Marina Nebro
Primary Source Paper 1
September 28, 2013
Professor Covington
The Book of Kells
The advent of Christianity in Ireland among the Celtic population is an issue
of great interest. Unlike the spread of the new religion among peoples of other
regions of the continent and the British Isles, the Irish Celts had no direct contact
with the population in which Christianity originated and grew. The Romans never
successfully infiltrated the island, known to them as Hibernia, as it did England and
the southern most parts of Scotland. For this reason, Ireland’s relationship with
Christianity was particularly unique in terms of practice, organization, and
depiction. The Book of Kells, a collection of illuminated manuscripts, is a perfect
example of how Ireland, in particular, embraced the religion of Christianity in a
distinctively Celtic manner.
The Principal of Adaptation is highly responsible for the reason Ireland was
given the free reign to foster an innovative wave of Christianity. In the 6th century of
the Common Era, Augustine of Canterbury received help from Pope Gregory the
Great about how to convert the native Celtic pagans. The main issue was that the
natives easily reverted back to their pagan practices when clerical backs were
turned. Pope Gregory advised that the best way to have pagans accept the way of
Christian life was to incorporate pagan imagery and worship. Instead of placing a
church in a new location, raise one above a pagan place of worship. Move the
Christian holidays to coincide with pagan ritual devotion – one example being
Christmas. Though Pope Gregory’s advice was towards the conversion of the ruling
kings of England, the same mentality was brought over to Ireland as well.
The Book of Kells exemplifies how Celtic imagery and belief was translated
into Christian practice. Motifs from Celtic mythology and decorative arts were
copied into the illuminated manuscripts by the monastic society, creating a beautiful
hybrid between two cultures. The page I would like to focus on is folio 27v, which
depicts the four evangelists who wrote the four versions of the gospel: Mark,
Matthew, Luke, and John. Throughout Christianity, different animals – lion, ox, and
eagle – represent the evangelists. These particular animals are not unique to Celtic
portrayal. In Revelations 4:6 – 7, it is said that there “are four living creatures, full of
eyes in front and behind: the first living creature like a lion, the second living creature
like an ox, the third living creature with a face like a human face, and the fourth living
creature like a flying eagle.” This description is aimed towards the four evangelists. The
depictions of men in the manuscript more often than not are very Irish Celtic in nature.
Their hair is usually light – blonde, golden, or red – and unless a holy figure, their faces
are often shaved. The animals, though not exclusive to Irish mythology, had significance
in Celtic culture as well.
The eagle is especially important in Celtic mythology as it is seen as one of the
oldest creatures in existence. It represents wisdom, bravery, security, and peace. The
Gaelic name for eagle is iolaire suile Na grein, which means “the eagle with the sunlit
eye.”1 This description can easily be adapted into Christian practice. The eagle with
the sunlit eye can easily communicate with God in heaven, and soar among the stars.
The Celtic people were part of an agrarian society, and hence put a lot of
importance into the land and nature. The bull or ox is a key figure in working the
Puplett, Dan. “Mythology and Folklore of the Eagle.” Trees for Life. July 5, 2012. Web.
September 28, 2013. <http://www.treesforlife.org.uk/forest/mythfolk/eagle.html>
1
land. Both these animals were known to be used in animal sacrifice and in ritual
worship, though specifics about these practices are not known.2 While the eagle is a
symbol for elevation, the bull or ox grounds the Christian religion to earth.
The last symbol to talk about is the lion. In addition to being an agrarian
society, the Celts were also known for their tribal, warrior traditions. The lion,
winged in the image from the Book of Kells as it is elsewhere in evangelist
iconography, is very similar to the dragon in Celtic mythology. This majestic feline
represents bravery and strength, two characteristics very important to the Celtic
warrior.3 Often times, the lion would be depicted on Celtic armor and weaponry,
and even on decorative jewelry as well.4
Other than anamorphic iconography, the Book of Kells utilized many patterns
and shapes prevalent in metalwork and decorative arts. The scrollwork, especially
visible in folio 33r, is very similar to that seen on a lot of metal artifacts of the Celtic
world.5 A very famous example of this metal scrollwork is the Tara Brooch on view
at the National Museum of Archaeology in Dublin, Ireland. Instead of just being a
decorative element, the eight circles on folio 33r form an intricate cross. This
perfectly exemplifies a Celtic motif taken and transformed into Christian imagery.
Throughout the entire manuscript, there are examples of Celtic knots. One very
interesting knot is the contortion of a man, seen in many different positions, but
particularly on the top left and bottom right corners of folio 27v. This imagery is not
2
Heinz, Sabine. Celtic Symbols. Toronto, Ontario: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc, 1999.
53-59. eBook.
3 Heinz, Sabine. Celtic Symbols. Toronto, Ontario: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc, 1999.
75-77. eBook.
4 Neckband. 100 CE. Artefact. ARTstorWeb. 28 Sep 2013.
5 Battersea Shield. 100-200 CE. Artefact. ARTstorWeb. 28 Sep 2013.
new to the Book of Kells, and has been represented previously in works of
decorative art.6
Without the influence of many other cultures on the growth of Christianity in
Ireland, the religion was able to flourish and experience a golden age. In 7th century
England, it was obvious that Irish Christianity and Roman Christianity differed. The
Synod of Whitby (664), in which England had to choose which Christianity to follow,
showed the differences in practices and ritual between the two Christian versions.
With the Principal of Adaptation, the people of Ireland were able to maintain their
Celtic culture while assimilating with the rest of Europe on a religious level.
6
Meehan, Bernard. The Book of Kells: An Illustrated Introduction to the Manuscript in Trinity
College Dublin. 1st Ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 1994. 8-20. Print.