Chapter 13 Outline – The Spread of Chinese Civilization: Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
III. The Postclassical Era
H. The Spread of Chinese Civilization: Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
1. Overview
- As China flourished during postclassical period, its neighbors, specifically Japan, Korea, and
Vietnam, copied heavily from the Chinese
 In each, Chinese influence blended with local customs to produce similar, but distinct cultures
 Buddhism played a big role in the transmitting of Chinese culture
2. Japan: The Imperial Age
- Postclassical Japan had 3 major regimes: Taika (645-710), Nara (710-784), and Heian (794-857)
 During these regimes, Chinese influence on Japanese culture peaked (especially among elites)
 Culturally, Japan became like China, except Japan kept Shintoism
- Taika reforms = reforms in 646 to make Japan like China (wanted an absolute, Chinese-style
emperor, to create a bureaucracy, and to build a peasant army)
 Japanese copied China in many ways: studied Chinese alphabet, had elaborate court etiquette,
used politeness and decorum, studied Confucianism, and admired Chinese-style Buddhist art
- Common people affected by Chinese influence also
 Buddhist temples built and had to bow to passing aristocrats (now Confucian scholars)
 Peasants began to combine Buddhist worship with ancient kami (nature of spirits) of Japan
- After a while, Japanese aristocracy began rejecting Chinese influence
 Peasants even against Chinese influence (ex: created own form of Buddhism)
 Taika reforms failing, and aristocrats and local lords gained power as emperor lost power
a. Crisis at Nara and the Shift to Heian (Kyoto)
- The Taika reforms failed because aristocracy fought against them, but so did Buddhists
- In 760s, emperor forced to flee Nara (capital) and set up new capital at Heian (later called Kyoto)
 Buddhists were major reason why emperor had to flee, and he forbid Buddhist monasteries in
his new capital, though Buddhists built them in the nearby hills
- Emperor stopped Taika reforms (aristocracy fighting them, so easier to stop them)
 Chinese-style system of ranks which aristocrats were divided remained, but unlike China,
rank in Japan determined by birth and allowed little mobility between ranks
 Aristocrats quickly regained power over central government, and began building rural estates
 Emperor never built peasant army, instead relied on local provincial leaders to supply military
forces, further eroding power of the imperial government (emperor)
b. Ultracivilized: Court Life in the Heian Era
- While emperor lost power, court (life in the capital) culture was refined and soared to new heights
 Japanese emperors continued to live in a closed world full of luxury (those less powerful now)
 Aristocratic men and women lived their lives with strict codes of polite behavior
 In this society, social status meant everything (lots of gossip, often about love affairs)
 Never in history had society been so focused on the pursuit of beauty, and social interaction
been so gracious and well mannered
- At the Heian court, imperial (emperor’s) family and aristocrats lived in palaces with gardens
 Buildings made of unpainted wood w/matted floors, wooden walkways b/t homes, fish ponds,
and artificial lakes with waterfalls and gardens
 Poetry was most valued form of art (poems were short but very elegant)
- Chinese writing borrowed by Japanese was simplified so more like Japanese spoken language
 This led to outpouring of poetry and literature that were more and more distinctively Japanese
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 “The Tale of Genji” = 1st Japanese novel, written by Lady Muraski
- Women played big role in poetry, art, and music
 Women wrote poems, played flutes or stringed instruments, and even participated in elaborate
schemes to snub or disgrace rivals
 Like in China and Islamic world, they became involved in palace intrigue and power struggles
c. The Decline of Imperial Power
- Fujiwara = aristocratic family in mid 800s who gained lots of power over the emperor
 Fujiwara married into imperial family and placed family members in imperial government
- Aristocrats (along with some Buddhists) began building large estates in and around the capital,
 Aristocrats (and Buddhist monks, as Buddhism was becoming popular among aristocrats)
began to control the lives of the peasants living on their estates
d. The Rise of the Provincial Warrior Elite
- While aristocrats and Buddhists gaining power near capital, provincial (local) lords were building
large estates (kingdoms) throughout the rest of Japan
 Provincial lords ruled built self-sufficient estates, with fortresses for defense, and even
refused to give resources to the court (central government), showing emperor and even
aristocracy’s loss of power and control
- Bushi = Warriors who were the leaders (local lords) of the mini-states scattered throughout Japan
 Samurai = mounted troops who used curved steel swords and worked for the bushi
 As imperial (central) control breaking down by 1000s, Japan became a violent, chaotic mess
 Even Buddhist monasteries hired armies to defend themselves and attack rival sects
 Amid this chaos, aristocrats (elite in capital) hired bushi and their samurais as bodyguards,
and as a result, a powerful warrior class emerged in Japan
 Battles were formal and planned, and each side spoke of the justice of their cause before fight
- A warrior code developed that stressed family honor and death rather than retreat or defeat
 Seppuku = Ritual suicide of disembowelment that defeated warriors did to restore family
honor (known as hara-kiri in the West)
 Feudal system was beginning to develop in Japan that was similar to western Europe
- Rise of samurai ended hopes of creating a free peasantry
 For next few centuries, Japanese peasants became serfs (bound to land they worked on)
 Peasants separated from warrior elites by strict class system (different forms of dress and
peasants couldn’t carry swords or ride horses)
 Peasants turned to pure land Buddhism as they lost power and got poorer
- Artisans lived in the imperial court (capital) at Heian or in the fortress towns of the bushi
 A professional class of artisans emerged, but were poor and given little status (unlike in China
where scholar-gentry undertook artisan activities)
3. The Era of Warrior Dominance
- As the provincial lords got stronger, the imperial household (emperor) and court aristocracy (elite
living in the capital of Heian) declined
 Aristocrats in the capital (like the Fujiwara) relied on provincial lords for help against rivals
 By the 1000s, the provincial families (bushi) gained power within the court (capital) as well
 Gempei Wars = War in the 1180s between the Taira and Minamoto families for control
 Early on, Taira winning b/c allied with emperor, but by the 1180s, the Minamoto won b/c of
their strong alliances with provincial lords
 Peasants forced to fight and were killed easily by better equipped samurais
 Bakufu = military government set up by Minamoto after beating Taira, moved capital to
Kamikura (Minamoto rule began the feudal age in Japan)
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 Emperor kept, but as figurehead with Minamoto family and their samurais having the power
a. The Declining Influence of China
- As aristocracy got stronger and emperor weaker, influence of Chinese lessened
 Attempt at strong central government w/scholar-gentry class (like China) were gone
 Even Buddhism was transformed into a distinctly Japanese brand
- When Tang dynasty fell, Japan closed embassies in China, further separating the 2 societies
b. The Breakdown of Bakufu Dominance and the Age of the Warlords
- The Minamoto leader, Yorimoto, weakened regime by killing rivals he feared may overthrow him
 Had family members murdered or exiled (they were strong leaders, losing them hurt empire)
 Shogun = name for military leaders of the bakufu
 Yorimoto didn’t have heir to throne b/c of his tactics, and after his death weak leaders
emerged (in meantime, bushi lords were building up their power )
 Hojo = warrior family allied with Minamotos, gained power over the Minamotos
 Hojo left Minamoto shoguns in place (though had power over them)
- Ashikaga Takuaji = head of one branch of Minamoto family led revolt that overthrew the
Minamoto regime and established the Ashikaga Shogunate (1336-1573)
 The Minamoto emperor defeated by Ashikaga fled to Yoshino (nearby town) , allied with
local warlords there, and fought civil war against Ashikaga Shogunate for years
- Ashikaga eventually beat the Yoshino rivals, but the long civil war weakened them
 During fighting, many bushi (with their samurais) took land from peasants and aristocracy
 As bushi warlords gained power, the court aristocracy (elite in capital) was nearly wiped out
- Fight by heirs seeking throne led to civil war (1467-1477) which helped end central (imperial) rule
 In the war, imperial capital destroyed, and provincial lords (bushi) continued to gain power
 Daimyos = leaders of the nearly 300 kingdoms Japan got divided into following the civil war
c. Toward Barbarism? Military Division and Social Change
- Chivalric ways of the bushi era deteriorated in the 1400s and 1500s
 Warfare changed: spying and sneak attacks became common, and armed peasants became
important part of army (these peasants looted and pillaged as they went through countryside
 Peasants often rose up in hopeless but furious revolts
 Seemed as if Japan was reverting from a civilized society into a barbaric one
- Despite the chaos of the warlord period, there was much economic and cultural growth
 Daimyos tried to build up their states (collected taxes, built irrigation systems, gave incentives
to peasants to settle new lands, had new tools, and had new crops (soybeans))
 Peasants produced silk, hemp, paper, dyes, and vegetable oils, providing a source of income
 Daimyos competed to attract merchants to their growing castle towns
 Soon a new merchant class arose – got goods for military, traded with China
 As in western Europe, guilds organized (offered group protection in time of political turmoil)
- Growth of commerce helped women avoid drop in status that was occurring during Bakufu period
 Women in merchant and artisan families had most independence (allowed in guilds, could run
businesses), but, women in the warrior elites class not good
 During bushi period, women learned to ride horses and use bow and arrow to help hunt, but
daimyo rule led to drop in women’s status (ex: primogeniture = inheritance to oldest son,
which hurt women b/c could no longer inherit land like they could under bushi)
 Given in marriages to cement alliances b/t warrior families and taught to kill themselves
rather than dishonor family by being raped by illicit suitors or enemy soldiers
 Women couldn’t act in theatrical performances (men trained to act the part of women)
d. Artistic Solace for a Troubled Age
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While constant warfare b/t samurais was dragging Japan back to barbarism, the arts flourished
 Zen Buddhism played big role in supporting the arts (especially in architecture)
 Buddhist monasteries led trade w/China, which revived Chinese influence on Japan
 Painting imitated China’s Song, but monochrome ink sketches by Japanese were original, as
were screen and roll paintings that captured natural beauty of Japan
 Shintoism and Zen Buddhism influenced building of gardens (ex: Ryoanji Temple = islands
of volcanic rock set amid white pebbles), and tea ceremonies became more common
 Amazing that gardens and places of such beauty built during such warfare and violence
e. Seeds of Unity and Japanese Nationhood
- Economic and cultural growth during kept Japan from becoming barbaric, and even helped unify
the people of Japan
 Commercial and artisan classes eventually helped unify the Japanese economy
 If the 300 or so daimyos could work together, they could unite Japan
4. Korea: Between China and Japan
- Koreans descended from the hunters and herders of eastern Siberia and Manchuria
 By 300s, people on Korean peninsula learned farming and metal-working from the Chinese
 From 300s onward, Koreans played role in dynastic struggles along the north China plains
 In 109 B.C.E. the Han dynasty (China) conquered part of Korea, and got more land over the
next 400 years (which explains why Chinese culture influenced Korea so much)
- Koreans soon resisted the Chinese, and 3 independent Korean kingdoms arose
 Koguryo = Korean kingdom in northern Korea begun in 37 B.C.E. after Chinese driven out
 Silla and Paekche = The 2 independent kingdoms Koreans established in southern Korea
- Sinification = The adopting of Chinese culture (in this case the Koreans)
 Chinese influence seen most through Buddhism (Korean rulers patronized (paid for) Buddhist
artists, monasteries, and pagoda, and Koreans scholars went to China to study Buddhism
 Chinese alphabet introduced - didn’t fit well w/Korean language (similar problem in Japan)
 Code of law introduced like Han dynasty used
 Universities created – students learned Confucianism and history of China (not of Korea)
 Tried to create Chinese style bureaucracy, but Korean nobility resisted (would lose power)
a. Tang Alliances and the Conquest of Korea
- The 3 Korean kingdoms fought for hundreds of years, resulting in each getting weakened by war
 Tang able to take advantage of the civil war in Korea and takeover much of Korea
 Tang allied with Silla kingdom in south and beat other 2 kingdoms (Paekche and Koguryo),
but soon fought w/Silla on how to divide the conquered lands
 Tang and Silla struck a deal – China left Korea alone, but Silla had to pay tribute to China
 Other than paying tribute, Korea was independent (it remained that way until the 1900s)
b. Sinification: The Tributary Link
- Though now independent of China, Chinese cultural influence on Korea peaked during Silla (668935) and later Koryo (918-1392) dynasties
 Silla rulers tried to turn their empire into mini version of Tang China (ex: same dress style)
- Paying the tribute to the Chinese ensured independence, and Koreans also got back valuable gifts
and access to Chinese learning
c. The Sinification of Korean Elite Culture
- Silla rulers built capital at Kumsong, and made it look like Tang capital
 Aristocratic families made sure built their mansions near the imperial government (aristocrats
were large percent of population in capital, lived w/extended families and had 100s of slaves
 Aristocrats studied in Chinese schools and some took Chinese-style exams which Silla used
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Aristocrats spent much time on arts and entertainment (government jobs given through family
connections, not knowledge and merit, so had plenty of free time (no need to become scholar)
- Korean elites preferred Buddhism over Confucianism, even paid for Buddhist monasteries and art
 Kumsong (the capital) was crowded with Buddhist temples, usually made of wood
 Buddhism practiced in Korea similar to that practiced in China, further linking the 2 cultures
- Sometimes Koreans added on to enhance what they borrowed from China
 Ex: pottery (pale-green glazed celadon bowls) and in stoneware (black and rust colored)
d. Civilization for the Few
- Other than Buddhism, Chinese cultural influence on Korea mostly affected by the elites (ex:
aristocracy had strict social ranks, and aristocrats the ones chosen to staff bureaucracy)
 Trade w/China centered on aristocrats (Korea imported fancy clothing and art for the elites
and exported raw materials like copper, which was mined by near slaves in awful conditions)
- Korean elites (aristocrats and members of royal family) sponsored artisan work
 Artisans had very low status and poorly paid
 Traders even lower, and so weak they didn’t even have a distinct class
- Basically, aristocrats were the only people who counted in Korean society
 Commoners were mostly peasants, and near-slaves (known as “low born”) and ranged from
miners and artisans servants and entertainers
 Buddhism popular b/c gave hope to commoners, and festivals were fun break from rough life
 Commoners work done for the aristocrats, and outside of capital, Korea was mostly backward
e. Koryo Collapse, Dynastic Renewal
- Commoners often rose up against ruling aristocrats, and though they were stopped, they still
weakened the Silla and later Koryo dynasties
 Peasant revolts, fights b/t aristocrats, and outside invasions, led to downfall of both dynasties
 In 1231 the Mongols invaded and created turmoil in Korea
 Yi = Dynasty that replaced Koryo in 1392, and ruled Korea until 1910, restored power of
aristocracy and Chinese influence (as Korea seemed happy to live in China’s shadow)
5. Between China and Southeast Asia: The Making of Vietnam
- Vietnamese had distinct culture which they did not want to lose by being conquered by China
 Viets liked benefits they got from China (ex: technology) but didn’t want to lose own identity
and become just another part of China’s massive civilization
- Qin (Chinese) 1st encountered what they called Nam Viets (people of the south) in 220s B.C.E.
 After invasion by Qin, trade increased (Viets got silk and sent ivory, tortoise shells, pearls,
peacock feathers, aromatic woods to China)
 Soon, Viet rulers defeated feudal lords and formed a Viet kingdom along the Red River
 Viets intermarried w/others in area and formed distinct Vietnamese ethnic group
- Vietnamese culture similar to others in SE Asia (largely b/c intermarried w/groups like the Khmer
(today’s Cambodians) and Tais, and this culture differed significantly from the Chinese
 Vietnamese had strong tradition of village autonomy
 Vietnamese favored the nuclear family (not extended family preferred by Chinese)
 Vietnamese women always had better status (both within family and in society) than in China
 Dressed very differently (ex: Vietnamese women wore long skirts, while China’s non-elite
women wore black pants), and spoke different, unrelated language
 Vietnamese had cockfighting, chewed betel nut, and blackened their teeth (Chinese disliked)
 Art and literature that was refined (especially poetry) but distinct from Chinese
 When they were later conquered by Chinese (Han) Vietnamese retained most of their culture,
and they became much more fervent in their attachment to Buddhism
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Conquest and Sinification
In 111 B.C.E the Han conquered Vietnam and directly ruled Vietnam with Chinese officials
 Viet elites accepted Chinese rule, realizing they could learn a lot from the Chinese
 Eventually, Vietnamese elites were allowed into the Han bureaucracy (attended Chinese
schools, learned Confucianism and Chinese writing, and took exams to become bureaucrats)
 Vietnamese agriculture became best in SE Asia (elites learned from Chinese farming)
 Vietnam had high population density by Red River (good farming supported big population)
Chinese influence on politics + military gave Vietnam advantage over Indian-influenced neighbors
Roots of Resistance
China’s attempt to assimilate Viets into Chinese culture failed
 Viets learned from Chinese, but disliked that Chinese thought they were backwards, (this
resentment led to fierce determination to end Chinese rule over Vietnam)
Vietnamese peasants often rebelled against Chinese, and asked Vietnamese lords for help
 Trung Sisters = led most famous uprising in 39 C.E. (they demonstrate importance women
had in Vietnam, which was not the same in China)
Vietnamese women hated Chinese Confucianism that would have subject them to male dominance
Winning Independence
Another reason the Vietnamese resisted Chinese rule was that the 2 were not that closely linked
 Main Chinese cities far from Vietnam (and separated by mountains), and very few Chinese
lived in Red River valley where Vietnamese population was centered
 Vietnamese took advantage when there was political turmoil and nomadic invasions in China
 Vietnamese constantly rebelled against China, though didn’t gain independence for centuries
 Finally, in 939, Vietnamese successfully broke free from China after the Tang fell from power
 Vietnam fought to stay independent (vs. Ming dynasty and Mongols) for thousands of years
The Continuing Chinese Impact
Although Vietnam gained independence, Chinese culture continued to affect Vietnamese society
 Vietnamese rulers built Chinese-style cities, + copied Chinese bureaucracy (including exams)
 Bureaucrats learned Confucianism and had high status in society
But this Vietnamese equivalent of Chinese scholar-gentry never got as much power as in China
 Local Vietnamese officials related more w/peasants than the elite rulers running the empire
(and these leaders often helped peasants rebel against the ruling dynasty)
Buddhist monks in Vietnam had a lot of power (which limited power of scholar-bureaucrats)
 Peasants mostly Buddhist, and related more to the monks than the Confucian bureaucrats
 Buddhism popularity enhanced b/c of its high view of women
 So the Vietnamese dynasties that ruled didn’t have as much power as Chinese dynasties did
The Vietnamese Drive to the South
Once free from China, the Vietnamese set their sights on expanding their domain
 Vietnam wanted to expand south, where Indian-influenced Chams lived
 Vietnamese fought from 1000s to 1700s and able successfully conquered south b/c of larger
population and better political and military organization (which they learned from Chinese)
 Most of Chams driven to highland areas where their descendants live today
After beating Chams, Vietnamese defeated Khmers to gain control of the Mekong delta in south
Expansion and Division
As Vietnam expanded, leaders in capital of Hanoi found it hard to control the growing empire
 Vietnamese who moved south married Chams and Khmers and developed a distinct culture
 North Vietnamese viewed south Vietnamese as inferior
 Southern commanders ignored orders from Hanoi (in north), and were slow in sending taxes
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Nguyen = dynasty that rose to power in south Vietnam challenging dynasty ruling in north,
the Trinh (a 200 year war between the dynasties occurred (none saw division as permanent))
 Civil war weakened Vietnam, making it possible for the French to conquer Vietnam in 1800s
6. Conclusion: Divergent Paths in East Asian Development
- From 0 – 1000 C.E., China influenced the rise of 3 areas: Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
 Each area good for sedentary farming, which was key to allow Chinese culture to spread
- Chinese culture (writing, bureaucratic organizations, religion, art) transmitted to these areas
 In each case, Chinese imports used by elites (except Buddhism which commoners practiced)
- Since all 3 areas influenced by China, they shared a common culture for a while
 Japan – China failed to gain control, but Japanese elite copied Chinese culture (though
China’s influence limited by local military leaders who opposed Confucian values)
 Korea – direct Chinese rule brief, but Chinese cultural dominance and influence lasted
 Vietnam – Controlled by China for 1,000 years constantly fighting for independence (after
gaining independence, Vietnamese began appreciating Chinese culture)
- Nevertheless, China’s ways were the standard by which all Asians were judged
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