The Development of Rhetorical Theory in Greece
Smith Ch. 3
My goal for this wiki is to go over some of the information that we learned in
class, then provide some more information based on the reading. I will be
“introducing” Sophists and their approach to the rhetorical theory and Plato’s
reaction to this approach, as well as showing the view of rhetoric and philosophy
from Socrates and Callicles’ points of view.
The chapter begins where mythology is left behind to pursue scientific observation
and then scientific observation is left behind for a metaphysical understanding of
knowledge.
The Sophists
“Not surprisingly, by Plato’s time, humans were capable of using language,
not only to construct their universe but to attack the constructions of others.
Language had gained both a creative and destructive dimension. The Sophists
developed these dimensions more fully during their ascendancy” (Smith p. 41)
 Governmental reforms called for democratic argument
 The Sophists were traveling teachers for hire
 Metics (resident aliens)
 Arete (virtue): The practical knowledge of how to function in
domestic, political, and social life in an oral society
 Skepticism
 Love of display: rhetoric is an art
“Badly needed, because governmental and jurisprudential reforms called for
democratic argument, these “metics” dominated the arts, politics, and education as
Athens converted from an agrarian to a trade-centered economy” (Smith pp.41,42)
“The Sophists were united in the need to develop virtue (areté) in their young
charges. They were less united on other subjects because of their commitment to
skepticism, which contributed to a more pluralistic and tolerant society than would
exist at any other time in Greece. Their love of display helped reinforce the notion
that rhetoric was an art.”(Smith p. 42)
Gorgias
The dominance of the Sophists in Athenian society is demonstrated by the
career and teachings of Gorgias of Leontini (485-380 BC) on the island of Sicily. He
provides the best example of a practicing Sophist who came to dominate his
adopted city.
“Giorgas foreshadowed several major uses of rhetoric in a world based on
probabilities, including rhetoric’s impact on politics and how it transcended fiction
(mythos) and nonfiction (logos). Giorgas claimed rhetoric to be a ‘powerful lord who
by means of the finest and most invisible body affects the most divine works.’
Speech, unlike writing, is invisible to the audience; they hear it but do not see it.
Thus, it has magical powers that writing does not possess.” (Smith p. 45)
Gorgias was a badass. In his time, public speaking was an Olympic event, of which
Gorgias won three times with his orations. He was a very influential teacher not only
because he was very good, but also because he lived for nearly a century.
“In the process of teaching and practicing, he also advanced the art of rhetoric in
several significant ways. He borrowed literary devices from poetry and used them in
rhetorical contexts. He believed they could be used to enliven speeches, which had
been limited to plain and simple language. Thus, he made speeches more fascinating
for his audiences.” (Smith p. 46) The eulogy at the funeral, the commencement
address at graduation, and the after-dinner speech at the political fundraiser can be
traced to Gorgias’ development of the speech that celebrates values in the
contemporary society.
 Believed there was “no permanent criterion” for anything
 Rhetoric was essential to survival and making sense out of the chaotic world
“If many citizens are trained in rhetoric, there will be competing illusions in the
culture, which means that training everyone in society to learn rhetoric is essential
so that audiences have access to a multitude of illusions and can select the
strongest.” (Smith p. 47)
Socrates and Plato
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Attacked Sophists and their teachings
“Truth” found in another world: The noumenal world
World of change vs. World of permanence
Truth is written on our souls but only accessible through philosophical
dialogue and reflection.
Rhetoric is not an art
Rhetoric is a habitude
It is a form of flattery
Socrates and Plato attempted to repudiate the Sophists and their teachings.
Plato constructed a “truth” found in another world. This place beyond physical
reality, where perfect forms exist permanently, he called the “noumenal world”
Plato’s “notable rhetoric” is dialectical, aimed at leading the soul back to the
emanating good/God.
Socrates argues that the best way to learn is to recollect the truth from the
noumenal world where the soul learned the truth while disembodied. He argues
that we come to knowledge by recollecting what is already in our souls.
Socrates ostensibly proves that wisdom is the only good; ignorance is the only evil.
Plato follows the same theme by trying to demonstrate that true rhetors use their
power to clear the soul of the illusions of this world, while Sophists use rhetoric to
confuse the soul with more illusions.
Part of Plato’s bias against the Sophists resided in his belief that thought is superior
to language. Because speech is more physical, it is less likely to be able to reach the
nonmaterial world of perfect ideas. Thought, however, is immaterial and, therefore,
a better vehicle for reaching the ideal.
Plato developed a reductionist theory of language, a way by which language can be
reduced to basic essence. By looking behind various ideas and how they are woven
together, a rhetorical theorist can determine if ideas are properly related.
Callicles
 Accuses Socrates of twisting words and using dialogue to create traps
 Cannot use human nature as a measure of goodness
Callicles is called upon to argue with Socrates. Socrates, ironically, compares
Callicles to a touchstone for testing gold. He has intelligence, goodwill, and candor.
Socrates claims that if he can convince Callicles, then Socrates knows that he has
spoken the truth
Socrates: “We are arguing about the way of human life, and what question can be
more serious than this to a man who has any sense at all; whether he should follow
after the way of life to which you exhort me, and truly fulfill what you call the manly
part of speaking in the assembly, and cultivating rhetoric, and engaging in public
affairs, after your manner; or whether he should pursue the life of philosophy.”
Callicles: The philosopher creeps into the corner for the rest of his life, and talks in a
whisper with three or four admiring youths, but never speaks out like a freeman in a
satisfactory manner.”
Callicles believes that he must develop his talents fully to know who he is, and that
means becoming a man in the city, a participant in civic debate. To do this, one must
master rhetoric rather than merely engage in pandering to an audience. Socrates
claims that only his rhetoric is noble, and therefore, he is the only real statesmen in
Athens.
Callicles accuses Socrates of contradicting himself by engaging in mob oratory and
says, “The truth, Socrates, which you…follow is this: Luxury and intemperance and
license, when they have sufficient backing, are virtue and happiness.”