better insight into the
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background and needs of students, ultimately allowing to bridge connections to
the institution of higher education.
2) Mentors and Counseling: Findings of this study suggest that mentors and
counselors, which include teachers and faculty, play a significant role in
inspiring students and giving students the information and support they need.
Future research should include more in depth qualitative and quantitative studies
into mentor and counselor perceptions of their roles in interacting with
underrepresented minority populations. Studies might focus on their perceptions
of their own training, sensitivity toward student goals and uncover factors related
to their work in advising students with a goal of better understanding and
improving the mentor and counseling process.
3) Race, economics and parent education: One of the findings of this study was that
parent education and economics were significantly related to student feelings of
academic preparation and student perceptions of race as factor in their education.
Future studies might consider a comparative approach for students in community
college exploring the perceptions of race or academic bias based on race with
more focus on parent education and socio-economic status.
4) Parent role in education: A significant finding of this study was the concept of
implied or express permission for Hispanic students to pursue higher education.
Permission is not a given in all Hispanic families, especially those with
agricultural roots. Future studies might consider exploring why some Hispanic
205
families push or encourage their children to pursue higher education, when
others don’t, and how parents form their perceptions and gather information.
5) Larger population: This study was focused on students who successfully
transferred to Sacramento State in a STEM discipline from a California
community college. Thirty-one (31) of 112 community colleges were
represented in this study. Future studies might consider collect data across all or
individual STEM disciplines across all 23 California State University campuses.
This would provide a considerable increase in sample size and allow for further
disaggregation of data by region, ethnicity, and sex. The increased sample size
would also allow for additional statistical methodologies, such as regression, to
find which variables predict success.
Recommendations based on the Literature Review
6) Women: Specific research by gender, particularly women as another underserved
population in STEM, would provide additional context to the interactions
between parents and students, and academic institutions and students.
7) Hispanic Sub-categories: The term Hispanic often includes a wide variety of
more specific ethnicities from Mexican to Spanish (Europeans), and from Puerto
Ricans to Central and South Americans. Future studies focused on Hispanic
populations should consider the unique paths of these students as well.
206
8) Science, Technology, Engineering and Math: While this study focused on
students with STEM majors, future studies might focus on student experiences in
specific majors, or comparative differences between majors. Some research
suggests that there is a process for underrepresented students becoming scientists
or engineers, and that specific barriers may exist for students interested in these
fields. This type of phenomena should be studied further.
9) Comparative Studies: This study focused on the experiences of successful
Hispanic transfer students in STEM. Researchers interested in STEM and
Hispanic students should consider a comparative study of differentiating factors
for native students versus transfer students.
Reflection
We come to do a study like this with preconceived notions about race,
economics, and public education. As a researcher, I tried to let race emerge as an issue
by examining the student’s personal background and experiences in high school and
community college and exploring the reasons behind their start at community college
and the factors that contributed to their success. Race is clearly an issue, although I
believe it is manifested in various forms. Students with higher parent levels of education
and higher socio-economic status felt better prepared for college, and were less likely to
feel that race was an issue in their educational pathway. The opposite, of course, was
also true, that students in lower-economic strata were less prepared, and more likely to
207
feel that race entered into the equation. There are, of course, anecdotes about perceived
racism or stereotypes that should not be easily dismissed. Certainly, students that have
to repeat courses, or do not know the right questions to ask when going to see a
counselor, may feel that they are being stereotyped, and many cases are being
stereotyped.
It is important, therefore, that high school teachers, counselors, staff and
community college professors be trained to understand that each student takes a different
path, and brings with them a unique set of personal factors and values, having overcome
a few, or many, significant barriers to reach that particular point in their education.
These students often need a push, or a little extra knowledge in how to take the next
step. Anecdotes in this study show that many times a high school teacher, counselor,
professor, parent, brother or sister, was that catalyst that propelled that student forward.
These people were and are the inspiration, or role model for why that student persists,
despite a lack of clarity when it comes to financial aid, or transfer pathways. Most
students, however, do not have role models, or have not been given a push by their
parents, or perhaps have not had enough emotional support to fuel their persistence.
This is evident by the low number of Hispanic students that transfer in any discipline, let
alone the even lower numbers that transfer in STEM disciplines, which is often more
rigorous and more foreign to Hispanic students.
From the 30,000 foot level where policies and budgeting decisions are made, it is
easy to look at costs, numbers, efficiency and outputs without a real sense of the barriers
208
that students must overcome to persist to a degree. The value of studies like this one is
in taking the time to hear student stories of adversity, success, about the help of a
professor or counselor, and to come to a better understanding of what makes a difference
on the ground level. The lessons learned from these students’ that participated in this
study should be part of the equation when we consider strategic and resource planning at
the local level, and policies and their implications at the state-wide level.
I approached this study with a goal of better understanding what really matters
to students and to find factors that support success and ultimately create more equitable
outcomes for Hispanic students, particularly in STEM disciplines. The push, or
permission, from Hispanic parents to pursue higher education is critical. This is
especially true for cultures that may value hard work over spending time and money on
education. The lack of cultural capital, by way of education, means that higher
education is a not a foregone conclusion in Hispanic families, as perhaps it is for most
White and Asian families. The second critical aspect is maintaining access through
financial aid and low cost. By examining the responses and listening to focus group
participants, it is clear that many families and students in this study had very limited
resources and we wary of assuming more debt. It also became clear that there is a razor
thin edge by which many students can afford to attend community college and that the
stakes are very high. Any changes to access by way of changes to financial aid and the
cost of tuition could critical to student success in attaining a degree.
209
We must keep in mind that the students in this study have ultimately been
successful. They are part of the 15% - 26% of all community college students that
successfully transfer after six years. They are the tip of the ice berg that we can see
above the surface. The vast majority of students never make it this far. In 2010,
Hispanic students made up 34% of California community college enrollment, but only
24% of transfers, and only 19% of transfer in STEM (CPEC, 2012). Significant gaps
remain.
Lastly, I realize that the students that participated in this study, particularly in the
focus groups, took another leap into the unknown by responding to the survey and
showing up to the focus groups to share their personal experiences with the researcher.
Hearing about their stories, experiences and the obstacles they overcame provided their
own push, or inspiration, for me at just the right time. Their persistence and
perseverance is nothing short of heroic. These unique individuals are role models who
have demonstrated the attainment of success out of real adversity, which gives us great
hope for the future.
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APPENDICES
211
Appendix A
IRB PERMISSION LETTER
212
213
Appendix B
ELECTRONIC SURVEY
214
Email to Students from the Office of the University Registrar
SUBJECT: Research Study Participation Request – Hispanic Transfer Students in
STEM Majors
Dear Student:
Your participation in a research study is being conducted as part of a dissertation
requirement in the Educational Doctorate program at Sacramento State is requested.
As a Hispanic student who has successful transferred into a Science, Technology,
Engineering, or Math (STEM) major, your experiences are important in understanding
what makes students successful, and what barriers are most significant for students
pursuing a STEM degree.
The findings will be helpful for future Hispanic students and for education leaders in
better understanding what programs, activities, or information contribute to student
success, but also in identifying barriers and making resource decisions for future
students.
If you are interested in participating in the survey, please use the following URL to read
more about the study, and to gain access to the survey.
Thank you for your consideration.
Kevin Gonzalez
Educational Doctoral Candidate
Sacramento State
Survey URL: http://surveymonkey....
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ONLINE SURVEY – CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
Dear Participant:
Thank you for your participation in this research study. This study is being conducted as
part of a dissertation requirement in the Educational Doctorate program at Sacramento
State.
Study Purpose – The purpose of the study is to better understand background,
educational and institutional factors that act as support or barriers for Hispanic students
who have successfully navigated a community college and transferred to Sacramento
State in a Science, Technology, Engineering, or Math (STEM) major. The findings will
be helpful for future Hispanic students and for education leaders in identifying barriers,
but also what makes students successful.
Description of the Study – This study will use a mixed method approach to analyze
responses from students at Sacramento State who have transferred from a California
community college in a STEM major. Electronic survey responses will be analyzed and
followed by focus group interviews to provide further depth and understanding of
significant findings.
Potential Risk – There are minimal risks associated with the participation of this study.
The questions posed are derived from findings in articles and research studies around
Hispanic students and personal and institutional factors that contribute to success or act
as barriers. No contact information regarding individual respondents will be shared
outside of this study. The background and survey questions ask for personal and family
information and ask for your opinion based on your race and experiences. If you feel
uncomfortable, or need assistance, you may contact Counseling and Psychological
Services
located in The WELL Primary Care, 2nd Floor, Sacramento State, by calling (916) 2786461, or online at http://www.csus.edu/psysrv/. Your participation is voluntary and you
may exit this survey at any time.
Benefits – There are no direct benefits for participation in this study. The information
will be published and available at the conclusion of the dissertation process and
available through the Sacramento State library database.
Voluntary Participation – Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary and
should take about 30 minutes to complete the survey. You may withdraw at any time by
closing your browser. At the conclusion of the survey, you will be asked to submit your
email address for a follow-up focus group for further discussion on the findings of the
survey. Your participation in the follow-up focus group and submission of your email is
voluntary, and not required to participate in this portion of the study.
216
Please feel free to contact me if you have questions about the interview process, or the
final paper.
Thank you for your assistance with this research project.
Kevin J. Gonzalez
Educational Doctoral Candidate, Sacramento State
6000 J Street, Sacramento Hall 162
Sacramento, CA 95819-6030
kevin.gonzalez@csus.edu
‘Next’ (I affirm that I have read the information above, I am above the age of 18, and I
am willing to participate in this study.)
‘Exit’ (If you do not wish to participate in this study, simply close your browser.)
 Next
ONLINE SURVEY – BACKGROUND INFORMATION
As a Hispanic student, this survey seeks to understand your experiences and pathway
through community college to Sacramento State, and what factors or experiences you
feel were helpful, or served as barriers that you had to overcome.
Please indicate your current class-level at Sacramento State:
⃝ Freshman
⃝ Sophomore
⃝ Junior
⃝ Senior
How many years have you been at Sacramento State?
This is my …
⃝ First year
⃝ Second year
⃝ Third year
⃝ Fourth year
⃝ Fifth year
⃝ Sixth year
⃝ Other: ______________
Did you earn an Associate’s degree before transferring to Sacramento State:
⃝ Yes
⃝ No
If “yes” did you earn an:
⃝ A.A.
⃝ A.S.
217
In what discipline? : ____________________________
Please indicate your gender:
⃝ Male
⃝ Female
Please indicate your age:
⃝ 18-19
⃝ 20-21
⃝ 22-23
⃝ 24-25
⃝ 26-27
⃝ 27+
BACKGROUND INFORMATION (cont.)
What is the highest degree or education level your parents achieved?
EDUCATION
BACKGROUND
Some high school
GED
High school degree
Some college
Certificate program
Associates degree
Baccalaureate degree
Master’s degree
Doctorate (Phd/EdD)
Professional degree
Unknown
Father
Is English your second language?
⃝ Yes
⃝ No
Mother
218
From which community college did you transfer?
⃝ Cosumnes College
⃝ Sacramento City College
⃝ Folsom College
⃝ American River College
⃝ Sierra College
⃝ Other (please write in if not one of the above): _____________________________
How many semesters (total) did you attend community college before transferring
to Sacramento State?
⃝ Two semesters
⃝ Three semesters
⃝ Four semesters
⃝ Five semesters
⃝ Six semesters
⃝ Seven semesters
⃝ Eight semesters
⃝ Other: ______________
How many units did you take at community college? ______
How many units were transferable to Sacramento State? ______
ONLINE SURVEY INSTRUMENT
Did you take extra English,
math or writing courses before
passing a transfer level course?
English courses (not
transferrable)
Math courses (not transferrable)
Writing courses (not
transferrable)
Number of courses
0
1
2
3
4
219
In which semester at
community college did you
take or participate in the
following?
Basic Skills assessment test
Math assessment test
Chemistry assessment test
College success course
Orientation at community
college
Met with an academic
counselor
Met with a financial aid
counselor
Met with a transfer counselor at
Sacramento State
Semester
Before
Never Starting
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statements.
Pre-college preparation
Strongly
Disagree
1
Somewhat
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
My high school math classes
prepared me for college math.
My high school English classes
prepared me for college English.
My high school writing classes
prepared me for college writing
courses.
My high school science classes
prepared me for college science.
My high school experience
prepared me for college.
Please elaborate on how your high school either prepared or did not prepare you for
college:
220
Personal Challenges
Strongly
Disagree
1
Somewhat
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
I had to work 20+ hours per week
My job interfered with my
academic work
Family is not financially
supportive
It was difficult to adjust to college
academically
It was difficult to adjust to college
socially
Please elaborate on any of the above items or other personal challenges you may have
encountered on your path to Sac State:
Support from family/community
Strongly
Disagree
1
Somewhat
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
My family is emotionally
supportive of me going to college
I do not have to personally take care
of dependents/siblings/family
My family has a college-going
culture
I had a role model/mentor that
encouraged me to go to college
My high school teachers
encouraged me to go to college
Please elaborate on the support/encouragement, or lack of support/encouragement
you received on your path to Sac State:
221
Institutional Factors
Strongly
Disagree
1
Somewhat
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Financial aid services were helpful
and easy
Academic advising was helpful in
selecting my courses and pathway
to transfer
Faculty and staff were helpful and
supportive
Academic support services
(tutoring/workshops)
I participated in academic
programs with Sacramento State
while at community college
Please elaborate on aspects of community college that was particularly helpful or
particularly challenging:
Community College Experience
Strongly
Disagree
1
Somewhat
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
I did not feel like my
race/ethnicity was an issue at
community college
Faculty had high expectations of
me
Racially biased professors
I participated in academic clubs or
programs in my area of study
I participated in student life (social
clubs or sports)
Please elaborate on your community college experience, activities you participated in,
or if you ever felt that your race/ethnicity was ever an issue:
222
Strongly
Somewhat
Strongly
What is the biggest contributor
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Agree
to your success in transferring to
1
2
3
4
Sacramento State?
My family support
My personal motivation
Teacher, faculty or counselor
support/knowledge
My preparation in high school
academics
My friends and social support
Please elaborate on any factors you feel contributed to your educational success:
What inspired you to pursue a
Strongly
Somewhat
degree in a Science, Technology,
Disagree
Disagree
Engineering, or Math (STEM)
1
2
discipline?
My success in high school STEM
courses
Summer programs during high
school
My high school teachers
My success in community college
STEM courses
My community college professors
Please elaborate in why you chose to pursue a STEM degree:
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Thank you for your participation in this survey. As part of the study, the researcher will
be conducting interviews to follow-up on the survey responses and findings. If you wish
to participate in follow-up focus groups, please enter your email and first name below:
First name:
Email address:
Focus group interviews will be conducted at the conclusion of the survey study.
Thank you for your participation.
223
Appendix C
FOCUS GROUP FORMS AND QUESTIONS
224
LETTER TO FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANTS
Dear Participant:
Thank you for your participation in this research study. This study is being conducted as
part of a dissertation requirement in the Educational Doctorate program at Sacramento
State.
Study Purpose – The purpose of the study is to better understand background,
educational and institutional factors act as support or barriers for Hispanic students who
have successfully navigated a community college and transferred to Sacramento State in
a Science, Technology, Engineering, or Math (STEM) major. The findings will be
helpful for future Hispanic students and for education leaders in identifying barriers, but
also what makes students successful.
Description of the Study – This study will use a mixed method approach to analyze
responses from students at Sacramento State who have transferred from a California
community college in a STEM major. Electronic survey responses will be analyzed and
followed by focus group interviews to provide further depth and understanding of
significant findings. Focus group interviews will take approximately two hours to
complete.
Potential Risk – There are minimal risks associated with the participation of this study.
The questions posed are derived from findings in articles and research studies around
Hispanic students and personal and institutional factors that contribute to success or act
as barriers. No contact information regarding individual respondents will be shared or
collected. The background and survey questions ask for personal and family
information and ask for your opinion based on your race and experiences. If you feel
uncomfortable, or need assistance, you may contact Counseling and Psychological
Services
located in The WELL Primary Care, 2nd Floor, Sacramento State, by calling (916) 2786461, or online at http://www.csus.edu/psysrv/. You participation is voluntary and you
may exit this survey at any time.
Benefits – There are no direct benefits for participation in this study. Light refreshments
will be served during the focus group interview. The information will be published and
available at the conclusion of the dissertation process and available through the
Sacramento State library database.
Voluntary Participation – Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You
may withdraw at any time.
225
Please feel free to contact me if you have questions about the interview process, or the
final paper. Your participation is, of course, voluntary and you may choose not to
participate at any time.
Thank you for your assistance with this research project.
Kevin J. Gonzalez
Educational Doctoral Candidate
Sacramento State
6000 J Street, Sacramento Hall 162
Sacramento, CA 95819-6030
kevin.gonzalez@csus.edu
226
FOCUS GROUP - CONSENT FORM
HISPANIC STUDENT TRANSFER PATHWAYS FROM COMMUNITY
COLLEGE TO A 4-YEAR PUBLIC UNIVERSITY IN SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATH (STEM) DISCIPLINES.
DISSERATION BY KEVIN J. GONZALEZ
Participant Name:
Participant Title:
Participant Campus: Sacramento State
Contact Information
Phone Number:
Address:
Email Address:
If you to participate in this study, please sign below:
Real names will not be used in the report, which may be published.
I (do do not) grant permission to be quoted directly in the qualitative research
paper using a pseudonym (fake name).
I (do do not) grant permission to have interviews audio taped. You have the rights
to review recordings upon request.
Study Participant:
Date:
Researcher:
Date:
If you have question about your rights as a subject/participant in this research, or if you
feel you have been placed at risk, you can contact Professor Carlos Nevarez at
Sacramento State:
Dr. Carlos Nevarez, Director
Doctorate in Educational Leadership Program
California State University, Sacramento
227
Eureka Hall 226
(916) 278-5557(office)
cnevarez@csus.edu
FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANT – BACKGROUND INFORMATION
As a Hispanic student, this study seeks to understand your experiences and pathway
through community college to Sacramento State, and what factors or experiences you
feel were helpful, or served as barriers that you had to overcome.
Focus Group Interview Questions
1. Tell me about your pathway in pursuit of a degree in Science, Technology,
Engineering or Math (STEM)?
2. How did your high school academic experience prepare you for college?
3. Why did you start at a community college experience?
4. How or where did you learn about how to navigate through college? Meaning,
where did you get your information about college? Were your parents/family
helpful? HS? Web?
5. Tell me about your experience in community college.
6. What were the biggest Community College factors (professors, counseling,
financial aid) that contributed to your success?
7. What were you biggest personal barriers that you had to overcome?
Family/Friends, Job/Economics Self-confidence/ Language
8. Who would you say was MOST influential in your pursuit of a degree?
228
9. How did being Hispanic/Latino was an issue while in high school or at
community college?
10. What or who motivates you to pursue your baccalaureate degree in STEM?
11. What are your biggest concerns now that you’ve come to Sacramento State?
12. What was the biggest influence (Family/belief in self) in reaching this point in
your education?
13. Based on your experience, what advice would you give another
Hispanic/Latino/a student interested in a STEM degree?
14. Is there anything else about your journey/path that you would like to share?
Thank you!
229
Appendix D
VARIABLES AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
230
Male
Female
FatherEd
MotherEd
ESL
Remedial English
Remedial Math
Remedial Writing
Count Median Mode
Average
39
29
64
4.00
2.00
4.25
64
4.00
2.00
4.31
64
1.00
1.00
1.47
62
1.00
1.00
1.73
61
1.00
1.00
1.82
59
1.00
1.00
1.63
Count Median Mode
Average
Precollege Prep
60
2.80
2.20
2.75
My high school math classes prepared me for college math.
My high school English classes prepared me for college English.
My high school writing classes prepared me for college writing courses.
My high school science classes prepared me for college science.
My high school experience prepared me for college.
Count Median Mode
Average
Personal Challenges (Finances)
61
2.33
2.67
2.31
My job interfered with my academic work
Family is not financially supportive
Finances (money) was an issue in attending college
Count Median Mode
Average
Personal Challenges (Adjustment)
61
3.00
3.00
2.75
It was difficult to adjust to college academically
It was difficult to adjust to college socially
Count Median Mode
Average
Family Support
62
3.00
3.00
2.96
My family is emotionally supportive of me going to college
I do not have to personally take care of dependents/siblings/family
My family has a college-going culture
231
Count Median Mode
Average
Community/Mentor Support
62
3.00
3.00
2.80
I had a role model/mentor that encouraged me to go to college
My high school teachers encouraged me to go to college
Count Median Mode
Average
Institutional (Community College)
Factors
58
2.75
3.00
2.68
Financial aid services were helpful and easy
Academic advising was helpful in selecting my courses and pathway to
transfer
Faculty and staff were helpful and supportive
Academic support services were helpful(tutoring/workshops)
CC- Race not an issue
CC - Faculty Expectations
Count Median Mode
Average
69
3.00
2.50
3.09
58
3.00
3.00
2.71
Count Median Mode
Average
CC- Academic/Student Life
58
2.00
1.00
2.15
I participated in academic clubs or programs in my area of study
I participated in student life (social clubs or sports)
Contribution-Family
Contribution-Personal Motivation
Contribution-Faculty Support
Contribution-HS Academics
Contribution-Friends/Family
Inspiration-HS STEM
Inspiration-HS Summer STEM
Inspiration-HS Teachers
Inspiration-CC STEM Success
Inspiration-CC Professors
STEM-Grammar/HS Programs
Count
58
57
58
58
58
58
56
58
58
58
58
Median
3.50
4.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
Mode
4.00
4.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
Average
3.26
3.72
2.57
2.53
2.90
2.47
1.55
2.21
2.78
2.41
1.81
232
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