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ENGLISH LANGUAGE
UNITS 3 & 4
REVISION BOOKLET
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
2012
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This booklet provides a basis for your revision of this subject. You should work through the first
part during term three, as home study. If you get stuck, make sure you ask for assistance. If
you follow the timeline given then you will have most of your revision notes done by the end
the term.
The second part of the booklet will be used for our class revision in term four but you are
welcome to look at it before then!
CONTENTS:
pp 3 – 4
study tips
pp 5 – 7
the Study Design (again!)
pp 8 – 32
revision chapters 1-8
pp 33 - 40
SUMMARY OUTLINE OF THE COURSE KNOWLEDGE
pp 41 - 44
the toolbox revision
pp 45 - 48
Know, understand, do [I am indebted to another E.L. teacher for providing this]
pp 49 – 51
essay revision – the overarching themes
pp 51
essay writing tips
pp 53 - 57
the final exam
pp 58 - 59
exam assessment criteria
pp 60 - 64
past exam papers (all the terminology used 2000 - 2010)
Remember to use the VCAA website to be completing the past exams, particularly since 2006. Read
the Examiner’s Reports for each year. It contains the answers and also comments on common
errors. They are an excellent source of revision information.
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SOME STUDY TIPS
Different people learn in different ways, so these are just some suggestions.
1. The vocabulary (metalanguage) is very important for this course
 Ensure your glossary is up-to-date. Compare it to the typed chapter summary notes (pp
33 – 42 in this revision booklet). Have you got all the terms covered?
 Get someone to regularly test you, even 10 minutes at a time is helpful
 Provide a definition of the term, and an example if possible
2. Many students find that when they read and re-read information, it still does not sink in. Try
some of these ideas –
 Write a dot point summary of your notes for each sub-heading. Put it into your own words
then check it back in the textbook or in your notes.
 Alternatively, highlight the key points as you are reading
 Use cards to write particularly tricky or important information on. Pin them up all over the
house – the back of the toilet door is a good spot!
3. The essay! The best way to improve your essay technique is to write lots of practice essays.
I am willing to read, and comment upon, as many essays as you can write. You have been
given plenty of topics but if you want more topics, let me know and I can get them for you.
 Read the topic carefully
 Think about what it is asking – be specific
 Write down some rough ideas – your key points
 Do you have enough material to write a full essay?
 If so, write down your main point for each paragraph
 List the examples you are going to use in each paragraph
 Work out the subsystem they relate to – have you covered more than just lexicology?
 Plan your introduction
 Now write the essay
 Allow about 50 – 60 minutes for writing your essay plan and the completed essay
4. Keep English Language in your mind at all times! It is one of the few subjects you can actually be
studying and working on whilst you are out socialising or watching TV!
 Listen to people talking (talk back radio is also good for this)
 What sort of language do they use?
 How do they take turns?
 Who is holding the floor?
 Are the maxims being followed?
 What is the social distance between the participants?
 How can you tell?
 Is the conversation rehearsed / scripted?
 Read the newspaper, magazines, books, ads, anything!
 Is there any word play?
 Can you spot any alliteration, puns, anaphoric reference, etc?
 What is the domain?
 What is the text type?
 What is the function?
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



5.
What is the register?
What is the language style?
Is the principle of appropriateness being applied?
Look at the syntax – sentence types and structures for a start
Grammar. Get a sentence, any sentence, and try to identify the word class / part of speech
for each word. Be specific – is it a possessive pronoun or an emphatic pronoun? Is it a past
tense verb? Is it a modal indicating a high degree of probability?
6. Study space and time. Again, this will vary from person to person. Make sure that you plan
what you are going to do. Make a study timetable and be clear what you are doing. For
example, you might plan to spend two hours reviewing the topic of spoken language, then
have a break and then write an essay about spoken language. Make sure that you have a
quiet space to work in and that, if you are doing a practice exam or essay, you won’t be
interrupted.
ESSENTIAL SKILLS!
In order to do well in this subject you must:
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Understand and use the metalanguage – do not rely on descriptions in ‘lay-language’ as
this does not demonstrate your fulfilment of the outcomes
Demonstrate familiarity with each of the subsystems of language
Know your parts of speech and sentence types and structures
Understand the distinctive features of different varieties of Australian English in terms of
phonetics and phonology (e.g. Broad vs. General vs. Cultivated accents), prosody (e.g. rising
intonation), lexicon (e.g. Australian slang such as dunny) and morphology (e.g. shortening
and suffixation such as brekkie, servo and Maccas), syntax (e.g. postposed but in some
varieties of Australian English, as in I didn’t do it, but), semantics (e.g. fanny in Australian
English is not the same as in American English), and discourse features (e.g. Australian
English discourse markers such as yeah-no)
Be able to analyse and articulate the cultural understanding of various Australian Englishes
and how this impacts identity and perception of identity.
Be able to explain how different types of language use contribute to the purpose or aim of
the speaker / text
Be able to explain the differences between different text types (e.g. spoken and written
language, formal and informal language) in terms of the subsystems
Give a concrete example for each point you make, including the line number – this is vital.
Marks cannot be awarded if you do no clearly indicate both the example and its location
Be able to use Standard Australian English creatively and effectively in your own written
work
Abandon your prejudice and preconceptions about the different ways people speak and
write!
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Unit 3: Language variation and social purpose
In this unit students investigate English language in the Australian social setting, along a continuum
of informal and formal registers. They consider language as a means of societal interaction,
understanding that through written and spoken texts we communicate information, ideas, attitudes,
prejudices and ideological stances.
Students examine the stylistic features of formal and informal language in both spoken and written
modes: the grammatical and discourse structure of language; the choice and meanings of words
within texts; how words are combined to convey a message; the purpose in conveying a message;
and the particular context in which a message is conveyed. Students learn how to describe the
interrelationship between words, sentences and text as a means of exploring how texts construct
message and meaning.
Students consider how texts are influenced by the situational and cultural contexts in which they
occur. They examine how function, field, mode, setting and the relationships between participants
all contribute to a person’s language choices, as do the values, attitudes and beliefs held by
participants and the wider community. Students learn how speakers and writers select features from
within particular stylistic variants, or registers, and this in turn establishes the degree of formality
within a discourse. They learn how language can be indicative of relationships, power structures and
purpose – through the choice of a particular variety of language, and through the ways in which
language varieties are used in processes of inclusion and exclusion.
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to identify and analyse distinctive
features of informal language in written and spoken texts.
To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills outlined in
Area of
Study 1.
Key knowledge
• the role of Standard and non-Standard English in creating formal and informal texts
• differences in the nature and functions of formal and informal texts
• the relationship between the context and the features of language in informal texts
• stylistic features in informal speech and writing, including phonological patterning, syntactic
patterning, morphological patterning, and lexical choice and semantic patterning
• major discourse strategies used by speakers and the ways in which cooperation is
achieved
• the use of informal language in
– encouraging intimacy, solidarity and equality
– maintaining positive face needs
– promoting linguistic innovation
– supporting in-group membership
• conventions for the transcription of spoken English texts
• metalanguage to discuss informal language in texts.
Key skills
• define key linguistic concepts as they relate to informal language in texts
• use key concepts and metalanguage appropriately to describe and analyse spoken and
written
language use in an objective and a systematic way
• analyse the effects of context on language choices
• analyse the nature, features and functions of informal written texts and transcripts of
informal spoken English.
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Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to identify and analyse distinctive
features of formal language in written and spoken texts.
To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills outlined in
Area of Study 2.
Key knowledge
• the nature and functions of formal and informal texts
• the relationship between the context and the features of language in formal texts
• the features and functions of formal writing and formal speech as represented in a range of
texts
from literature and the public domain
• the role of discourse features and lexical choice in creating textual cohesion and coherence
• stylistic features in formal speech and writing, including phonological patterning, syntactic
patterning, morphological patterning, and lexical choice and semantic patterning
• the use of formal language in
– reinforcing social distance and authority
– establishing expertise
– promoting social harmony and negotiating social taboos
– clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating
• metalanguage to discuss formal language in texts.
Key skills
• define key linguistic concepts as they relate to formal language in texts
• use key concepts and metalanguage appropriately to describe and analyse spoken and
written
language in an objective and a systematic way
• analyse the effects of context on language choices
• analyse the nature, features and functions of formal texts
• evaluate features of language in the public domain.
Unit 4: Language variation and identity
In this unit students focus on the role of language in establishing and challenging different identities.
Many varieties of English exist in contemporary Australian society, including national, regional,
cultural and social variations. Standard Australian English is the variety that is granted prestige in
contemporary Australian society and it has a role in establishing national identity. However, nonStandard varieties also play a role in constructing users’ social and cultural identities. Students
examine both print and digital texts to consider the ways different identities are constructed. Such
historical and contemporary texts include, but should not be limited to, extracts from novels, films or
television programs, poetry, letters and emails, transcripts of spoken interaction, songs,
advertisements, speeches and bureaucratic or official documents.
Students explore how our sense of who we are is constantly evolving and responding to the
situations in which we find ourselves and is determined not only by how we see ourselves, but by
how others see us. Through our language we establish how we are unique as individuals, as well as
signalling our membership of particular groups. Students explore how language can distinguish
between ‘us’ and ‘them’, thus reinforcing the degree of social distance and/or solidarity.
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CHAPTER 1 – THE LANGUAGE TOOLBOX
1.
Match the language subsystem with the correct description
Phonetics and phonology
Morphology and lexicology
Syntax
Semantics
Discourse analysis
How words are formed and what words are used
How words are put into clauses, phrases, sentences
Study of the whole text
The sound system of the language
What it all means
2. Re-write these sentences using the IPA transcriptions.
My neat home looked over a green garden.
This school has three campuses.
3. Briefly explain the production of consonant sounds and vowel sounds, using the correct
terminology.
4. Name the three main prosodic features.
5. Briefly explain how sounds can be modified when we are speaking (elision, epenthesis,
assimilation, strong form, weak form).
6. Name three English prefixes and three suffixes. Give their meanings, the type of stems they
can be attached to and two examples of each.
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7. Complete this table to name the nine main word classes and whether they are open class
words or closed class words.
Open class words (content words)
Closed class words (function or structure
words)
8. Complete this table to briefly describe the purpose of each of the nine main word classes
and give two examples of each one.
Word class
Noun
Description
Pronoun
Adjective
Verb
Adverb
Preposition
Conjunction
Article
Interjection
9.
Explain the difference between a clause and a phrase. Give an example of a noun phrase
and an adjectival phrase.
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10. Complete the table by naming the four sentence types and giving an example of each one.
Sentence type
Description
Example
11. Complete this table by naming the five different sentence structures and giving an example
of each.
Sentence structure
Description
Example
12. List ten words that belong to the semantic field of swimming and ten that belong to the
semantic field of English Language.
13. Give a definition for ambiguity and explain the difference between lexical and structural
ambiguity.
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14. There are many types of figurative language. Give one example of each one of the following
listed in the table.
Figurative
Example
language
Simile
Pun
Parody
Satire
Metaphor
Idiom
Irony
15. Explain the difference between a denotative and a connotative meaning. Give two examples
of a word where the connotative meaning may be quite different to the denotative
meaning.
16. Identify the word class (with sub-category) for every word in these sentences.
English
Language
is
the
best
subject.
Gosh!
This
year
has
gone
very
quickly!
Key terms from Chapter 1
All the word classes
Sentence types and structures
Active and passive voice
Clauses and phrases
The language subsystems
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CHAPTER 2 – VARIEITIES OF AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH
1. Explain the differences between Broad, General and Cultivated Australian English. State who
is most likely to use each variety. Give some examples of each variety. Refer to at least 3
language subsystems in your description.
2. Complete this table to highlight some of the gender differences in language.
Males
Females
3.
Even though Australian English is relatively homogenous, there are some regional
differences. List some of these variations, according to the subsystems.
a. Phonetic differences
b. Lexical differences
c. Syntactical differences
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4.
There are also age differences within Australian English. Use the language subsystems to
explain the key features of teenspeak.
a. Phonetic differences
b. Lexical differences
c. Syntactic differences
d. Semantic differences
Australian English
1. List the key features of Australian English which distinguish it from other varieties of English.
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CHAPTER 2 – AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL ENGLISH
1. Write a brief history of how this variety developed.
2. Using the language subsystems as a guide, describe some of the major differences between
Standard Australian English (SAE) and Australian Aboriginal English (AAE). Ensure you
include specific examples.
a. Phonology
b. Lexicology
c. Syntax
d. Semantics
3.
How is AAE perceived by linguists today? Is this different to how it is perceived by the
general Australian public?
4. How do Aboriginal people themselves feel about their languages?
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CHAPTER 2 – ITALIAN - AUSTRALIAN ETHNOLECT or GREEK-AUSTRALIAN ETHNOLECT
1. Write a brief history of how this variety developed.
2. Using the language subsystems as a guide, describe some of the major differences between
Standard Australian English (SAE) and the ethnolect you have chosen.
a. Phonology
b. Lexicology
c. Syntax
d. Semantics
3.
What is the likely future for this ethnolect?
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CHAPTER 3 – AMERICAN AND BRITISH ENGLISH
Australian English has traditionally tended to follow the British usage, but since World War II (19391945) there has been an increase in American influence. This century, with the increase in American
TV shows and particularly the boom of the internet, Australians now find themselves very
comfortable using American words, spellings, syntax and even, sometimes, American pronunciation.
1. Complete this table to show some differences between American and British lexicons.
American English
drug-store
cookie
elevator
freeway
cab
British English
American English
British English
dustbin
cupboard
soft drink
flat (dwelling)
autumn
2. Now complete this table to show the differences in spelling.
American spelling
check
honor
traveler
favorite
defense
3.
British spelling
American spelling
British spelling
colour
dialogue
jewellery
theatre
tyre
Have a look at both these tables. Which words and spellings do you tend to use?
4. Explain the difference between a rhotic pronunciation (as used in America) and a non-rhotic
pronunciation (as used in Australia). Include some specific examples.
5. There are some clear differences in sentence structure between American English and SAE.
Identify some of these. Again, be sure to include specific examples.
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CHAPTER 3 – ATTITUDES TO DIFFERENT VARIEITIES
1.
Explain the principle of appropriateness, using specific examples to clearly show this
concept.
2. Briefly explain the difference between prescriptive attitudes and descriptive attitudes.
3. What is regarded as the ‘right’ or ‘correct’ English to use? (This is a trick question!)
4. Many people write letters to the Editor and / or ring talk-back radio and complain about
declining standards of Australian English. Using dot points, list some of their main concerns.
(You should easily be able to get a list of 10 points)
5. What do you think of these complaints? Are they valid? Are standards slipping?
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CHAPTER 3 – LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY
1.
Write a clear, concise paragraph to explain how Australian English has developed. You
should be able to include a couple of specific words from each main time period to illustrate
your answer.
2.
A nation’s identity is often reflected in their national anthem. What does Australia’s
national anthem say about us?
3.
Language can also show individual and group identity. Give some brief examples of this.
4.
Give a clear explanation of a Standard Language.
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5. Explain the processes of codification and standardisation of a nation’s language.
6. Who monitors and sets the rules for standard language use in Australia?
7. How has the multicultural nature of Australia influenced our language?
8. Briefly explain what commas, hyphens, colons and brackets are and what they are used for.
What would be the equivalent vocal form for each one?
9. How many essays have you written for this aspect of the course? (If the answer is one or
less then write another one now!)
Key terms from Chapters 2 & 3
varieties
Broad, General and Cultivated Australian English
Codification and standardisation
Principle of appropriateness
Sociolect, teenspeak, ethnolects, idiolect
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CHAPTER 4 – JARGON
1.
What is jargon?
2. Who uses it and in what situations?
3. What is the difference between professional jargon and social jargon? Give some specific
examples.
4. Explain how jargon can be seen as a ‘two-edged sword’. (Remember the terms inclusive
language and exclusive language.)
5. Give ten examples of jargon from a field or area that you know well.
6.
Jargon uses many abbreviations, acronyms, shortenings and blends. Explain the differences
between these terms and give two examples of each one.
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CHAPTER 4 – SLANG
1.
Give a definition of slang.
2. Who uses slang and in what situations?
3. Write a list of 5 traditional Australian slang expressions and explain what they mean.
4. Explain how Australian slang has changed and is continuing to change.
5. Write a list of 5 current slang expressions used by Australian teenagers. Explain what each
one means.
6. Briefly describe how slang can be used to indicate group membership. (You must go beyond
the lexical subsystem.)
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CHAPTER 4 – EUPHEMISM, DYSPHEMISM
1.
Complete this table to show the more polite and less polite expressions for some terms. You
should be able to get more than one response for each term.
Euphemism
Neutral term
going to the toilet
Dysphemism
sweating
mental illness
sex
adultery
getting drunk
2. Give some specific cases of when it would be suitable to use euphemisms, and, conversely,
when it would be appropriate to use dysphemisms.
3. Which usage is favoured by advertisers? Explain why, giving some specific examples.
4. Look at the terms in the table above. Why are they often referred to as taboo topics?
5. In Australian society today, are there any words or topics that are taboo? Is there any place
where swearing is considered inappropriate? Give some specific examples.
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CHAPTER 4 – PUBLIC LANGUAGE – DOUBLESPEAK, WEASEL WORDS
1.
Define doublespeak.
2. Who uses it and why?
3. Discuss the specific characteristics of doublespeak in terms of the subsystems.
a. Lexical choice
b. Syntactical structure
c. Semantics
4.
Politicians (and other public figures) are often accused of using weasel words. What is
meant by this term? Listen to the news tonight or watch a current affairs show and note
down one specific example of someone using weasel words. What is the effect this has on
the audience?
5.
Explain the differing connotations in describing the Allied troops as boys, lads and the Iraqi
troops as hordes, brainwashed.
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CHAPTER 4 – POLITICAL CORRECTNESS, DISCRIMINATION AND STEREOTYPING
1. Name the main topics where public speakers are now expected to show political
correctness.
2. Why has this changed from the 1960s and even later?
3. Give an example of political correctness which you believe has gone too far.
4.
Explain how racist jokes can lead to stereotyping which leads to discrimination.
5.
List four major principles we should use to avoid discriminatory language.
6. Briefly explain the concept of social distance and explain how this influences language
choice.
Key terms for Chapter 4
Jargon, slang, euphemism, dysphemism, political correctness, public language, non-discriminatory
language, doublespeak
Abbreviations, acronyms, shortenings, blends
Inclusive and exclusive language
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CHAPTER 5 – COMPARISON OF WRITTEN AND SPOKEN TEXTS
1. Complete this table to highlight the differences between written and spoken texts, according
to the language subsystems.
Features
Physical
Spoken language
Written language
Situational
Functional
Phonology
Morphology &
lexicology
Syntax
Semantics
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CHAPTER 5 – FUNCTIONS OF TEXTS
1. Complete this table to give some specific examples of texts that perform different functions.
Function
Narrative
Written text
Spoken text
Persuasive
Transactional
Informative
Instructional
Social (phatic)
Expressive
Entertainment
Instrument of
thought
Personal
Record facts
2.
List 10 text types you might find in the domain of ‘education’. Include some spoken and
some written texts.
3. Name Martin Joos’ five language styles.
4. Give the mode, audience and function for the following text examples.
a. A magazine article about the new spring fashions for females
b. An episode of The 7:30 Report
c. A magazine ad for the new Land Rover
Key terms for Chapter 5 – audience, context, function, domain, mode, language style, text type
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CHAPTER 6 – SPOKEN TEXTS
1. Explain the difference between monologues and dialogues.
2. List six differences between scripted and unscripted speech. Try to use the correct linguistic
terms.
3. Explain Grice’s four maxims for cooperative. What other features could you look for when
checking if a conversation is cooperative or not.
4. For this next section, you need to be familiar with the terms used to identify specific
features of spoken texts. Remember that it is also important to know why these features
have occurred. Complete the table to provide an example of the following features.
Feature
repair (false start /
self-correction)
colloquial expression
Example
opening
ending
tag question
adjacency pair
overlap
topic loop
(backchanneling)
pause filler
(voiced hesitation)
discourse marker
hedging expression
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minimal response
reduction
5.
Name three methods used to hold the floor.
6. It is important to be able to explain why particular features occur in a conversation, and
what the language used indicates about the relationship between the participants. Practice
this by listening carefully to conversations around you, and by reading lots of transcripts of
conversations.
a. List some typical features you would find in a conversation between close friends.
Remember to use the correct metalanguage as much as possible.
b. List some typical features you would find in a conversation between people who do not
know each other (e.g. in a job interview). Again, use the correct terminology.
7. What features do you look for when discussing the coherence of a spoken text?
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8. Write a commentary about this short transcript. You could comment about – the register,
topic management, prosodic features, syntax, non-fluency features, discourse structure and
cooperation and the relationship between the participants.
This conversation is between two teenage girls discussing a film one has seen and the other has not.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
B
M
B
M
B
M
B
B
M
You know that other movie we’re thinking of seeing ..
Um … lock up
Panic room\
Panic room
@@@@ Lock up @@@@@
I don’t know like that looks good
But what’s it actually about?
Oh were you there last night when we were watching …
[MTV]?
[yeah]
Yeah we=ll it’s about a mother and daughter that buy a new house?
And inside the house there’s a what’s called a panic room?
[mmm]
[so if] anything happens like …
Key terms for Chapter 6
Monologue, dialogue, scripted, unscripted, paratactic style, paralinguistic features
Anaphoric , cataphoric and deictic reference
Coherence and cohesion
Cooperative principles – including Grice’s maxims
Adjacency pairs, backchanneling, discourse particles, false starts, hedging, hesitation features,
listening noises, minimal response, non-fluency features, overlap, pause fillers, reductions, repairs,
repetition, tag questions, topic loop
Floor, social distance / relationship / rapport
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CHAPTER 7 – WRITTEN TEXTS
1. How is coherence achieved in a written text? What features should you look for?
2. How is cohesion achieved in a written text? What features should you look for?
[answers for questions 1 and 2 are given on p. 32 – check these after you have answered them]
3. The normal sentence pattern is subject – verb – object. List six ways writers might vary this
pattern and give an example of each one. Why do writers use these techniques?
4. For this next section, you need to be familiar with the terms used to identify specific
features of written texts. Remember that it is also important to know why these features
have occurred. Complete the table to provide an example of the following features.
Feature
collocation
Example
simile
paradox
parallelism
alliteration
comparison
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repetition of sounds
idiom
metaphor
anaphoric reference
cataphoric reference
personification
end focus
overstatement
passive voice
conversion
deictic reference
repetition of words
5. Place the following stylistic features in the appropriate subsystem table.
alliteration
paradox
understatement
irony
repetition of sounds
length of sentences
rhythm
pun
antithesis
subordination
personification
onomatopoeia
neologism
listing
repetition of words
repetition of
grammatical structure
assonance
types of sentences
parallelism
consonance
passive voice
rhyme
compounding
nominalisation
Semantic
Phonological
Syntactic
Morphological
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oxymoron
conversion
overstatement
simile
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Here are the answers to Questions 1 and 2 of this section
Coherence – features to look for:
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







Information is clearly and logically organised
The layout is clear and consistent
The text is organised, relevant and clear
May use headings and sub-headings to ‘signpost’ the way
Paragraphs – deal with each topic separately
Extra information in brackets – or subordinated in pairs of dashes – to explain jargon or
technical terms, or to separate asides from the main information
Sequencing of sentences – develops ideas in logical way
Assumed knowledge / inference – readers can make assumptions based on their prior or
shared knowledge
Relevance – a lexical set / semantic field that is consistent throughout
Cohesion – features to look for:
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A cohesive text hold together sensibly
Lexical patterning – repetition of lexical items throughout a text
Phonological patterning – makes words seem as though they belong together
Syntactic patterning – repetition of clause structures
Pronouns
Referencing / substitution – point to other parts of the text ‘this’ and ‘it’
Synonymy – repeating ideas with different words
Antonymy – making comparisons across the text
Collocations
Hyperlinks / footnotes, etc. – allow expansion of ideas, connections to other texts
Semantic field / lexical set – like lexical repetition, shows ideas are linked
Information flow – end focus and front focus
Linking adverbs and conjunctions – connect to other ideas in the text e.g. ‘similarly’
Deictic ties
Key terms for Chapter 7
Phonological patterning – alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia, rhythm, rhyme
Syntactic patterning – antithesis, listing, parallelism
Morphological patterning – conversion
Lexical & semantic patterning – irony, metaphor, oxymoron, simile, personification, animation, pun
Cohesive ties – substitution, antonymy, synonymy,
Topic and comment; cleft sentences, end focus, fronting, existential sentences, inversion
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OUTLINE OF SOME KEY IDEAS THE COURSE LOOKS AT
ONE – INTRODUCING VCE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 3 & 4
This Chapter contains a good, clear outline of each Chapter in the book. It could be used in
conjunction with these pages.
TWO – THE LANGUAGE TOOLBOX
2.1 The subsystems of language
 The five subsystems of language; what they are called and what they mean
2.2 Phonetics and phonology
 I.P.A.
 How sounds are produced and described
 Prosodic features – stress, pitch and intonation
 Sounds in connected speech
2.3 Morphology and lexicology
 Morphemes
 Word classes / parts of speech
2.4 Syntax
 Word order
 Putting sentences together (phrases, clauses, subjects, predicates)
 Active and passive voice
 Sentence structure (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex)
2.5 Semantics
 Collocations, idioms
 Sematic fields
 Lexical meaning and sense relations
 Denotative and connotative meanings
 Synonymy and antonymy
 Literal and figurative meanings
2.6 Discourse analysis
 Differences between speaking and writing in English
THREE – LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY
3.1 The dimensions of language variation
 It is difficult to define language geographically or even racially, so we tend to refer to speech
communities – groups of people who speak the same language, regardless of country
barriers, etc. For example, English is spoken in England, Australia and America as a first
language, but each country takes a slightly different approach to it
 There are also regional varieties within a speech community
3.2 Varieties of English
 Australian English can be classified as – broad, general and cultivated
 The difference between the three is found in the way the vowel phonemes are articulated
 Broad Australian is stereotypically perceived to be the most obviously Australian, but in
reality it is not very widespread
 Broad speakers tend to be less clear in the pronunciation of their consonants as well, they
fall victim to assimilation and elision
 There are also gender differences in language
 The High Rising Tone (HRT) is a typical Australian speech pattern, particularly for females
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Regional differences are not very marked in Australia but they do exist. It can be shown by
using different lexical items for the same object (e.g. bathers vs swimmers) or by differences
in pronunciation (cassell vs carsell)
 People in the country tend to speak more slowly
 Australian Aboriginal English is another variety of English in Australia
 There were 150 – 650 Aboriginal languages when Europeans first arrived in Australia
 The first form of communication was a pidgin and a few of these have now become creoles
 Aboriginal English in all its variant forms is now considered one of the many varieties of
Australian English
 Approximately 70% of Aborigines live in urban areas and speak a non-standard variety of
English
 Other varieties of Australian English include the ethnolects of the various migrant groups
 As each migrant group becomes more established, their children and subsequent
generations tend to lose the ethnolects
 American and British English show their main differences in spelling and in some lexical
choices
 Australia has traditionally followed the British spelling system, but more and more people
are accepting the American spellings in Australia
3.3 Variation in language reflecting users and uses
 We vary our language to suit the purpose – use a formal or informal register
 As children, we imitate the language around us – we are products of our time
 Our language changes as we get reach adulthood and are exposed to more language
influences
 The register we use will vary depending on the context, the function and the audience in
which we are writing or speaking
 Principle of appropriateness
 This principle can alter all the subsystems – phonology, lexicology, syntax and semantics
3.4 Attitudes to different varieties
 The English language today is made up of words from many different original languages
 It is one of the most studied languages in the world and one of global importance
 The introduction of printing in England in 1946 led to the standardisation of the English
spelling system
 The model chosen was the dialect in the area bordered by London, Oxford and Cambridge –
the seats of government, education and religion
 Over time this variety became the standard and the most prestigious
 Many Britons agreed that Australian English, by comparison, was appalling
 We now know that each variety has its own distinct flavour, and no one variety is ‘better’
than others but some attitudes of prejudice still exist
 The culture we are brought up in largely determines the sorts of attitudes we have to
different languages
 People can sometimes be socially be discriminated against for the accent and use of
language
 Cultivated Australian English is still sometimes given a prestige position
 What is prestigious in one context may not be in another
FOUR – LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL INTERACTION
4.1 Jargon and Slang and Their Use in Defining Group Membership
 Jargon is a mode of speech familiar to a particular group
 Communication between two people who share the language can make speech more
efficient and concise
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Jargon can also be use, intentionally or unintentionally, to exclude others who don’t know it
It is a two-edged sword – an effective communication tool and a means of keeping people in
the dark
 Language can be a sword and a shield
 Sometimes jargon uses familiar words, but applies them in a specialised way
 Jargon can be used by nearly any group – a profession, a hobby group, close friends, sporting
groups
 Slang is informal words or phrases that are the basis of colloquial speech
 Most cultures have their own slang, but Australians in particular have long been noted for
their wry humour and wide use of slang
 Slang, like all language, is changing. In Australia, we have lost the older expressions from
gold-rush and pioneering times and many fear we are being over-taken by American
teenspeak instead
4.2 Language and Changing Social Expectation
 Certain subjects are taboo – not spoken about in public
 It will vary with the situation, but common taboo subjects are death, sex, bodily hygiene
 Acceptability of these topics is also influenced by the age, sex and social status of the
participants
 To cover these embarrassing topics, we use euphemisms – a more polite way of saying what
we really mean to avoid causing offence or distress
 So euphemisms may make something more pleasant sounding, but they can also cause the
doer to be distanced from the action – this is almost a case of over-sanitisation
 Remember how euphemisms can be used to describe both sides of a war
 Deliberately using offensive or dysphemisms can also be effective
 Swearing is quite widely accepted in Australia, but not in all situations
 Doublespeak uses expressions that are ambiguous, usually deliberately, in order to obscure
the real truth. It is to make something sound more acceptable, so it is a type of euphemism
 Very cleverly used by George Orwell in Nineteen Eighty Four
 Plain English is the more straightforward way of expressing the message
 Political correctness (PC) mainly applies to racism and sexism, and refers to the currently
correct way to refer to these matters, both in language and behaviour
 What is acceptable may vary from group to group and some people get concerned that PC
has gone too far
4.3 Politeness and Social Distance
 What is polite in one culture may not be so in another
 Two fundamental social requirements – we don’t criticise and we don’t interfere
 This also applies to language – using the appropriate language at the right time in the
appropriate context – the principle of appropriateness
 We start to learn these protocols from a young age
4.4 Language Used for Discriminating and Manipulating
 Discrimination is almost always based on erroneous assumptions of superiority
 Name calling, lumping all people from one race together, is one way language is used to
discriminate
 Other words reflect racist, chauvinist or sexist attitudes – this is also discriminatory language
 Language can also be manipulated – used skilfully so that the whole truth is not shown and
people’s attitudes are influenced
 The seeds of racism may well start with racist jokes because they desensitise people to
stereotypes, which is to categorise whole groups of people using simplistic and often
negative criteria
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Sometimes discriminatory language can be fairly subtle, creeping into society over such a
long time that it is hard to detect. This is the case with much of the sexist language that still
exists today
 As society’s attitudes change, so does the language we use. Racist language of the 1950s and
sexist language of the 1960s is no longer acceptable
 ‘Weasel words’ is a fairly recent term to describe the increasing use of words that do not
really say or explain anything specifically. It is common for politicians and government
departments to use, covering up with vague phrases and even euphemisms
4.5 Major Principles of Non-Discriminatory Language
 In order to battle some discrimination it is necessary to change the language we use
 It is no longer acceptable to use racist or sexist language
 Attention is now turning to discrimination against the aged or people with a disability
 Groups may have a common identity, but this is often presented in an over-simplified way
by the media
 It is seldom necessary to make reference to a person’s race, appearance, religion, gender,
sexuality or disability
FIVE – LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY
5.1 The Relationship Between Language and Identity
 Our identity is bound up with the language we use
 Language identity categories include – individual, group, tribal, national, international,
multicultural, indigenous
 In Australia we have been proud of our ‘larrikin’ language and some people mourn the
passing of our ‘dinkum lingo’
 Each person is marked by the language they use – their idiolect
 A lingua franca developed early in Australia’s white history as people who spoke different
versions of English were brought together
 New words were also invented for this colony – words to do with the bush, farming and
gold-mining. Some of these words exist today as slang or old-fashioned colloquial
expressions
 During the 1950s, as immigration increased, we saw the rise of many racist terms as well as
new words (particularly for new foods that the migrants brought with them)
 The 1970s saw Bazza Mackenzie invent a few new colourful Aussie sayings – though these
are mostly gone now
 Some people, such as Paul Hogan (Crocodile Dundee) and Steve Irwin, have attempted to
preserve the Aussie lingo
 Everywhere there is evidence of increasing influence on our speech from America, mainly
through television and films
 There are many ways in which people express their identity
 We also use language to show our group membership
 Australians belong to many groups as a way of expressing who they are
 These groups have their own lexicon, their own expressions, that reflect their identity
 Some attention has now been focused on how we preserve our national identity and the
language we should use to reflect this
 A study of national anthems from different countries shows how countries try to show, in
words, their national identity
5.2 Standardisation and Codification of the Language
 Languages are constantly changing
 As a language use becomes widely accepted and enters general usage, the language is
codified into dictionaries and grammar books
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It then spreads and becomes standardised when it is fully accepted, though not necessarily
spoken, by the community in which it is used
 American English is only one of the influences on Australian English today – there are also
the changing technology and other foreign influences
 Linguists are confident that even as we lose some old Aussie sayings, we will continue to
create replacements
 Because the language is not stagnant, people still get worked up about what is the right
standard – should spelling and grammar rules be relaxed?, is it acceptable to make verbs
from nouns?, etc. There are often letters written to newspaper editors on these topics. They
want set standards, and they want these enforced and upheld!
 In Australia, there are several bodies which are responsible for recording the standards of
language, either formally or informally, such as SCOPE (the Standing Committee on Spoken
English), the Australian Government Publishing Service Style Manual, and the Australian
Broadcasting Authority
 The media also has a role in setting standards, as this is where we read and hear much of our
information
 The ABA also provides a censorship role, to keep out unacceptable language – although
obviously a definition of ‘unacceptable’ will not be readily agreed upon
 In the future will we see a rise of World Standard English, whereby all countries speak the
same English and there is little room for national variation?
5.3 Multicultural Australia
 You need to be aware of a basic history of migration to Australia – this was covered in the
photocopied booklet
 Australia is a multicultural country.
 More than 200 community languages are spoken.
 16% of people speak a language other than English at home
 There are over 100,000 speakers of Italian, Greek, Cantonese, Arabic-Lebanese and
Vietnamese
 Governments have tried to encourage recent migrants to participate in their new country
and the first starting point is often language (think of the new test that people applying for
Australian citizenship now have to sit)
 Many migrants work hard to retain their original language, for themselves and their children,
as well as learning English. They have language schools and newspapers
 Australia has a range of people from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds.
 This has influenced our language and identity, but it is difficult to pinpoint the exact extent
of the influence
SIX – TEXTS AND THEIR CONTEXTS
6.1 The Nature and Functions of Spoken and Written Texts
 Three modes of text – spoken, written, signed
 Each mode is equally effective depending upon the context, the audience and the message
 Key differences between spoken and written modes –
 Spoken language is – more transient, open to immediate feedback, often unplanned, social
tool, informal syntax, allows for colloquialisms, slang, etc., prosodic features add meaning,
long clauses linked by ‘and’, less formal, change can occur from one generation to the next,
uses body language and personal contact
 Written language – more permanent, one way communication, can be drafted and redrafted, more formal language, uses punctuation and layout, more use of subordinate
clauses, slower to change, uses additional words to make the meaning clear
 Function of the text – what is it trying achieve? May serve more than one function at a time
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
David Crystal list of functions – emotional expression, social interaction, recording of facts,
expression of identity
 Sara Thorne list of functions – referential, phatic, transactional, expressive
 Some other terms are - instructional, informative, narrative, transactional, persuasive,
personal
 Development of technology has led to some blurring of these lines (between written and
spoken)
6.2 Texts in a Domain
 A text may be written, spoken, non-verbal, visual or auditory – so long as it communicates a
message
 All texts belong to a domain – the setting to which the text relates
 The text type is the kind of text – e.g bill, short story, sermon
 Martin Joos language styles – frozen, formal, consultative, casual, intimate
 Language style can change during a text
6.3 Text, Context and Meaning
 Our language varies according to the context – the situation or circumstances
 Texts do not exist in a vacuum
 Consider how each text is patterned and how this relates to context, function and audience
 Remember the principle of appropriateness
SEVEN – SPOKEN TEXTS
7.1 The Varieties and Functions of Spoken English
 Speech has some benefits which cannot be matched by writing – speech is used to
participate socially; it is immediate; each speaker has their own individual style; speech
allows us to negotiate our meaning with the hearer
 Can also use body language, non-verbal features, eye contact, silence to ensure message is
understood
 Speech can vary from formal, prepared speeches to casual conversation – it is used in many
different contexts
 Can be monologue or dialogue
 Can be scripted (prepared beforehand) or unscripted (spontaneous) or semi-scripted (a
mixture of both)
 Can use the prosodic features for added emphasis
 Specialist language has developed for different spoken contexts (e.g. a football radio
broadcast)
 slang, jargon and technical phrases are used in most spoken domains
7.2 The Cooperative Principle of Conversation
 conversations – to be successful – generally follow set ‘rules’
 all participants should feel they can contribute; all should be getting something from the
conversation; need to show sensitivity to other participants. This is particular to speech – it
does not apply to writing
 conversational rituals include opening and closing conversations correctly; changing topics
correctly; choose safe topics for general conversation
 Grice’s conversational maxims are maxim of quality (speak the truth), maxim of
quantity (don’t say too much or too little), maxim of relevance (contributions relate to the
topic), maxim of manner (avoid obscurity and ambiguity)
 Other, informal maxims are to be polite and behave consistently
7.3 How Conversations Work
 The function, context and audience will determine the opening strategy and the closing
strategy
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Degree of formality required will vary
Tag questions are used to involve others in the conversation
The person speaking is holding the floor. Others can have the floor passed to them (through
question or body language) or take the floor by interrupting, but this is not considered polite
 There are some definite markers for turn-taking
 Handing on the floor can also be marked by changes in prosodic features
 Listeners can also signal their intent to speak
 The briefest conversation is a two-part exchange – an initiating utterance and a response
 A three-part exchange adds feedback after the response
 These are adjacency pairs
 The speaker holding the floor is in charge of turn-taking; this can vary throughout a
conversation
 Non-fluency features are a result of spontaneous speech
 It may include pauses (for thinking time)
 Umm, er are common voiced hesitations or utterances
 Overlap – more than one person speaking at a time – is also common
 We generally don’t notice these in normal conversation
 Repairs are also common as we fix the mistakes as we go along
 Some people participate in conversations differently (e.g. men and women; some people
from other cultures)
 Good conversations often involve people copying / imitating the person they are talking to,
with regard to tempo, speech patterns, even lexicology
7.4 Spoken Conversation and Societal Interaction
 Trust is important in conversations, but because we trust we are open to deception or
deceiving others
 We can exclude people from a conversation – either deliberately or not
 We can use conversations as a means of confrontation or to offend others or to gossip about
others
 Conversations can also be used for humour / joking
 When transcribing spoken text – seek permission first; clearly explain why it is being taped;
only use the tape for the stated purposes; use the standard transcription code and provide a
legend; transcribe faithfully all that is said
EIGHT – WRITTEN TEXT
8.1 The Varieties and Functions of Written English
 Words are interrelated to create written text with a particular message
 Language is always produced, exchanged or received as text
 A text is any completed act of communication
 The context helps our interpretation of the text
 Examining text means looking at the whole layout, including photos, headings, etc.
 can classify written texts according to their text type (e.g newspaper article or school report)
 can also be classified according to their function, of which there are many, such as to
explain, inform, persuade, entertain, instruct, amuse, deride, release emotion, request,
deny, attract, blame, cast doubt, make fun, warn, command or for social interaction
 different text types will serve different functions, and can often be distinguished by their
structure and language (e.g. compare a pamphlet of instructions to a fictional narration
 the Internet has encouraged new ways of using text, such as hypertext
8.2 Discourse Features of Written Texts
 Written texts need more words to convey their meaning (compared to spoken texts) so it
must be more clearly ordered
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coherence refers to how a text is structured to make it easily understood
coherent texts – use the active voice, not the passive; express actions as verbs, not nouns;
are logically structured; explain background information
 cohesion refers to how the text is held together – interpreting one idea depends on
successfully interpreting another
 some cohesive ties are – deixis, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, pronouns, reference,
comparison, repetition, collocation, hyponymy, synonymy, metonymy, antonymy, anaphoric
and cataphoric references
 sentences can also be ordered in such a way that they are logical to the reader. New ideas
occur at the end of sentences and familiar ideas are placed at the start
 the topic of the sentence – what the sentence is about – usually goes at the start
 the topic can be highlighted (given extra emphasis) by fronting, inversion, cleft sentences,
extraposition, existential sentences
 the active voice is most frequently used but there are some occasions where the passive is
more suitable – ask yourself – does the audience need to know who did the action?
 Nominalisation is used in bureaucratic texts, to make the content more abstract
 Written texts also use coordination to join ideas of equal importance
 Subordination is not used as much in speech, but is common in writing to join a less
important clause to the main clause. It can be shown by commas, dashes, brackets or the
use of subordinating conjunctions
 Parallelism is when two or more grammatical elements have the same grammatical form. It
is particularly important in listing
8.3 Stylistic Features of Written Text
 Stylistic features can be semantic, phonological, syntactic, morphological
 Semantic stylistic features include – antithesis, hyperbole, hyponymy, irony, metonymy,
overstatement, oxymoron, paradox, personification, pun, repetition of words, simile,
symbolism, understatement
 Phonological stylistic features include – alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia,
repetition of sounds, rhyme, rhythm
 Syntactic stylistic features include – length of sentences, listing, nominalisation, passive
voice, parallelism, repetition of grammatical structure, types of sentences
 Morphological stylistic features include – converting word classes (e.g. nouns into verbs)
and creating new words
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THE TOOLBOX - REVISION
NOUNS
Proper
Abstract
Nouns forming people
Gender (Masculine, feminine, neuter, common)
Case (Nominative, objective, dative, possessive)
Possessive nouns
The noun phrase
PRONOUNS
First, second and third person
Possessive
Demonstrative
Reflexive
Indefinite
Quantifier
Number in pronouns
Case in pronouns (subjective, objective, possessive)
Common
Collective
Number - singular and plural nouns
Non-sexist language
Gerund or verbal nouns
Changing words to/from nouns
The noun clause
Personal
Relative
Interrogative
Emphatic
Distributive
Reciprocal
Gender in pronouns
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives as attributes
Proper
Descriptive
Quantitative
Number
Indefinite
Demonstrative
Distributive
Interrogative
Possessive
Absolutes
Verbal adjectives
Comparative
Degrees of comparison
Attributes (adjectives in noun groups) – classifiers, describers, numeratives, determiners
The adjectival phrase
The adjectival clause
Changing words to form adjectives
VERBS
Verbs as process words
Transitive
Intransitive
Auxiliary
Finite
Non-finite
Infinitives
Split infinitives
Compound verbs
Active voice
Passive voice
Number in verbs
Mood – indicative, interrogative, imperative, subjective
Parts of a verb – the present tense, the past tense and the past participle
Present participle and past participle
Tense of a verb – past, present, and future (singular and plural); also continuous, perfect,
timeless present and perfect continuous
Processes (verb groups) – material, mental, saying, relational
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ADVERBS
Adverbs of manner, time, place and reason
How to from adverbs
Confusing adverbs with adjectives
Adverbial phrases
ARTICLES
Definite
Indefinite
Adverbs as modifiers
Kinds of adverbs
Comparison of adverbs
Adverbial clause
CONJUNCTIONS
coordinating
subordinating
Their role in determining sentence structure
INTERJECTIONS
PHRASES AND CLAUSES
A phrase is a group of words that operates as one but it does not contain a finite verb. It may
contain part of a verb, such as a participle or an infinitive, but it has no finite verb. A phrase is often
introduced by a preposition. It cannot stand of its own as a sentence because the message is not
complete.
Adjectival phrase
Adverbial phrase
Noun phrase
Participial phrase
Prepositional phrase
A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb. It differs from a phrase in that is has both a
verb and a subject. A clause forms the whole of a simple sentence or part of a complex or
compound sentence.
Principal clause (independent clause / main clause)
Subordinate clause
Adjectival clause
Noun clause
Adverbial clause
1. These phrases answer the questions ‘how?’ ‘when?’ or ‘where?’. After each phrase, state
which question it answers. There are four of each sort.
e.g. after sunrise – when
in the burrow
on the side of the tractor
after sunset
at a great rate
with both hands
before dinner
in an angry way
between the two houses
across the paddock
in a very clumsy way
before 10 o’clock
during the morning
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2. In these sentences, a phrase is badly placed. Rewrite the sentence, changing the position of
the misplaced phrase. (You may need to make other changes.)
a. The tourists on the jet saw a flock of birds going to Japan.
b. We bought a car from an old man with plastic headlights.
c. Soaring through the air I saw three large eagles.
d. Early this morning I saw a kangaroo coming to school.
e. Darting into a hole, I saw four white mice.
f.
The jet plane was piloted by a lady with swept-back wings.
g. The truck was parked by a driver with sixteen wheels.
3. Make complete sentences by joining the principal clause to its appropriate subordinate
clause.
Principal clause
Subordinate clause
a. These are the boys
when the train was due
b. Where is the new book
that I bought at the newsagents
c. I asked the stationmaster
where the road led to
d. The bus driver didn’t know
who rescued the other children
4. In the sentences below, the adjectival clause has been placed beside the wrong noun.
Rewrite each sentence, placing the clause beside the correct noun.
a. The girl was presented with an award by the Queen who saved a baby from choking.
b. A precious diamond has been stolen from the museum which was found underground.
c. The jaguar is in the new cage which has shiny black fur.
d. The picture was painted by a famous artist that has a gold frame.
e. The girl is very fond of her grandfather who plays netball in my team.
5. Identify the adverbial phrase or clause in the following sentences.
a. Steven waved when we arrived.
b. The family like camping because it is fun.
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c. The cat jumped through the window.
d. The girls came to the party dressed as hippies.
e. Melissa studied hard so that she would do well in her test.
6. Name the adjectival phrase or clause in the following sentences.
a. The roller blades with the red wheels are mine.
b. All students with a serious commitment to work will revise regularly.
c. Emma is a person who is a true friend.
d. The girl who is dressed in denim shorts is my sister.
e. A girl in denim shorts was standing watching the match.
7. Name the noun phrase or clause in the following sentences.
a. There was no valid reason for the delay.
b. Natasha thought that she could get away with it.
c. Gemma has just heard the good news.
d. This is what you should have done.
e. James arrived on his new bike.
References: Clutterbuck, Peter M. The art of teaching grammar. Longman, 1989
Ramsay, M.A. The complete guide to English usage for Australian students.
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
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44
This section refers to Unit 4, Language Variation in Australian Society
KNOW (Definitions)
UNDERSTAND (Big ideas)
DO (Skills)
Accent, dialect
Principle of Appropriateness
Assimilation, elision
Codification, standardisation
Creole
Euphemism, dysphemism
Ethnolect, sociolect, idiolect
Australian Aboriginal English
Standard Australian English
Non-standard Australian English
Social status
Language Varieties
Identity
Attitudes
Speech community
Broad-general-cultivated continuum
High rising terminal
Language varies according to the person using it – their age,
gender, speech community, attitudes, socio-economic class,
ethnic background, job, role in society, region, education, and
nationality. .
Write essays on the big ideas, using
language from the KNOW column and
real life examples
A person’s language tells us a great deal about their identity
and cultural background
People also use language to create an identity for themselves.
Some language varieties are more appropriate than others,
depending on the audience, context, function and mode.
People adjust their language to suit the circumstances they
find themselves in.
Some language varieties are more prestigious than others,
depending on who you ask.
People adjust their language according to their and others’
ideas of what is prestigious or not.
A language variety becomes standardized when it is accepted
by the community as a whole as the best version at the
moment.
When the language is set down in dictionaries and grammar
books it is said to be codified.
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
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45
This section refers to Unit 4, Language Variation According to
KNOW (Definitions)
 Covert and Overt Prestige
 In group solidarity
 Euphemism, dysphemism, taboo
 Jargon and technical language real estate, academic, bureaucratic,
legal, managerial, medical, sports
commentary, religious
 Slang
 Prestige, covert and overt norms
 TEENSPEAK
 Internet speak
 Inclusive and exclusive language
 Modes of address
 Gender and Sex
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
UNDERSTAND (Big ideas for essays)
 social and personal variation in language
according to factors such as age, gender,
occupation, interests, aspiration and education

features of language that contribute to a sense
of individual identity and group membership

the ways in which the language of individuals
and the language of groups is shaped by social
expectations and community attitudes

the ways in which people draw on their
linguistic repertoire to gain power and
prestige, including exploiting overt and covert
norms

the relationship between social attitudes and
language choices
2012
DO (Skills)
Write essays on the big ideas, using
language from the KNOW column and
real life examples
46
This section refers to Unit 3 Informal Language
SCALE OF FORMALITY
Intimate, casual, consultative, formal, frozen
Text types
Dialogue, monologue, scripted, unscripted…
Register
Formal, informal, medical, cooking….
Context/ SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Public, private, media…..
Spontaneous and scripted
Syntactic and morphological features
Co-ordination and subordination
Ellipsis
Contractions and reductions
Lexical Features
Idioms
Collocations
Phonological Markers
Prosodic features – pitch, volume, pace
Elision, assimilation
Discourse Structure
Intonation unit
Non-fluency features
Discourse particles
Co-operation
Turn-taking, Holding the floor
Conversational strategies and routines
Adjacency pairs
Minimal responses (or backchannel signals)
Interrogative tags
Discourse markers
Hedging expressions
Topic management (incl. topic loops)
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet

That speech and writing are different in nature.

That there are many different types of spoken language,
some more like speech and some more like writing.

Informal written texts are often conversational or used
for personal means.

That speech has many functions, and occurs in different
contexts and for different audiences.

That speech tends to lack syntactic complexity. Spoken
informal language can often lack coherence and
cohesion.

That speech has intonation units rather than sentence
boundaries.

That conversation is a collaborative effort. It can be seen
as a dance, a game of chess, or peak hour traffic, all of
which involve difficult manoeuvres and rely on everyone
involved understanding the ground rules.

That the meanings of little discourse particles can be very
complex (eg. 'like').

That the relationship between the participants
determines the features of the conversation.
2012

Define all the features in the KNOW
column.

Recognise the features in the KNOW
column as they appear in transcripts of
speech.

Analyse transcripts of unscripted
speech and demonstrate understanding
of the relationships between register,
topic management, prosodics,
grammar, non-fluency features,
discourse structure, co-operation, and
the relationships of the participants.

Be able to write an analytical
commentary that uses social purpose
as means of underpinning your analysis.
47
This section refers to Unit 4, Outcome 2 – Formal language
KNOW





Discourse - Cohesion and coherence,
including Lexical cohesion – collocations, repetition,
synonyms, comparisons.
Substitution- noun phrases, verb phrases,
clauses.
Ellipsis
Referencing – anaphoric, cataphoric, deictic
Linking adverbials and conjunctions
Logical order of ideas
Information flow – end focus, front focus,
passive vs. active.
Layout – familiar structure, appropriate
openings and closing.
Phonological patterning – alliteration,
assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia,
rhythm, rhyme
Syntactic patterning –listing, parallelism,
repetition of structure, nominalisation, coordination and subordination, passive voice,
sentence types.
Morphological patterning – conversion of
word class, creative word formation
Lexical choice and semantic patterning –
antithesis, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, simile,
personification or animation, puns, lexical
ambiguity, synonymy and antonymy.
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
UNDERSTAND
That most formal language is seen in written text and
constructed by an author for a purpose, for an audience and
in a context.
DO



That every piece of text has a style.
That style is made up of:

the grammatical structure of language (the
arrangement of words in a sentence)

the discourse structure of language (the arrangement
of
words and sentences in a paragraph or larger piece of
text)

the choice of words within texts (lexical choices)

the meanings of words within texts (semantics)

how words are combined to convey a message.
That spoken formal settings are often drafted, eg
political speech.
That formal spoken language can result from social
distance and authority.
2012


Define the linguistic concepts in
the ‘Know’ column.
Recognise these in texts.
Use these concepts to analyse
pieces of language.
Write an essay.
Describe the effects writers are
trying to achieve, why writers
choose particular stylistic
features, and how writers use
language to influence their
audience.
48
THE ESSAY - REVISION
Kirsten Fox
This information is taken from VCE English Language Exam Guide pp115-118. You should have
written at least one essay on each of the key topics. They are summarised here in her section –
Revise the Overarching Themes.
Australian English
Australian English differs from other national varieties. You will look at what makes
Australian English unique and how it has developed over time. What you need to consider
 What makes this variety unique
 Broad, general and cultivated accents
 Global contact and social changes and how they shape contemporary Australian
English
 Attitudes towards Australian Language Varieties
 Standard Australian English and its prestige value
 Non-standard varieties operating within Australia
 Regional variation within Australia
 Aboriginal Englishes and ethnolects
 The role of language in constructing national identity
Individual and Group Identities
Language plays an important role in reflecting and constructing individual and group
identities. You will need to consider the following:
 Social and personal variation
 Individual identity and group membership
 Standard and Non Standard varieties
 Prestige
 In group and exclusion
 Social attitudes to non-standard accents and dialects.
The concept of Register
The register of the text or degree of formality is determined by a number o factors. We adjust our
lexicon, accent and even our grammar in different contexts and situations. Consider the following:






Relationship between the speaker/writer and interlocutors/audience
Physical setting, situational context and cultural context
Subject matter/topic/domain/field
Mode spoken/written/electronic
Purpose/function
Social attitudes and beliefs of participants
Social Purpose of Language
Language plays a huge role in social interaction. We use language to achieve particular effects or to
reflect societal opinion, and language in tiurn, influences our values and the way we see the world.
Some of the main areas to consider are:
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














Inclusion and exclusion
Prestige forms of language
Political correctness
Discrimination
Euphemism and dysphemism
Taboo and swearing
Jargon and slang
Manipulation of language- Obfuscation, double speak
Politeness- positive and negative face
Social harmony
Public language
Linguistic innovation
Language can establish expertise
Language shapes and represents social and cultural values, beliefs and attitudes
How language can express identity
Attitudes to Varieties of English:
People often make value judgements about different varieties of English; some are deemed ‘better’
than others, particularly in certain situations or contexts. Prejudices can lead to discrimination and
the establishment of ‘in’ and ‘out’ groups. Here are some of the issues to consider:




Standard and non-standard varieties
Prescriptivism and Descriptivism
Prestige varieties
Value judgements on language use and subsequent perceptions of identities based on
language use.
Modes of Language
Both spoken and written texts enable us to interact with society and express ourselves. These days
with advances in technology and communication, language is continually evolving and the division
between modes is often far less clear. You should keep the following in mind:








Written, spoken and electronic interactions
Features of each mode
Cross features of each mode
Functions and social purposes they serve
When are they used
Changes in language in particular with technology and social networking
Metalanguage necessary to analyse these modes
To maintain social relationships
Language Change
Although language change is looked at in Unit 2 of EL, it is still important to be aware of how
language is changing in our everyday lives to reflect societal needs, attitudes, values and beliefs. You
should touch on the following:


Australian English and its development and evolution over time
Taboo, swearing the role of changing values
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




Political correctness, non-discriminatory language and changing social values
Linguistic innovation and informal language
Technological advances and social media
Global contact and other social changes
Migrant ethnolect and the impact on AE
Resources to assist your essay writing




Develop a scrap book of language items. Organise this into different topics
Read the newspapers regularly
Keep an eye on magazines and advertising
Listen to television, radio, family and friends

Familiarise yourself with the main themes of the course (as listed on the previous three
pages)
Try to complete as many essays on as many different topics as you can
If you are running short of time, write detailed plans for a range of essays instead. Ensure
you include specific examples in your plan; link them to the subsystems and note the
metalanguage you would use to describe them
Redo some of the essays you wrote earlier in the year
Remember to spend 5 – 10 minutes planning and 40 - 45 minutes writing
Do not try to memorise essays for the exam – each question is worded individually and your
memorised essay will not fit comfortably with the specific question you are asked in the
exam (besides, the assessors know all Kirsten Fox’s essays!)





In the exam










Make sure you clearly show the essay topic number in the allocated space
Underline or highlight the key words in the topic and plan to use those terms or synonyms in
your essay. This helps ensure that you are answering the specific question
Show your planning – if you run out of time the assessor may be able to take the written
plan into consideration
Most questions require a balanced look at linguistic issues – nothing is ever really one-sided
Main problem for many students – ensure that you are actually responding to the specific
question asked
Your essays must be specific to English Language and not a general English essay. This
means that you must refer to the subsystems and you must use the correct metalanguage
Allow time to read over your essay and check for spelling, punctuation and grammar. These
are assessed as part of the exam criteria
General Tips for Essay Writing
Introduction needs to address all aspects of the essay topic and offer a perspective that will
be followed through the main body.
The main body should be a series of paragraphs, each started with a topic sentence,
generally explaining the key point of the paragraph in relation to the overall essay topic.
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
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


The main body paragraphs should be supported and explained with linguistic discussion
using metalanguage and a variety of examples supporting the points. These examples
should be as current and original as the student can manage. Purely descriptive passages
should be avoided.
The use of short, direct quotations of words and phrases is to be encouraged.
The conclusion should strongly finish with an overall message directly relevant to the topic
and earlier points made.
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ENGLISH LANGUAGE ESSAY TIPS
By Linda Whitby – VATE Revision Day 11.10.2009
At the start
1.
2.
3.
4.
Read the question, underline key words
Choose the focus word
Brainstorm all relevant ideas – using the focus word as your starting point
Organise your ideas into a plan – each main point must relate to the focus
Each paragraph must have –







Metalanguage
Subsystem reference
Specific language examples
No story telling examples
Topic sentence
Linking sentence
Discussion
All essays should have –






3 main points connected to the focus of the question
1 main idea per paragraph
Quotes from linguists
A balanced approach
An introduction
A conclusion – with no new ideas
Every essay must







Be written in standard Australian English (except for appropriate examples)
Be a language / linguistic essay – not a social commentary
Make reference to the stimulus material provided
Be an answer to the question you have chosen
Have paragraphs and be clearly structured
Adhere to the Principle of Appropriateness
Be 600 – 800 words
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ENGLISH LANGUAGE - UNITS 3 & 4
THE FINAL EXAM!
Before the exam
1. Obviously you will have studied and prepared during your study break and learnt as much as
you can
2. You should also have completed lots of past exam papers and practice exam papers so that
you are very familiar with the exam format
3. If you have any problems during study time, you can ring me or email me, or check with
someone else in the class until the information is clear in your mind
4. Sleep and eating well are also important in this study time
Exam Day
1. Get a good night’s sleep before any exam. I don’t think that study at two o’clock in the
morning will help you get more marks compared with being alert in the exam
2. If you have other exams on the same day, get them finished, have a break and then re-read
the most important parts of this course again just to get your brain switched back to English
Language. Sometimes talking to another student, or reviewing the vocabulary is sufficient.
You are not aiming to learn new information at this stage, just get your mind onto those
subsystems!
3. Make sure you eat something before the exam. You may be nervous and feeling queasy but
you should not go in without eating, especially this late in the day
5. You should aim to be at the school at least 30 minutes before the exam commences
6. You are not permitted to bring in any written notes, pieces of paper, electronic devices
(smart phones or ipods), dictionaries or correction (white out) liquid/tape
7. You should take in a small bundle containing two highlighters; two pencils; a rubber; a
sharpener; and four pens for writing (either blue or black). Remember that you should not
write your exam answers in pencil but some people like them for planning and making notes
8. You can also take in a clear bottle of water, which is a good idea, especially for these exams
late in the day.
From the VCE Assessment Handbook English Language





The examination length is 2 hours (plus 15 minutes reading time)
All Outcomes in Units 3 and 4 will be examined. All of the key knowledge and skills that
underpin the Outcomes in Units 3 and 4 are examinable
The examination paper may include questions which refer to stimulus material such as
newspaper articles, extracts from reports or case study materials
All questions are compulsory
Students will complete the examination using a question and answer booklet
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Completing the Exam
These are my suggestions of a good way to tackle the exam. They are not the only way of doing it!
Reading Time (15 minutes)
1. In the 15 minutes reading time (3:00pm – 3:15pm) read the whole paper through. Start by
removing the insert in the middle and reading the text(s) for Section One. Then read the
questions for Section One. Some you may be able to answer in your head but don’t worry
too much about that at this stage, this is just to give you an idea for the next reading
2. Read the text for Section Two. Again, then quickly read the questions for Section Two
3. Read the essay topics carefully. Think about which topic appeals to you the most
4. If you still have time, go back and more carefully read Section One and start answering the
questions in your head
Section One (25 – 30 minutes) 15 marks
1. As soon as you can commence writing, start answering the questions in Section One. Take
your time, and read the text very thoroughly to look for the specific information. You may
want to highlight or mark certain parts. Also ensure that you read the whole question
carefully
2. If you do not know an answer, spend a minute or two looking and if you still are not sure,
then leave that question and come back to it later. Sometimes a question further on in the
paper will give you a clue
3. Provide examples and line numbers when asked but also if needed to add to your answer
4. Look at the number of marks allocated for the question and the number of lines given. This
will give you a guide as to the number of points you need to make and how much you need
to write
5. Be very clear in your answer – write legibly and highlight or underline specific sections if that
is needed
6. When you have got to the end of Section One, check the time to see how you are going. If
you have some time left (i.e. you have only taken 20 minutes) then go back and re-read all
your answers. Have you been clear in your answers? Have you included line numbers? If
you have crossing-outs are the answers still legible and clear? If necessary, re-write them
7. If you have taken 35 minutes, then don’t worry about the checking, move on to Section Two
Section Two (40 – 45 minutes) Linguistic Commentary 30 marks
1.
2.
3.
4.
Reread through the text.
Identity the overall purpose of the text and ensure you identity the sub social purposes
Be clear on the sociolinguistic context of the text
Look for the obvious linguistic features to support these social purposes then look for minor
features
5. Ensure you read over your commentary.
Section Three (40 – 45 minutes) 30 marks
1. Re-read the essay topics. Confirm which one you are going to do. In the space provided,
write a detailed plan. What is your main contention? What is the main point of each
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
paragraph? What examples have you got to back up each point? What subsystems do they
relate to?
Write the essay number clearly in the space provided – very important!
Write your introduction. Remember it should give a direction to your essay; outline your
main ideas and re-work the key words in the topic
Stop for a minute and re-read your introduction. Is it solid? Is it clear? Do you really have
enough information to write a whole essay on this topic? Does it clearly answer the specific
topic?
Hopefully the answer is “yes” to all of these, so proceed, using your detailed plan to guide
you. The actual writing should not take more than 40 minutes
When you have finished, re-read your essay, checking spelling, omission of small words,
sentence structure, etc. Ensure you have mentioned the required number of subsystems
The last 5 - 10 minutes
1. Re-read all your answers. You have time to correct minor mistakes; make an answer clearer;
ensure that you have been specific and answered the question directly as asked
2. Ensure that you have answered every question. If you still don’t know an answer write in
something that seems to be related – it may get you an extra mark. Do not leave any
answers blank.
3. Ensure that you have clearly indicated the number of your essay topic. This is very
important.
DO NOT LEAVE THE EXAM EARLY – SIT THERE AND KEEP THINKING AND ADD EVERYTHING THAT
MIGHT GET YOU ANOTHER MARK OR TWO OR THREE
It’s over!
1. You may take the insert for Sections One and Two with you
2. We will be waiting for you outside
Further advice
The exam is now finished and there is nothing you can do to change the result. Some students find it
helpful to go over the answers and some don’t like to talk about it. Either way, you probably have
other exams to complete and now is the time to start focusing on them.
All your teachers and your parents can ask – and all you can ask of yourself – is that you have done
your best. You have prepared as fully as you can; you have gone in and answered every question;
you have done your best.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
There are no specific assessment criteria for the essay question on the exam paper; instead, there
are assessment criteria for the exam overall. These are the assessment criteria published by VCAA
for the final exam.
Criteria
Specifically
How they relate to the essay question
Understanding Ability to identify specific
You need to have a good understanding of Australian
of the range of language choices
English as opposed to other national varieties. You
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distinctive
characteristics
of different
varieties of
English used in
Australia
Identification
of differing
attitudes
within the
community to
varieties of
Australian
English
Analysis of the
role of
language
variation in
the
development
of a sense of
identity
Analysis of
how
situational
factors
influence
linguistic
variation
Identification
of the range,
nature and
functions of
different kinds
of written and
spoken English
Analysis of
key stylistic
features and
differences in
the nature of
written and
spoken English
Use of
appropriate
metalanguage
to describe
and analyse
linguistic
usage
need to know about regional variations within
Australian English. You need to be able to compare
and contrast specific language features from several
varieties of Australian English.
Awareness of a range of
attitudes towards varieties
of language
This criterion refers specifically to Unit 3 – varieties of
language and attitudes towards them. Your essay
should demonstrate a breadth of knowledge,
reinforced by specific examples. It is important to
read widely for this topic – go beyond the textbook
into newspapers, articles and linguistic websites.
Awareness of how
language constructs a
sense of identity
It is important to be able to clearly explain, and
provide relevant examples, of how language is used
to show individual, group and national identity.
(idiolect, sociolect, etc.)
Understanding of how
language choices achieve
particular purposes in
particular social contexts
Essay questions arising from this would include topics
on language manipulation, group membership,
political correctness, taboo, euphemism,
doublespeak, etc. Again, you need to describe the
language feature and back it up with relevant,
current examples.
Ability to correctly identify
the function of a text and
discuss how that function
is reinforced (or not) but
the language used
This is more likely to be covered as short answer
questions in Sections 1 and / or 2, but it can also be a
general essay topic, such as on the changing nature
and function of written and spoken texts, due to the
rise of technology.
Ability to identify specific
conversational features
and / or discourse features
in a range of spoken and
written texts
This criterion does not really relate to the essay
question but rather to the first two sections of the
exam paper.
Appropriate use of the
terms of language
description relevant to the
task
In terms of essay writing, you will need to use the
appropriate metalanguage. Use the subsystems as
your basis for analysis rather than more general
language. Your essay should contain as much
specialist terminology as possible.
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
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Ability to
write
responses that
are clearly
organised,
using
effective,
accurate and
fluent
language
To score highly in these criteria, you need to make sure your essay has a clear
structure and that your response is coherent.
You will need to demonstrate your mastery of spelling, punctuation and
grammar within the essay, as well as fluency, clarity of expression and an
effective vocabulary.
Appropriate selection and Your essay should contain material which is relevant
use of material
to the essay question. There are no marks to be
gained for a well-structured response if it does not
answer the question!
Logical structure
You will need to order your material effectively –
your essay should have a clear introduction, body
and conclusion, and each paragraph should be
headed by a topic sentence. Paragraphs should be
ordered logically and correspond directly to the essay
question.
Coherence
For a coherent response, not only should each
paragraph be carefully ordered, but also the writing
within. In other words, sentences should be linked to
each other, there should be no illogical changes of
topic or statements which have no correlation to
anything said previously.
Effective, accurate and
Your use of vocabulary is vital in enabling you to
fluent language
establish the correct ‘tone’ or register of your essay.
You need to take care that your tone is not too
informal or colloquial; this sort of essay writing is
serious business!
Clarity of meaning
Your writing should be unambiguous and easy to
follow. Grammatically correct, well-punctuated
writing will enable you to get your message across
successfully.
Adapted from: Fox, Kirsten VCE English Language, c.2004
Here is a summary of the metalanguage used and the topics covered in past exam papers.
2010 (This exam was similar in format to the 2009 exam, and I assume will be the format you can
expect for 2010. There are fewer questions, and each question involves a relatively long detailed
answer. The questions seemed a bit easier than 2009, but a high level of analysis was required in
order to get a high mark.)
 Functions
 Sentence types to support functions
 Stylistic feature (pun)
 Linguistic feature of 2 discourse particles
 3 features that show level of formality
 Comparison of formality in different parts of the text – provide examples as evidence
 Conversational strategies
 Discourse functions of 2 different prosodic features
 Topic management to reflect the relationship between the speakers
 Function of 2 different non-fluency features
 Syntactic features of the interaction (comparing 2 different section)
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Essay topics: There were three topics to select from. Each one was accompanied by a box of
stimulus material (usually 3 – 4 items)
1. Discuss some of the driving forces that lead to language change in the Australian context. Refer to
at least two subsystems in your response.
2. Explain why many people have such strong views about language. Refer to at least two
subsystems in your response.
3. Discuss how language influences people’s perceptions, thoughts and behaviour. Refer to at least
two subsystems in your response.
2009 (This exam was quite a bit different to previous papers. There were not any multiple choice
questions, or one or two mark questions. The questions all involved much longer written answers,
more detailed analysis. In my opinion, it was a hard exam.)
 Inference to create coherence
 Use of adjective and adjectival phrases to support the purpose
 Identification of subsystems in a sentence
 Sentence structure
 Effect of listing
 Front focus
 End focus
 Passive
 Social rapport (use linguistic evidence)
 Function of certain line utterances
 Declarative and interrogative; discourse functions of each
 Non-fluency features (2)
 Prosodic features (3)
 Turn-taking to reflect relationship
Essay topics. There was again a choice of three topics. One major change was that you must refer
to the stimulus material.
1. Euphemism promotes social harmony and strengthens the social fabric of our society. Discuss.
2. Language play is one of the most important dimensions of language. Discuss.
3. The question to ask is: ‘Why not use Standard English all the time?’
2008
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Adverbs and adverbial phrases
Antithesis
Parallelism
Nominalisation
Subordination
Stylistic techniques (4 different)
Semantic difference
Figurative language
Substitution and antonymy to create cohesion
Different functions of ‘tough’
Ellipsis
Effect of the ellipsis
Colloquial language to show author’s identity
Reliance on inference to create cohesion
Function of ‘no’
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2012
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Interrogative tag
Function of the interrogative tag
Assonance
Pun
Floor-holding strategies (2)
Function of overlapping
Prosodic features and lexical choice to reflect relationship between participants
Repetition
Pauses
Discourse particles
Adjacency pairs
Context influence on discourse features and strategies
Role of slang in establishing identity
Essay topics (only two). Both had stimulus material which may be referred to.
1. ‘Your use of language sends out lots of little messages, not just about your level of education and
where you come from, but about how you would like to be perceived.’
Discuss with reference to at least two subsystems of language.
2. Should the community be concerned that technology is replacing traditional forms of oral
communication, such as face-to-face conversation? Provide linguistic evidence to support your
response.
2007
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Noun phrases
Synonym
Antithesis
Cliché
Pun
Oxymoron
Metaphor
Irony
Personification
Semantic patterning to support function
Characteristics of spoken language – two different subsystems
Cataphoric reference
End-focus
Inference to achieve coherence
Repetition
Purpose (linguistic evidence)
Monologue
Clause structures
Function of prosodics
Jargon (function of)
Topic change
Topic management
Minimal response
Front-focus
Ellipsis
Turn-taking
Cooperation in a conversation
Turn-taking influenced by context
Discourse features – monologue compared with dialogue
Essay topics (all provided with quite long stimulus material which may be referred to).
1.‘Speech-making is a valid form of communication in contemporary Australia.’ Discuss.
2. ‘Language has the power to shock, offend and incite emotion.’ How have recent stories in the
media shown this to be true? Refer to at least two subsystems of language in your response.
3. ‘Both written and spoken language in contemporary Australia are in a state of decline.’ Do you
agree? Provide examples and evidence from your study of language this year to support your
response.
2006 (This is the new course, with two Outcomes per Unit)
 Word class / parts of speech
Passive voice
 Coherence
Function of a text and explain how
 Sentence structure and explain how
Pronouns
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Independent and subordinate clauses and explain how and why
Cohesion
Repair
Repetition
Tempo
Prosodic features
Topic change
Turn taking
Cooperation
Essay topics (all provided with some limited stimulus material which may be referred to). All essay
included the instruction to refer to at least two subsystems of language
1. ‘Standard Australian English is no longer a relevant or important variety of language in Australia
today.’ Discuss with reference to both spoken and written language modes.
2. Discuss the use of appropriate language in one or more specific Australian contexts.
3. How have changing social attitudes influenced language use in Australia? Discuss with at least two
relevant examples to the 21st century.
2005 (Prior to 2006, the course had 3 Outcomes per Unit, but the content was still much the same)
 Simile
Slang
 Acronym
Antithesis
 Alliteration
Deictics
 Dimunitive
Domain
 Overstatement
Ethnolect
 Understatement
Onomatopoeia
 Metaphor
Personification
 Listing
Consonance
 Figurative language
Antonymy
 Idiom
Synonomy
 Animation
Ellipsis
 Maxims of cooperation
Prosodics
 Connotative meaning
Discourse feature
 Register
Lexical choice
 Syntax
Discourse
 Jargon
Parts of speech / word class
 Prepositions
Discourse function
 Sentence types
Conversational control
 Spoken language features
Essay topics - need to refer to the stimulus material. All extended response needed to refer to at
least two language subsystems.
1. Linguistic features of public language
2. Australian English changing in the 21st century
3. Linguistic features of SMS
2004
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Word class / parts of speech
Sentence types and why
Lexical repetition / listing
Personification
Metaphor
Antithesis
Sentence structure
Topics in a conversation (start and finish)
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
Functions of the text and how
Noun phrases
Grammatical repetition / listing
Overstatement
Synecdoche / metomymy
Diectics
Impersonal style / register
Discourse function
2012
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Overlapping
Turn-taking
Social relationship (based on a conversational transcript) and how and why
Cooperative principle of conversation
Essay topics – no stimulus material provided.
1. role of jargon
2. texts in context, with specific examples of Australian English
3. identity (group or individual) expressed through language. Attitudes to this.
2003
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purpose and audience of a text
proper nouns / names
modal auxiliaries
onomatopoeia
rewrite passive voice into active voice
alliteration
pun
idiom
word formation (creating new words using hyphens)
brackets
sentence structures
prosodic features
compare the linguistic features that lead to different tones in two different texts
control of a conversation
domain
discourse features
lexical choice
opening and closing telephone conventions
Essay topics
1. ‘The pressures to maintain traditional forms of language are as strong as the forces for change.’
Do you agree?
2. Variations in language occur according to the social relations between people and the different
roles they have at any particular time. How are these variations demonstrated in contemporary
Australian society?
2002
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Turn-taking
Cooperative principles of conversation
Functions of texts and how and why
Personal pronouns
Lexical choice
Prosodic features
Discourse patterns in different transcripts
Second person pronouns
Relationship between writer and audience
Syntactic patterning
Essays stimulus material provided.
1. Do you agree that, despite the influence of international, popular and technological cultures,
Australian English is still distinctive?
2. The letter to Ms Smith below, like many other formal written transactions, reflects the different
status between a reader and a writer. Discuss how written language can be used as a tool for
exercising power and authority in Australian society.
3. A dictionary is one means by which language is codified. With reference to the examples below,
and others from your own experiences, explain how changes in the lexicon and the syntax of
Australian English become codified.
2001
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purpose of texts
lexical choices
relationship between reader and writer and how determined
syntactic and semantic characteristics of the uses of the verb go [from a provided text]
differences between written and spoken texts
discourse features
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2012
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topic management
prosody
discourse analysis
information flow
cooperative principles
Essays
1. ‘[This] is also a time when pessimists are writing gloomily about declining standards, the loss of
valuable distinctions in meaning, the introduction of unappetising vogue words and slang. But I
refuse to be a pessimist’
(R.W. Burchfield, 1996)
2. Do you agree with Burchfield, or are you a pessimist about these aspects of language in the
current Australian context?
3. ‘Language plays a powerful role in both contributing to and in eliminating discrimination.’ In what
ways can language both contribute to and eliminate discrimination?
2000
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Text type
Communicative stages of a text
Purpose of the communicative stages
Sentence types
Compare communicative stages
Use of pronouns
Use of adjectives and adjectival phrases
Lexical, syntactic and discourse structures
Different purpose of texts
Relationship with the audience (written texts)
Key conversational features
Difference between talk-back radio and face-to-face
Degrees of power in a conversation
Conversational control
Essay
1. Changes in language both reflect and shape the values of a society. How does this apply in the
Australian context?
2. Whether consciously or not, people often make language choices based on their perceptions of
what is the ‘in-group’ and what is the ‘out-group’. Discuss some of the ways in which language is
used to create a sense of belonging.
English Language Units 3 & 4 Revision booklet
2012