KAYA KINONDO COMMUNITY ECOTOURISM PROJECT IN
KENYA: A DECADE LATER
*Dr. Bonface Odiara Kihima and Mr. Elias Kimaru
Hospitality and Tourism
Kenyatta University, Mombasa Campus
P.O BOX 16778-80100 Mombasa, Kenya
*Email: odiarab@yahoo.fr
ABSTRACT
Coastal areas are largely known for beach and marine tourism. However, forested areas along the
coastal strip do also provide relatively good leisure grounds for escapism away from the crowded
beaches. In such areas, conservation organizations and communities have established ecotourism
ventures as a means of linking conservation and socio-economic development for the concerned
communities. Kaya Kinondo ecotourism project is one such project which was started in 2001.
The purpose of this project was to test the viability of ecotourism in linking conservation to
tangible social and economic benefits to the local community. A decade later, has the project
succeeded in diversifying tourism in the coastal area of Kenya? Secondly, do the local people feel
the accrued tangible social and economic benefits as a result of the project? This paper seeks to
identify the critical components of coastal forest tourism development, the problems associated
with it and some of the possible solutions.
Key words: Benefits, Ecotourism, Kaya Local Community, World Heritage Site.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Coastal Forests of East Africa represent one of the greatest densities of plant and animal species
in the world in terms of richness and endemism (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). They are of great
interest in view of their protective role against environmental degradation especially soil erosion.
Therefore, they play a big role in the conservation of other coastal ecosystems against siltation
and erosion. Centuries of human residence and interaction with the resource have reduced this
role which had been more extensive previously (CEPF, 2003). In Kenya, coastal forests exist
mainly as isolated blocks comprising about 83,800 ha in a narrow belt which extends inland to
about 30 Km from the Indian Ocean (UNEP, 1998, and CEPF, 2003). Such notable closed
canopy forests include Arabuko Sokoke within the coastal strip and Shimba Hills Game Reserve
which is a few minutes’ drive from the coastal beach. Others include Mangrove and the numerous
sacred Kaya forests (about 50 in number) that have cultural value to rural people and are
protected by the local Mijikenda communities (Giriama, Chonyi, Kauma, Kambe, Ribe, Jibana,
Rabai, Digo and Duruma) who share common dialects and similar culture. In such areas, they
conduct prayers, rituals and sacrifices (Githitho, 1998).
Coastal areas are largely known for beach and marine tourism and are major destinations
worldwide. The beach spaces are basically found on the fringes of human habitation providing
for contact between the tourist resorts and the ‘empty’ water spaces. Gradually, the interface
between the sea and the dry land integrates into the surrounding urban public areas commonly
known as beach resorts and commercial centers – Mombasa, Malindi, Diani, Kilifi etc. This then
gives way to the hinterland where the local communities live and interact with the tourism
industry in various ways.
Such interactions include entrepreneurial activities in ecotourism and community based tourism.
Being close to the mass market destination, the beach or ecotourism in such areas is in fact a
“complementary or supplementary economic activity, not a substitute” (Cater, 2004, p.489) and is
seen in the context of beach tourism and not as an isolated alternative. In the south coast of
Kenya, there are several attempts to develop ecotourism-based initiatives as an extension of the
mass beach tourism. Such include the Mwalujange Community Elephant Sanctuary, the Wasini
Women Group Mangrove Board Walk, Gazi Women Group, Shimoni Slave Caves and Kaya
Kinondo Ecotourism Project.
Kaya Kinondo forest (also called Ngalaani) is a sacred site for the Digo sub-group of the
Mijikenda community found along Kenyan coast. The forest, measuring about 30 hectares, is
situated in Kinondo Location, Kwale County on a fossil coral reef. This forest is regarded as a
holy place by the Digo community who commune with their ancestral spirits through worship and
sacrificial offerings. They also offer prayers for the sick and the troubled, for rain and for good
harvests, for wisdom and for strength, atonement for offences against nature, rites of passage and
other rituals.
In 2001, Kaya Kinondo became the only Kaya with an active ecotourism venture. This was in
response to the need for sustainable utilization, conservation and management of Kaya forests to
achieve social and economic development for the surrounding communities (Kimaru, 2001). The
project comprises of four villages surrounding the forest with a total population of 2,500 people
and 555 households as per the 2009 National population census results (KNBS, 2010). The
economic activities of the people are mainly fishing, small scale farming and cottage industries
(Makuti, wood carving, and herbal products). The common goods extracted from the forests
include fuel-wood, poles, timber, logs for carving, water, pasture for livestock, herbal medicine,
butterflies, snakes and honey. Threats on forests are many: excision, unsustainable cutting of
forest produce, overgrazing and charcoal burning. These threats are caused by many factors,
mainly increased human population and activities, poverty, unregulated use, insufficient local and
national institutional capacities, policy gaps and weaknesses and lack of alternative means of
livelihood among others.
2.0
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study (carried out between January and March, 2011) employed both primary and secondary
data collection. Direct interviews using semi-structured questionnaires and interview guides were
used. Secondary data was gathered from minutes of the meetings, reports and records of KKCDG
(Kaya Kinondo Conservation and Development Group) and partnering institutions such as NMK
(National Museums of Kenya) and WWF (World Wildlife Fund for Nature).
All the four villages were targeted in this study: Chale, Makongeni, Mgwani A and Mgwani B. A
sample size of 70 households was used representing 13% of the total. The study used systematic
random sampling where randomly selected individuals in the households were interviewed.
Starting from the first household on each identified village path, every eighth household was
selected for interview. In the case where nobody was found in the target household, the next
household was taken as the sample.
Interview guides were used to gather information from direct beneficiaries on their opinions
about the project, the effects of the project on their livelihoods and their level of participation in
the project decision making process. This was done through focus group discussions targeting
women who sell handcraft and food to visitors, dancers, medicine men/women, families that are
visited in the villages and schools administration. An interview guide was also used to gather
information from Kaya Elders on their perception on the project and their roles, especially on
cultural impacts and forest protection.
3.0
DISCUSSION
3.1
Kaya Kinondo: Pioneer Kaya in Ecotourism
Kaya forests are sacred areas which sheltered small-fortified villages of the Mijikenda groups
found along the Kenyan coast. Such places are considered to have an important cultural value to
rural people since they form an important part of sacred natural sites. As a result of this great
value, nine of such sites were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 2008 for their
outstanding universal value. This means they have cultural and natural significance and values
that are so exceptional that they transcend national boundaries and are of common importance to
humanity (Githitho, 2008).
In the last two years, over 50 education institutions and community groups have visited the
Kinondo project – identified as a model in ecotourism development (KKCDG reports). Many
donors still inject funds to support the project in achieving community integration in conservation
efforts. Such integration may also come from the tourism sector due to the strategic location of
the Kayas which have diverse audiences: the potential tourists, the tour operators, travel agents
and hoteliers in the coastal area, the local residents as well as politicians. Unlike the national
parks under the state custody, the Kaya forests embrace tribal or ethnic based management
regime.
Kinondo project is managed by a registered community organization (KKCDG) while the council
of Elders is mandated with monitoring and implementation of the project to ensure conformity to
the rules and regulations developed to guide the project (Kimaru, 2000). This ensures that the
sanctity of the forest is maintained at all times. A tour of Kaya Kinondo entails a guided walk in
the sacred forest and a walk through the nearby villages. The village walk involves visiting a
medicine man/woman, local families, mosques, farms and ends with a visit to a local primary
school. This enables the visitors to connect between the past and the present.
The purpose of Kinondo project was to test the viability of ecotourism as a means of linking
conservation to tangible social and economic benefits to the local community. The premise was
that direct benefit from the management of the natural resources will motivate communities to
protect and use the forest in a sustainable manner. Ten years down the line, no study has been
conducted to assess its effects as envisaged during the project formulation. Is the forest better
managed than before? Are the people feeling the accruing tangible social and economic benefits
as a result of the project? Are the Kaya Elders monitoring the forest to ensure that the sanctity of
the site is maintained? Do people understand better the value of the forest? This paper seeks to
answer these questions within the context of social and economic benefits to the local community
against its original goals and objectives.
3.2
Conceptualizing Kaya Kinondo Ecotourism Project
Kinondo boasts of sacred sites and more than 52 bird species recorded in the area, two of which
are endemic and one is threatened. Also found within this forest are 56 species of butterfly and 98
species of larger moths including one that is rare (Geometridae Racotis breijeri). The forest is
also home to primates including the threatened black and white colobus monkey. Nevertheless,
unlike forested areas such as the Shimba Hills that receive more than 20,000 tourists in a year
(due to the presence of big mammals), the Kayas may be less interesting to visit if they position
themselves as nature based tourism destinations.
Instead, projects like Kinondo should be geared towards education and creation of greater
understanding of the areas visited through high quality tour guiding and interpretations. Indeed,
as noted by Fennel (1999), during the contact stage, interpreters should focus on the need for
participants to seek for answers on a variety of questions. The goal is to bridge the gap between
an individual’s initial knowledge base and the current perception of the world. In other words the
message presented must be focused in its appeal and presentation (Boniface, 2001).
For this to be achieved, Kinondo community pushes for the need to have local guides, arguing
that they have a vast knowledge of the community and culture. Moreover, Ipara (2006)
recognizes the crucial role played by such stakeholders in destination areas. Nonetheless,
possessing indigenous knowledge may not be sufficient enough to satisfy the knowledge thirsty
tourist. The guides in Kinondo lack a depth of formal scientific training and knowledge and
frequently speak in broken English. The support for developing capacity of the locals to become
professional guides is usually downgraded arguing that guiding can be learnt on job.
As a result, locals with substandard knowledge take over a very crucial component of the whole
venture, resulting in unsatisfied clients. Kinondo is particularly sensitive since it is a living
museum of the people’s culture. If the guides cannot elucidate the science behind the strong bond
between the culture and forest, visitors will lose the basic foundation of the whole concept on the
existence of Kaya Forests. As Ipara (2006, 137) noted “boosting the interpersonal, interpretation
and communication skills of tourist guides is necessary in improving the knowledge tourist
guides have and also their participation in tourism”.
With proper guiding, good interpretation of the landscape (natural and human) can be guaranteed.
This enriches the tourist experience by providing social and traditional backgrounds that offers a
varied experience to the tourists. For instance, Boniface (2001, p.28) noted that: “the key aspect
to Japanese gardens is that their features, compositions and arrangements have meanings. These
meanings are connected to the philosophical and spiritual side of the world, and so signify
philosophical and spiritual depth, adding special interest to the gardens. Japanese gardens offer
contrast and completeness, both of which are needs that dynamic tourism has identified among
those it strives to serve”. Moreover, she uses an example of Bordeaux in France by noting that it
is not its landscape which attracts tourists, but rather the wine and the cultural life of this French
town. Thus, even though the Kayas may not be ‘attractive’ to the average tourist, like the gardens
of “Zen” in Japan and the Bordeaux region in France, they need to be bestowed with cultural and
spiritual significance – an interpretation – arousing an important interest in the tourists.
Due to their location advantage of being next to the beach, one would expect that the Kaya forests
like the Kinondo would experience an influx of tourists. On the contrary, that is not the case. The
link between such projects and other sectors of the industry (hoteliers and tour companies) seems
to be missing. In fact the tourists in the enclaves seem to be largely motivated by the sun, sand
and sea with little interest in the local culture. Apart from safaris in the national parks, a good
number of them remain in the hotels interested only in passive leisure and other nautical
activities, not ready to meet the others (the locals). Being close to beach, the Kayas need to be
conceptualized as an extension of the wider beach tourism product. The economic advantages
generated by the international tourists can even be much higher than that generated by the local
tourists. Each international tourist to Kinondo (Kshs 500) generates revenue equivalent to 5 local
tourists (Kshs. 100).
3.4
Kinondo Ecotourism Project: More Than Just Conservation?
A key component of success or failure of tourism projects is the path taken in activating the
process of setting up tourism projects. During this process, greater emphasis is given to
inventorying tourist resources. However, in addition to aesthetic and scenic quality, the mark of a
tourism destination resides also in the local actors who participate and benefit from tourism. This
therefore underscores the importance of local participation in destination areas. Manyara and
Jones (2007) describe Community Based Enterprises (CBEs) as “projects where the local
communities are true owners, are directly involved in managing, and derive direct benefits from
them”. In this case study, the local community is the true owner of ‘Kaya Kinondo Ecotourism
project’. The extent to which they are involved in the management of these projects and the
sharing of benefits is the subject under investigation.
The term “local participation in tourism” is defined as the ability of local communities to
influence the outcome of development projects (Tensie, 1991). Still, it is not only enough to
influence, but according to Marphree (1996) cited in Barrow and Fabricius (2002), these projects
should be by, for and with the local people. Generally, ecotourism is perceived as being
impregnated, integrated and diffused within the local populations; an activity which can enrich
the life of the local populations; which can increase the economic resources for these people;
which can be sensitive to the natural environment and humans and which can protect them; an
activity which can be integrated in a community system with a positive impact (Honey, 2008;
Fennel, 1999). For this to be realized, the tourism industry must be aware of the existence of such
projects. However, the challenge lies in the fact that what is beautiful and worth of admiration has
not changed radically over the years. The tourism itineraries seem to have remained virtually the
same – beach and safari tourism in the national parks.
The Kinondo project is part of the larger cultural and environmental ecosystem encompassing the
nearby south coast – the home of the finest beaches in Kenya. Initial project objectives included
the need to create awareness on the forest cultural and biodiversity values; enhance conservation
of cultural and biodiversity values of the forest; promote the forest for its ecotourism values, to
boost visitation and to contribute to the livelihood of the community adjacent to the forest
(KKCDG Records). However, a part from the Kaya Elders who acknowledged having been
extensively involved in project formulation, only 54% of the respondents said they were
consulted.
The 27% of respondents who indicated they did not know any of the project objectives should be
a cause of concern to the project management and supporting institutions. If a substantial number
within the community fails to understand the objectives, they will not appreciate the project and
its intended purpose. More effort should put in place to raise community awareness about project
objectives to ensure there is a common vision and understanding among all community members.
This understanding is critical for community projects to thrive as it reduces internal conflicts.
Generally speaking, ecotourism projects are perceived as being locally oriented (Fennel, 1999).
However, this may not be true for Kinondo. Only two thirds (67%) of the respondents said they
knew who the management committee members were. Moreover, only 16% of the respondents
did indicate that they participated in their election. Another 67% of the respondents said they do
not take part in the meetings since they are not informed and/or invited for such meetings. While
elders and women knew the committee members and were involved in their election, they did not
know when the committee meets and they have never been called for a meeting since December,
2007 when the current management committee was elected. Even though conducting Annual
General Meeting (AGM) is supposed to be not later that the 21st of January each year, as per the
Kaya Kinondo constitution, the first committee stayed in the office for seven years with no AGM
being held until support institutions mainly NMK and WWF intervened. In Kinondo, the AGM is
the only avenue set by the constitution where management committee and community members
are supposed to meet. If this does not occur the members are at loss as to the happenings of the
group. One Kaya elder explicitly said that they only wanted to be informed of what is going on
even if the group made no money.
The committee running the Kinondo project consists of twelve members (8 men and 4 women)
with representatives from each of the villages, a technical member from NMK-CFCU (Coastal
Forest Conservation Unit) and also the project manager. The committee meets monthly where
issues of the project are discussed and decisions made. Since each committee member is from the
surrounding villages, it is assumed that decisions are taken back to the people through their
representatives. When deciding how to utilize the funds, the committee receives letters from
community groups (fishermen, mosques committees, schools, women groups) requesting for
financial support to undertake specified activities. After this, monthly deliberations are done on
the level of support to be accorded depending on the availability funds and weight of the matter.
3.5 Kinondo Project: Extending the Tourism Product
The publication by Boniface (2001) on dynamic tourism provides a thorough insight on the theme
of change within the tourism industry. It is noted that “dynamic tourism naturally calls for the
creation of new and untried liaisons, as well as for the strengthening of existing ones, along with
more creative and productive use of them all” (Boniface, 2001,.43). One theme addressed in this
publication is that of ‘extension’ where places or items previously ignored by the tourism sector
such as the Kayas can now join in and become part of the tourism product. However, such
liaisons have not appropriately been explored with the coastal destination of Kenya still providing
a narrow tourism product based on the beach and marine areas (World Bank, 2010). Akama and
Kieti (2007, 746) observe that “although Mombasa and its surroundings have diverse cultural and
nature-based attractions, only a limited image of Mombasa is presented, concentrating on the
grand hotels and facilities that are owned by foreign investors”. For instance, the Arabuko
Sokoke forest near Malindi town received a mere 2,441 tourists in 2008. Museums and historical
sites like Jumba la Mtwana in Mtwapa and Mnarani in Kilifi managed to receive only 7,000 and
800 tourists in 2008 respectively (KNBS, 2008) (see table 1).
TABLE 1: TOURIST FLOW TO KAYA KINONDO (2009-2011)
Year
Students
Kenyan
International tourists
citizens
2009
359
67
454
2010
628
128
610
2011
344
71
850
Total per year
881
1,366
1,266
Evidently, attractions gain by clustering (Gunn, 1994). Cooperation and collaboration would be
necessary to realize the desired changes in tourism destinations (Schianetza, Kavanaghb and
Lockingtona, 2007). However, cooperation and networking within the tourism industry, as in the
case of heritage sites and the beach areas, is still lacking. The Kayas cannot thrive if they
continue living in isolation. Among the potential motives for collaboration are: to fill gaps in
present product line, to broaden present product line and to differentiate or add value to the
product (Fyall and Garrond, 2005).
This therefore calls for “the creation of new and untried liaisons, as well as strengthening the
existing ones, along with more creative and productive use of them all” (Boniface, 2001, 43). The
World Bank report on the state of tourism in Kenya notes that “once tourists arrive in the country,
rather than the traditional sun-surf-safari combination, discerning tourists are now looking for
expedient life enriching experiences that revolve around in-depth exposure to culture and local
heritage” (WB, 2010, 7). Murphy and Murphy (2006, 129) observed that “to compete on the
global stage a destination association needs to coordinate the various elements of its tourism
industry, to produce a united image and product. In order to be competitive smaller destinations
need to seek external alliances to build a critical mass of attractions and activities, to make their
regions more appealing”.
Earlier, Murphy (1985) called for cooperation between protected areas and heritage sites by
forming a regional package. This can be achieved if “the local should be seen as a fluid and
relational space, constituted only in and through its relation to the global” (Hall, 1997, 76). In
other words, while contextualizing tourism places, care should be taken not to delimit
communication basing on narrow locality but recreate the sense of a place in the larger context of
beach tourism. The more opportunities encompassed in a single destination, the greater the
potential it would have in attracting tourists.
3.6
Kinondo Governance Issues
As much as Kinondo is referred to as a community project, community members feel alienated
from it by the management committee. For instance, according to a former committee member of
KKCDG, the main problem hindering the group growth and development is lack of transparency
and openness, village politics and outright nepotism among the membership. Good governance is
about how decisions are taken, who takes them and who is accountable to whom (NASCO,
2010). At the heart of the community managed ecotourism project is the relationship between the
community members and their elected management committee. The management committee is
expected to take decisions that are in the interests of the members, to manage the project income
and expenditure and more importantly have a clear method of giving feedback to the members. If
committees are not properly accountable to members, the possibility of mismanagement and
corruption increases (NASCO, 2010).
In a rejoinder, the chairman of the management committee observed that the elders should not
wait to be called for meetings, but rather they should have their own meetings irrespective of the
management committee operations. This is so because the constitution recognizes their role as
advisory, monitoring the project adherence to set rules and regulations and conflict management.
Traditionally, Elders were mandated to be the custodians of the cultural and to ensure forest
protection. They are the supreme organ, called the Ngambi. For them to wait to be called for a
meeting by the project committee is to relegate an important responsibility entrusted onto them.
Moreover, the constitution allows for a Special General Meeting which can be called by any
member who feels the committee is not running the affairs of the groups to their satisfaction. This
kind of scenario portrays a situation where the communities have limited understanding of the
constitution as well as the rights bestowed unto them in the document.
This may be attributed to the fact that half (51%) of the respondents were not aware that their
project has a constitution. Even with this, only 35% were consulted during the development of
the constitution. Further more research revealed that the constitution was developed by a group of
selected community members who included representatives from Kaya Elders, women group,
NMK, WWF, management board and youth leaders. Once drafted by the small technical group,
the draft was supposed to be ratified (but did not happen) by the whole community during the
AGM.
A group constitution is an important tool for good governance, as it provides the foundation for
ensuring accountability and transparency in decision-making. Therefore it should be developed
by all members so that they can own, support and protect it. However, it seems such a crucial
document was developed quickly in order to meet registration requirements and did not receive
much community input. Consequently, the community members have little knowledge of the
contents of the constitution, or how the constitution can be used to ensure good governance.
Ultimately, good governance comes from within when community members take an interest in
the affairs of the group and demand accountability and good financial management from the
committee. In theory, each community member has the opportunity to vote for the management
committee to represent their interests and also vote for the removal of those who fail to deliver.
Each member has the opportunity to help craft a constitution that governs the way the group is
run and which defines the extent to which residents are involved in major decisions. Each
member has the opportunity to attend an AGM and to take part in major decisions such as
approving the group budget. In practice, however, things do not always work out so smoothly. In
Kinondo there was little or no involvement of members in developing the constitution.
3.7
Kinondo Project Scorecard: Economic Welfare to the Local People
Economic empowerment is a level of participation where the residents and entire communities
benefit financially from tourism projects (Fennel, 1999). When this is not the case, conservation
areas, including those with cultural and historical values such as Kinondo, cannot survive
(Barrow and Fabricius, 2002). Manyara and Jones (2007) lament that community based
enterprise’s impact on poverty is still insignificant. This may be so because projects such as
Kinondo experience low levels of interest from visitors. With this, the danger is that “ecotourism
entrepreneurs will look to other more financially advantageous, but less environmentally and
culturally considerate, investments. These may ultimately out-compete ecotourism” (Cater, 2004,
p.493).
It should be noted that only 40% of the residents felt their businesses have changed due to the
project while 57% said the economic activities had not changed. The remaining 3% did not have
any idea. Majority of those who said that their businesses had changed attributed the change
mainly to a strong link with Kaya Kinondo Financial Services Association (KKFSA), where
members of Kinondo access loans and other financial services to initiate other small scale
businesses.
The financial services association was established as part of the Kinondo project. The main
purpose was to encourage communities to save and gain access to financial capital which
presented a big constraint for economic development in rural communities. The association
which has 600 members has given out credit worth US$ 80,000 in the last four years to the
members to support small scale businesses. It is therefore considered one of the key pillars of
Kinondo project in terms of enhancing economic and livelihood development of the people.
The benefits given are mainly through community projects such as schools, mosques, religious
ceremonies and provision of water with 84% of the respondents confirming that they had
received communal benefits in different forms (Table 2). Individual benefits were only accrued to
few people who are directly involved in the running of the project – drivers, tour guides,
marketing agents, dancers and women who prepare traditional food occasionally when they are
called upon to do so.
TABLE 2: TYPES OF BENEFITS DERIVED FROM KINONDO
PROJECT BY THE COMMUNITY
Communal Benefits
Frequency
Individual Benefits Frequency
1. Support to the schools
22%
Direct Income (Cash) 25%
2. Support of religious and 20%
Others (Training)
8%
cultural ceremonies
3. Increased income or
14%
Education support
5%
market for community
products
4. Employment
12%
Mosquito nets
5%
5. Others (reduced malaria, 9%
No benefits
57%
capacity building
through training)
6. Availability of banking
6%
services
7. No benefits
16%
One such communal project mentioned was the support given to three primary schools in the
area, namely Kinondo Primary, Makongeni Primary and Kibarani Primary. At the same time,
most of the visitors to Kinondo are also taken to local primary schools where they directly
donate teaching materials, desks, uniforms and occasionally sponsorship for secondary
education. Some 14 pupils from Makongeni had received sponsorship for secondary
education since the project started. Still, the project allocates funds for religious related
ceremonies mainly to the local mosques in each village through the mosque committee. The
only traditional religious and ritual ceremonies that are regularly supported concern the
fishermen to appease the spirits of the sea and prayers for a good catch.
The project has engaged six community members of youthful nature in some form of
employment. This is mainly through rotational work as cashiers for two women groups (two
cashiers are employed and rotate after every two weeks), security guards, five tour guides
(four males and one female) who are paid on commission and a manager with a monthly
salary. The project also engages two other persons as marketing agents in the local hotels.
They are also paid on commission, for every visitor they take to Kinondo.
According to the records from KKCDG, the project made income of Kshs. 509,686.00 (US$
6,371) in the year 2010. The operational costs consumed 72% while 15% went to savings
leaving only 13% for communal support. This is too little money to make a significant impact
on local behavior in a manner consistent with conservation and sustainable livelihood
objectives. Also, it does not lead the locals to appreciate the forest’s contribution to
meaningful social economic advancement. Ecotourism is about a paradigm shift, from
environmentally unconscious, community unfriendly, mass type of tourism to a more
sustainable one with community benefits as a core component of the venture.
3.8
Conservation of the Environment
After almost ten years of operation, it can be said that the community still holds conservation
of the forest and related cultural values and objectives very highly. However, as was
confirmed by the Kaya Elders and women, the concerns for real income, ‘take home’ is now
becoming a big issue in Kinondo even over shadowing conservation concerns. The data
showed that 77% of the respondents perceived the forest as better managed compared to the
pre-ecotourism period. Reduced illegal access, fire incidences, firewood collection and
cutting of building poles were some of the specific examples given to support the position.
The respondents were very clear that in the absence of the project, the incidences of forest
destruction would be much higher. For instance one lady was very categorical in stating that
“were it not for the project, the Tharakas (sub group of the Meru community found near Mt.
Kenya some of whom have migrated to the south coast where they engage in small scale
farming) would have cleared the forest by now to create tomato farms. They have cleared all
other forest patches surrounding the Kaya, the forest is now like an island surrounded by
farms. The project has protected the forest from the Tharakas”.
This was attributed to the employment of a security guard as well as increased human
presence in the forest during visitation which acted as a deterrent. On the contrary, the 23%
who thought that the forest was not any better than it were 10 years ago mentioned the few
cultural ceremonies conducted in the Kaya over the last few years. They thought the project
should support more of such ceremonies for the forest to continue being relevant. These
sentiments were expressed despite the fact that planning for cultural ceremonies and related
rituals lay squarely on Kaya elders. The project management can only support the ceremonies
after receiving a formal request from Elders. The chairman of the management committee
confirmed that the committee had never received such a request from Elders since coming
into the office three years ago.
Ecotourism Kenya’s motto is about linking tourism to conservation. In this regard, therefore,
the study wanted to establish whether the people felt closer to the forest now than before the
project. Two thirds (67%) answered in the affirmative while a third (32%) thought otherwise.
Only 1% did not know. The women particularly felt the project has helped reduce cultural
beliefs that prohibit them from being in close contact with the Kaya. They now frequent the
forest more, are consulted (even if minimally) in management issues and receive some
benefits. All these never used to happen before the start of the project. The community has
also developed rules and regulations guiding ecotourism activities.
3.9
Contributes to the Social Welfare of the Local People
One of the most notable benefits achieved by Kinondo project is social harmony and
collaboration between the villages; Chale, Makongeni on one side and Mgwani A and B on
the other side. Before the project, women in these villages never interacted and were divided
along village lines. There were historic differences between the villages which had spilled
over to many spheres of social and economic relationship. When the project was initiated,
they were encouraged to form an umbrella group that would represent their common
interests. Likewise, since Kaya forest issues are controlled by men, there was a likelihood
women could be excluded from benefits sharing. Thus, through the group called Muungano,
they are able to sell the handcraft, cook traditional food for visitors and formed a merry-go
round which has enabled them access the village bank credits more easily. Women accounted
for more than 55% of the members of the village bank and have received more than 60% of
all credit advanced. They were able to extend their social networks and lobby for support in
an environment, culturally dominated by men. For example, through the group they were
supported to acquire skills in soap and lotion making from the project. Although the actual
incomes from these activities are still very modest, most members felt the project
nevertheless provides a big opportunity which could be improved in future.
The two main expectations for the women from the project were to increase access to credit
and market for their handcraft products. During the project formulation, women were
informed that the project would enable them receive loans to boost their small scale
enterprises. Currently 75% of respondents believe that such an objective has already been
met. On the other hand, they felt that very little has been achieved so far in providing
sustainable market for their products with a 25% rating.
As to whether the project had a positive impact on culture, 60% responded in the affirmative
while 39% indicated that there was no impact (Table 2). However, reduced cultural values
were not as a result of the project in totality but as a result of a long process in which cultural
attachment and values of Kaya forests had been declining over time across the region. On a
positive note, before the project, most of the rules were only theoretical, but now they are
being applied. For example wrapping a black cloth around the waist before entering the forest
never used to be followed before the project.
TABLE 2: PERCEIVED IMPACTS OF KINONDO PROJECT ON THE CULTURAL
AND TRADITIONAL BELIEFS OF THE PEOPLE
Negative
Positive






4.
Change in dressing code: more
short and tight skirts in the
villages.
Bad omen: old men are dying
more now than before.
Fewer cultural ceremonies being
conducted now than before.
Effect on the sacredness of the
forest (not all have good
intention, some are evil people
sent to spy on us).
Angry spirits; hence there is less
catch in the sea.


People of the two villages
brought together.
More people now are attached to
the forest. Initially only Elders
would go, but now even women
can go the forest.
Before the project, some
traditional rules had been
forgotten. The project has
documented them and they are
now known even by young
people.
CONCLUSION
Low tourism activity has prevented Kinondo project members from experiencing tourism
benefits to the fullest. Increasing the number of visitors may be the starting point. Indeed, the
Kayas must demonstrate their customer orientation. This orientation will be achieved by
emphasizing the message that “the world’s full range and diversity can and should be
represented in tourism” (Boniface 2001, p.7). The potential to reap benefits from tourism
depends on a number of factors such as exposure through exchange programs, cooperation
among community members and access to funds and possession of leadership, management
and business skills among others. Future comparative analysis between Kayas forests open
for visitation and Kayas forests still not open may be necessary. Kaya Kinondo without
compromising her priority in the conservation of the forest should look beyond her
boundaries and extend collaboration to surrounding destinations and regions, notably the
beach and its resorts.
REFERENCES
1.
Akama, J.S., Kieti, D., 2007. Tourism and Socio-economic Development in Developing
Countries: A Case Study of Mombasa Resort in Kenya, Journal of Sustainable Tourism,
vol. 15, N° 6.
2.
Barrow, E., Fabricius, C., 2002. Do Rural People Benefit from Protected Areas –
Rhetoric or Reality? in Goriup, P., Local Communities and Protected Areas, Vol. 12,
No 2.
3.
4.
Boniface, P., 2001, Dynamic Tourism: Journeying with Change, London, Clevedon.
Burgess, N.D. and Clarke, G. P. (Eds.) 2000. Coastal Forest of East Africa. Cambridge,
UK, IUCN Publication Services.
5.
Cater, E., 2004, Ecotourism Theory and Practice, in Lew, A.A., Hall, M.C., and
Williams, A.M., (Eds), A Companion to Tourism, Malden, Blackwell Publishing, 484497.
6.
Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, 2003, Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya
and Tanzania: Ecosystem Profile, Nairobi, Nature Kenya.
7.
Fennell, D.A., 1999 Ecotourism: An Introduction, London, Routledge.
8.
Fyall, A., Garrod, B., 2005, Tourism Marketing: A Collaborative Approach, London,
Clevedon.
9.
Githitho, A. 2008. Inscription of the Mijikenda Kaya on the UNESCO World Heritage
List: Short Brief, Mombasa, Kenya, CFCU-NMK.
10.
Githitho, A. 1998a. Institutional Challenges in Conservation: The Case of the Scared
Kaya Forests of the Kenya Coast. Mombasa, Kenya, CFCU-NMK.
11.
Gunn, Claire, A., 1994, Tourism Planning. Basics, Concepts and Cases. 3rd Ed.
Washington: Taylor.
12.
Hall, M.C., 1997, Geography, Marketing and Selling of Places, Wellington, Harworth
Press.
13.
Honey, M., 2008, Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise,
Washington, DC, Island Press.
14.
Ipara, H., 2006, The Evolving Role of Tourist Guides in Enhancing Community
Tourism: The Kenyan Experience, African Journal of Business and Economics, Vol. 1,
No 2, 121-138.
15.
Kimaru, E. 2000. Kaya Kinondo Pilot Ecotourism Project, Nairobi: WWF for Nature,
Eastern Africa Regional Programme Office.
16.
Kimaru, E. 2001. Community Eco-tourism: A Feasibility Study and General Guidelines
for Kaya Kinondo Sacred Forest in Kwale District’ Nairobi, CFCU Internal Report.
17.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics 2010, 2009 Kenya Population and Housing Census
Volume 1A: Nairobi, Kenya, Population Distribution by Administration Units
18.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics 2009, Economic Survey 2009, Nairobi, Kenya
National Bureau of Statistics.
19.
Manyara, G., Jones, E., 2007 Community-Based Tourism Enterprises Development in
Kenya: An Exploration of Their Potential as Avenues of Poverty Reduction, Journal of
Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 15, No 6, 628-644.
20.
Murphy, P.E., and Murphy, A.E., 2006, Strategic Management for Tourism
Communities: Bridging the Gaps, New Delhi, Viva Books Private Limited.
21.
Murphy, P.E., 1985, Tourism: A Community Approach, London, Methuen.
22.
NASCO. 2010. Namibia’s Communal Conservancies; A Review of Progress and
Challenges in 2009. Windhoek, NASCO.
23.
Schianetza, K., Kavanaghb, L., Lockingtona, D., 2007, The Learning Tourism
Destination: The Potential of a Learning Organization Approach for Improving the
Sustainability of Tourism Destinations, Tourism Management vol.28, 1485–1496.
24.
Tensie, W. (Ed.) 1991. Nature Tourism, Managing the Environment. Washington D. C.,
Island press.
25.
UNEP 1998, Kenya Atlas of Our Changing Environment, Nairobi, Eastern Africa Atlas
of Coastal Resources.
26.
World Bank Group, 2010, Kenya’s Tourism: Polishing the Jewel, Washington, DC,
Finance and Private Sector Development, Africa Region Summary Report.