Cara O’Brien
Prospectus COMM 460
December 3, 2010
Muslim Stereotyping: Examining Media’s Influence on Perceptions
Introduction
When we experience tragedies, humans are naturally inclined to alleviate pain and
confusion by channeling these emotions into anger. Often we fall short in fully rationalizing
insensible acts and our residual anger may be unfairly displaced. One example of this is the
terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001 and the subsequent stereotyping of Muslim men and
women. All Americans were affected by these events in some way or another in that not only
did the perpetrators take thousands of innocent lives, but they also violently disrupted our
nation's sense of security. The American citizenry's fear and hatred manifested by these acts are
reinforced every time the media replays or discusses the horrific events of that day. Muslim
stereotypes are formed through tragedies involving.
The communication phenomenon I am interested in exploring will focus on the media’s
effects on the cultivation of negative stereotypes of Middle Easterners after the terrorist attacks
of September 11th, 2001. More specifically, how the media forms perceptions and stereotypes
that then become a part of cultural and societal norms. This is important because “media
representations of Middle Easterners have been instrumental in the construction of a number of
negative stereotypes portraying them as carnal, enigmatic, exotic, unpredictable and violent.
After the attacks of September 11, 2001 and the American invasion of Iraq, these images have
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been intensified through a well structured network of television and film depictions” (Hirschi,
2007, p. 7).It is important to understand how media can affect its viewers and to see how our
minds cultivate a preconceived notion about individuals based on the way the media portrays
them.
The purpose of this study will be to analyze and examine how the media’s portrayal of
the tragedies of September 11th, 2001, shaped negative perceptions that Islam and terrorism are
synonymous. I want to study whether or not Americans have negative emotions and/or feel
threatened by Muslims. I also want to look into how apparent these stereotypes are in Americans
daily lives and whether or not we act upon them. Negative stereotypes have been formed and
reinforced through the media. Stereotypes are not cognitive but rather emotional and are based
on widespread social norms. Stereotypes can be formed through personal experience between
Arabs and Americans but it is more apparent that these stereotypes are being created and
reinforced through nationwide mass mediated messages.
Perceptions Influenced by Media
As a society, we are very culturally influenced by the media. For the most part, what is
represented in the media cultivates our minds into thinking things about certain people and/or
groups of people that are usually misrepresentations. We commonly refer to this as stereotyping.
Stereotyping is “thought of as over generalized beliefs, stereotypes are collections of traits or
characteristics that present members of a group as being all the same” (Merskin, p. 3). Even
though stereotyping is apparent in all societies, this does not mean that all stereotypes are the
truth. Many stereotypes are created through interactions and/or events with these groups of
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people and ideas are usually construed either positively or negatively based on the evaluation of
that certain situation.
September 11th, 2001 was not the first time the United States was attacked by a foreign
enemy. After these attacks, many Americans realized that the United States was just as
vulnerable as any other country. We were subject to being attacked and terrorized and we were
certainly not unconquerable. Reboul (2006) states, “It is probably true that 9/11 deeply changed
the Western world view, not because it was the first instance of Islamic terrorism—it was not—
not, or not only, because of its magnitude, but because it showed that Islamic terrorism could
strike at the heart of the most powerful (Western) state in the world” (p. 468). This made us
realize that we are susceptible to attack, even if we are the most powerful country in the world.
This shows that having enemies, especially in the Middle East, is not ideal.
The media took it upon themselves to show over and over again what had happened that
day and by whom. Their depiction of the terrorists showed angry Muslim men in turbans. Hirschi
(2007) explains, “Media representations of Middle Easterners have been instrumental in the
construction of a number of negative stereotypes portraying them as carnal, enigmatic, exotic,
unpredictable and violent. After the attacks of September 11, 2001 and the American invasion of
Iraq, these images have been intensified through a well structured network of television and film
depictions” (p. 7). It is important to understand how media can affect its viewers and to see how
our minds cultivate a preconceived notion about individuals based on the way the media portrays
them.
The repercussions of the Arab community for the terrorist’s attacks are at a higher level
than they have ever been. Weston (2003) explains, “Americans who looked Middle Eastern were
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harassed, assaulted and their property vandalized in a wave of misplaced retaliation” (p.92).
Arabs are being discriminated against and are being victims of hate crimes. Because of the
attacks, the US government has become very particular in who comes into this country and many
foreigners feel that the United States is being discriminatory rather than careful. Many Arab
Americans felt very threatened when they entered this country so a great deal of them change
their names and sometimes appearance. Cainker (2002) explains, “Some preferred to mask their
Arab identity by changing their name from Muhammad to Mike and Farouq to Fred and by
organizing their social relations around non-Arabs” (p. 25). The Middle East has always helped
our development as a country. Hirschi (2007) explains, “In the United States, despite the fact that
Arabs have significantly contributed to the well being of this nation for at least the last two
centuries, negative representations of this ethnic group abound in scope and intensity. The
constructed images manipulated throughout time have delegated Arabs to second degree citizens,
unable to embrace the secular ideals of the Western worldview” (p. 8). These misrepresentations
have made Arabs seem like they do not deserve to be a part of this culture. Our media has
denounced this culture because of the lack of education of their society and the fear of
differences between the West and the Middle East.
Theoretical Grounding
Some theories can help in the explanation of whether or not these stereotypes have been
introduced and reinforced through the media. In order to understand how media influences our
perceptions, we must look at cultivation theory.
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Cultivation Theory
A theory that helps us understand how media affects our perceptions of certain
individuals is Cultivation theory. Morgan and Shanahan (2010) define Cultivation theory as
“people who spend more time watching television are more likely to perceive the real world in
ways that reflect the most common and recurrent messages of the world of fictional television”
(p. 337). Cultivation Theory helps us look into how television media as a whole affects the
viewer’s ideas and/or reactions towards what they are shown on a daily basis. There are three
distinct areas of analysis within Cultivation Theory. The first is: “Institutional Process Analysis,”
which “investigates the organizational forms, power relations, and decision-making pressures
and processes of the institutions that produce mass-mediated messages” (p.338). The second is:
“Message System Analysis,” which “investigates broad structures and consistent patterns in large
bodies of those messages in the aggregate” (p. 338). The last area of analysis is: “Cultivation
Analysis,” which is defined as “the study of the relationships between institutional processes,
message systems, and the public assumptions, images, and policies that they cultivate” (p. 338).
Cultivation Theory tells us that media has a direct affect on the viewer and is able to
control how the viewer perceives the world. With the terrorist attacks, we see that the video
footage is replayed over and over again which may cause someone to think negative things about
the people who resemble the terrorists. Television influences and sculpts the viewer’s perception
of social reality. Middle Easterners were stereotyped as terrorists because of what the terrorists
looked like and where they came from. These violent and evil generalizations towards the
Middle East became more apparent through television channels and films. Media is the driving
force of portraying misinterpretations and misunderstandings of Middle Eastern culture. This is
shown through the targeting of any Muslim within the United States who bears a resemblance to
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the terrorists. It became alright for police officers to stop any individual who seemed suspicious,
and usually there only reason for stopping them was how they looked or dressed.
Protection Motivation Theory
Floyd, Dunn, and Rogers (2000) define Protection Motivation Theory as a motivation to
protect ourselves based on the “perceived threat and the desire to avoid potential negative
outcomes” (p. 408). As Americans, we are very protective of our country and when our country
is under attack, we will do as much as we can to protect it. The day of September 11th came as a
shock to everyone across the globe. These negative stereotypes and portrayals of Muslims could
be an act of protection and a way of rationalizing the actions of that day. Protection Motivation
theory shows us that when we are approached with something that is harmful to us or something
dear to us, we naturally act protective and will go at great lengths to defend ourselves or things
around us.
Literature in Context
Understanding past research and findings will help in drawing conclusions with evidence
from other scholars. These articles will help in my understanding of what has been studied and
how to relate the findings to my research. This literature review is organized by Trend
identification throughout my six empirical research articles.
Emotional Differences in Media
The type of media that was used also has an effect on what we see and/or believe. The
September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks were broadcasted live on every news channel and were
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replayed over and over again. Cho, et.al (2003), found that repeated images of the horrific events
of 9/11on television news channels were more emotional than print images on newspapers (p.
323). Cho, et al., explains “television, with its combination of audio and visual tracks, its
apparent real-life tempo, its nonlinear juxtaposition of video images taken at different times and
locales, and so on, interacts with human senses in a unique way” (p. 310). Research shows that
humans are more inclined to feel emotions when they view tragedies through video and audio
compared to news print.
The findings show that a huge factor in the viewers perceptions is how the news is
shown. TV viewers had more extreme reactions to the terrorist attacks based on the shock factor
of the images. Cho, et al., “It appears that television news leads people to become emotionally
aroused, with these activated emotional responses concurrently driving future television news
use. This is particularly true for negative emotional responses to the attacks” (p.324). These
findings are important to understand how emotions are a driving force in creating negative
stereotypes base on what is shown through the media and in what way it is shown.
Media portrayed this tragedy through video which left a larger impact on the viewers than
pictures in newspapers or magazines. Ibrahim (2008) describes, “The immediate shock, horror,
pain and human tragedy of the attacks were conveyed to the world in ‘real time’ by a vast array
of television networks and cable channels” (p. 279). This article shows that because of the type
of media we used to display what had happened, not only did it influence and intensify emotions
but it also angered our country.
Pre vs. Post 9/11 stereotypes
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Muslim stereotypes were apparent before the terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001.
Weston (2003) studied whether or not these stereotypes increased post 9/11 through newspaper
articles. Weston found that Pre 9/11, “a dominant theme was resistance to the image of the Arab
terrorist” (p. 96). This shows that newspaper articles were mostly trying to erase the image of
Arabs being synonymous with terrorism. Not only are they looked as being one with terrorism,
but also are depicted as all Arabs being the same.
The findings post 9/11 had common themes of Arab Americans being doubly victimized.
Weston (2003) explains, “In the days immediately after Sept. 11 stories concentrated on Arab
Americans as double victims. They suffered as did everyone at the horror of the attacks; some
lost loved ones. But at the same time they were being harassed, intimidated and discriminated
against—even murdered—for events over which they had no control” (p. 98).
Post 9/11 created an increase in discrimination and prejudice according to Lorraine
Sheridan’s study. The findings explain that many college students reported experiences of racism
at the college level after 9/11. Sheridan (2010) says, “Following September 11th, 2001, it has
been speculated that Islamophobia and discrimination against Muslims have increased” (p.317).
This study points out that negative stereotypes are not only in the older generation but are also
apparent in this generation. Stereotypes are being reinforced at the college level.
Mass mediated messages vs. Personal experiences
It has been researched that these stereotypes are formed through how the media depicts
Arabs and how frequently they do so. These stereotypes are not formed by American’s personal
experiences. Merskin (2003) explains, “A nation’s enemies change to fit the times, as evidenced
by the pervasiveness of the monolithic Arab stereotype in American popular culture. Today most
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of the information white Americans have of Arabs has come not from personal experience but
from mass mediated representations of a monolithic Arab” (p. 5). Mass mediated
misrepresentations of these people are the driving force in the cultivation of negative ideas of
these people as a whole.
Because media has become such a huge part in our culture, we rely too much on the
media to help us in making sense of the world. Personal experiences are not as influential as they
were before media. Hirschi (2007) explains, “The media fosters stereotypical representations of
Middle Eastern cultures and peoples and promote misunderstanding and intolerance in the
mainstream American culture” (p. 8). It is a very disturbing thing that our media promotes this
negative opinion of a different culture. Hirschi shows that mass mediated messages are more
apparent in there influences than personal experiences are.
Middle Eastern appreciation
Muslim attitudes towards the U.S. aren’t as negative as we think. Tessler (2003) found
that there “is a strong dislike for American policy but much more nuanced, and often quite
positive, attitudes toward American society and culture and toward the American people” (p.
179). This shows that even though Arabs and Muslims certainly hold stereotypes and prejudices
against Americans, it is not as prominent as Americans may think. The Middle East appreciates
many things within our culture, such as our education, science, movies, and television (Tessler,
2003, p. 180). These results were gained by the Zogby study where eight Muslim majority
countries all shared the same attitudes toward America.
Regardless of whether or not the Middle East has an appreciation for our culture, does not
mean that we should denounce them as less than us. Tessler (2003) says, “Clearly, then, some in
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the Arab and Muslim world hold stereotypes and prejudices that are just as troubling as those
held by some Americans, and these should be denounced without hesitation” (p. 180). As a
country, we should never underestimate the affect of our Medias power over cultivating our
minds and we should learn how to distinguish between truthful media and false media.
Methodology
In reaction to the analyzed literature reviews and scholarly articles above, this study will
is one that is looking into how Media’s portrayal of the Middle East affects perceptions and
opinions of the viewers. These following hypotheses will help in realizing which aspects
contribute to the recurrent stereotypes that are so apparent in our culture.

H1: Muslim stereotypes are formed through tragedies involving Muslims and are then
reinforced through media depictions of the tragedy.
This hypothesis will help to analyze people’s perceptions of the medias depictions of Muslims. It
will help in understanding how tragedies form negative opinions.

H2: The Medias portrayal of the relationship between terrorism and Islam, created a
negative stereotype of Muslim men and women that is still today pervasive in American
culture and society.
This hypothesis helps in understanding why the Media portrays terrorism and Islam as
synonymous. It will also educate me on how/why this idea is still apparent in our society.

H3: White Americans have a more negative outlook on Muslims than non-white
Americans.
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This hypothesis is interesting to me because it will help in understanding how race and minority
status could determine your opinions of a group of people. It will help in the determining of
whether or not status has an effect on perception.

H4: Christians have a more negative outlook on Islamic culture than non-Christians.
This hypothesis will help because in the research it talks about how many Americans do not
approve of Islam. It is stating that if you are a Christian, you are more likely to denounce Islam
than if you are not Christian.

H5: Older generation American’s have a more negative perception of Muslims than
younger generations.
This hypothesis points out that if you are older and have seen how the Middle East has acted
towards the United States, you are more than likely to perceive them worse than younger
generations.

H6: Frequent viewers of the media have a more negative perception of Islam than nonfrequent viewers.
This hypothesis will more than likely be the most beneficial for my research project. It basically
states that if you watch the news a great deal than you are going to have a negative perception of
Islamic culture than someone who doesn’t watch television often.
Sampling Section
For this study, the people I am planning on studying are many different races, statuses,
ages, and religions. I am going to focus my surveys on people around the Farmville area in order
to get a wide variety of people. Also, I want to find out how old they were when 9/11 occurred
and in what part of the country they were in at the time. I think that doing this will help me in
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analyzing which groups of people are more affected by tragedies and/or media. I am also going
to look at if anyone was directly affected by September 11, 2001. For example, if someone lost a
family member because of the attacks.
Procedure
In order to gain the most from my research, I will be doing a quantitative study because I
want to look at how communication occurs between large groups. My topic is overall negative
stereotypes of Middle Easterners after 9/11. I want to look at how the media is affecting these
stereotypes by either creating and/or reinforcing them. I am going to be doing sending out a
survey to many different types of groups throughout the Farmville area. Most of the questions
within the survey are going to be closed ended questions unless I am asking about personal
experiences, where I will need a description of the experience. A T-test will be used in order to
gain statistic information. I am going to study 4 different groups of people: Race, Religion, Age,
and media viewers.

White perceptions vs. non-white perceptions.

Christian’s perceptions vs. non-Christian’s perceptions.

Older generation’s perceptions vs. Younger generation’s perceptions.

Frequent viewers perceptions vs. non-frequent viewer’s perceptions.
I believe that these four groups are going to have a huge impact on how the media influences
their opinions. It is going to be very helpful in distinguishing between these groups in order to
better understand the apparent negative views of Muslims.
Conclusion
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This research is important because it is vital to understand how the media can form
perceptions based on what or how they portray an event. Americans are aroused emotionally by
visual images and these images can form negative and fictional opinions of a different culture.
Understanding the implications of the media’s depiction of September 11, 2001, is important
because we need to understand how to not let the media control our emotions.
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REFERENCES
Cainkar, L. (2002). No Longer Invisible: Arab and Muslim Exclusion After September 11th.
Middle East Report, 224, 22. Retrieved from Google Scholar database.
Cho, J., Boyle, M., Keum, H., Shevy, M., Mcleod, D., Shah, D., et al. (2003). Media, Terrorism,
and Emotionality: Emotional Differences in Media Context and Public Reactions to the
September 11th Terrorist Attacks. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(3),
309-327. Retrieved from Communication & Mass Media Complete database.
Floyd, D.L., Prentice-Dunn, S., and Rogers, R.W. (2000). A Meta-Analysis of Research on
Protection Motivation Theory.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30: 407-429. doi:
10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x
Hirchi, M. (2007). Media representations of the Middle East. Media Development, 54(2), 7-11.
Retrieved from Communication & Mass Media Complete database.
Ibrahim, D. (2008). Framing of Arab countries on American news networks following the
September 11 attacks. Journal of Arab & Muslim Media Research, 1(3), 279-296.
doi:10.1386/jammr.1.3.279/1.
Merskin, D. (2003). Terrorist images: The construction of Arabs as enemies. Conference Papers-International Communication Association, 1-28. doi: ica_proceeding_11513.PDF.
Morgan, M. & Shanahan, J. (2010). The State of Cultivation. Journal of Broad & Electronic
Media, 54: 337-355. Retrieved from EBSCOhost database.
Reboul, A. (2006). Intercultural pragmatics and the clash of civilizations: Western and Muslim
interactions before and since 9/11. Intercultural Pragmatics, 3(4), 465-485.
doi:10.1515/IP.2006.028.
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Sheridan, L. (2006). Islamaphobia Pre-and-Post September 11th, 2001. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 21, 317-336. Retrieved from Google Scholar database.
Tessler, M. (2003). Arab and Muslim Political Attitudes: Stereotypes and Evidence from Survey
Research. International Studies Perspectives, 4: 175-181. doi: 10.1111/15283577.402005.
Weston, M. (2003). Post 9/11 Arab American Coverage Avoid Stereotypes. Newspaper
Research Journal, 24(1), 92-106. Retrieved from Communication & Mass Media
Complete database.
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Appendix A: Research instruments
Survey Questions
1. What is your race? This question will help in determining whether or not race has a direct
influence on Middle Eastern perceptions. It also correlates with Hypothesis # 3.
2. What is your religion? This question will help in determining whether or not religion has
a direct affect on these perceptions. It also correlates with Hypothesis # 4.
3. What is your age? This question will help in understanding if age has an influence on
how someone perceives Middle Eastern culture. It also correlates with Hypothesis #5.
4. Do you consider yourself a frequent viewer of media news? This will help in my research
because it will ultimately show how much of an affect the media has on developing
opinions. This question correlates to Hypothesis #6. It is beneficial to understand the
frequency of which media is being viewed.
5. When you think of terrorism, do you immediately think of 9/11?—This is important
because if answered yes, I will be able to elaborate more on whether or not they think of
the stereotypical bearded man. I might follow this survey question with a picture of a
Muslim man and ask for their immediate thoughts.
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