Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
Lund University
Lund University Master of International Development and Management
June, 2011
FINDING THE PATH
WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS, MICRO AND SMALL SCALE ENTERPRISES AND THEIR PATHS TO GROWTH
IN DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA
Author: Erika Rubin
Supervisor: Catia Gregoratti
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
Abstract
This study of ten micro and small scale businesses owned and management by Tanzanian
women in Dar es Salaam aimed at fulfilling two purposes; to highlight male biased
assumptions and gender blindness in the discourse and discursive practices on
entrepreneurship as well as exploring women’s own perceptions of identity and gender. The
second more straight forward empirical purpose was exploring women entrepreneurs
pathways to growth, but still taking in to account how structural gendered processes affects
and is affected by this pathway, the strategies and goals. Using a theoretical framework
building on hegemonic masculinity theory, entrepreneurial mentality and the entrepreneur
as based on a male norm and the 5M framework (including the dimensions of Markets,
Money, Management, Motherhood and Macro and meso environment) it was found that
contextual elements i.e. social, cultural and economical dimensions as well as gendered
divisions of labour in the household influence women’s identities and entrepreneurship. It
was concluded that women’s pathways to growth was dependent on access to skills
development, family support and team work with staff among other things. Through
adopting the discursive practices on entrepreneurial mentality that are gendered and based
on male idealised stereotypes, and adapting these to their own experiences, what they see
around themselves, the women interviewed turn the concept of the entrepreneur in to
something different.
Key Words: Entrepreneurship, gender, women, masculinity, micro and small enterprises,
growth
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
Abbreviations
BRELA
Business registration and licensing authority
AfDB
African Development Bank
ILO
International Labour Organisation
MSE
Micro and small enterprise
MSMEs
Micro Small and medium sized enterprises
SIDO
Small industries development organisation
SME
Small and medium Enterprise
TPSF
Tanzania Private Sector Foundation
TAWOMA
Tanzania Women Miners’ Association
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
Table of contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 2
Key Words: Entrepreneurship, gender, women, masculinity, micro and small enterprises, growth ...... 2
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Table of contents ..................................................................................................................................... 4
1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Research problem ......................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Purpose and research questions ................................................................................................... 9
2.0 Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Ontology and epistemology ........................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Feminist research ........................................................................................................................ 11
2.3 Positioning myself as a researcher .............................................................................................. 11
2.4 Methods and selection ................................................................................................................ 12
2.4.1 Case study approach ............................................................................................................ 12
2.5 Collecting data ............................................................................................................................. 12
2.6 Secondary data ............................................................................................................................ 13
2.7 Primary data ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.7.1 Informant interviews ............................................................................................................ 13
2.7.2 Semi-structured interviews .................................................................................................. 13
2.7.3 Analysis of semi-structured interviews ................................................................................ 14
2.8 Selection of cases and sampling technique................................................................................. 14
2.9 Definition of micro, small and medium enterprises.................................................................... 15
2.9.1 Micro and small scale women operated and owned enterprises in Tanzania – definition,
rational and background to the sector .......................................................................................... 15
2.10 The growth oriented business ................................................................................................... 17
2.11 Defining and conceptualizing successful micro and small scale enterprises ............................ 18
2.12 Quality of research .................................................................................................................... 19
2.12.1 Validity ................................................................................................................................ 19
2.13 Reliability ............................................................................................................................... 19
2.14 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................... 20
2.15 Summary of the introduction section ....................................................................................... 20
2.16 Disposition of the thesis ............................................................................................................ 20
3.0 Theoretical framework .................................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Previous research and introduction to the theoretical framework ............................................ 21
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
3.2 Hegemonic masculinity ............................................................................................................... 22
3.3 Femininity .................................................................................................................................... 22
3.3.1 Emphasized femininity, compliance and resistance ............................................................ 22
3.4 Entrepreneurial mentality ........................................................................................................... 23
3.5 Otherness and the female entrepreneur .................................................................................... 23
3.6 Discursive practices of entrepreneurship research..................................................................... 24
3.7 The Entrepreneur as male gendered........................................................................................... 24
3.8 The 5M framework ...................................................................................................................... 26
3.8.1 Markets, Money and Management...................................................................................... 28
3.8.2 Macro and meso environment ............................................................................................. 28
3.8.3 Motherhood ............................................................................................................................. 28
3.9 Summary of theoretical framework ............................................................................................ 28
4.0 Findings and analysis ....................................................................................................................... 29
4.1 The cases ..................................................................................................................................... 29
4.2 Disposition of findings and analysis ............................................................................................ 31
4.3 Defining success .......................................................................................................................... 31
4.4 Entrepreneurial mentality and how to make a business grow, to become successful ............... 32
4.4.1 Motivation - empowerment and responsibilities................................................................. 33
4.5 Market ......................................................................................................................................... 34
4.6 Money.......................................................................................................................................... 34
4.7 Management ............................................................................................................................... 35
4.8 Macro and meso environment .................................................................................................... 36
4.8.1 Macro ................................................................................................................................... 36
4.8.2 Entrepreneurship in the media ............................................................................................ 36
4.9 Meso environment – trainings and networks ............................................................................. 38
4.9.1 Networks .............................................................................................................................. 39
4.10 Motherhood .............................................................................................................................. 39
5. 0 Summary of findings and conclusions ............................................................................................ 40
5.1 How have women entrepreneurs in Tanzania (Dar es Salaam) managed to grow their micro and
small businesses? .............................................................................................................................. 41
5.2 How do women entrepreneurs understand the concept of entrepreneurship and see
themselves as business women and entrepreneurs? ....................................................................... 42
5.3 How do they define success? ...................................................................................................... 42
5.4 How are they, in their businesses, affected by contextual elements i.e. social, economical and
cultural environments as well as personal dimensions?................................................................... 42
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
5.5 Further research .......................................................................................................................... 43
6.0 Bibliography..................................................................................................................................... 43
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
1.0 Introduction
“If there is any difference between male and female entrepreneurs it is that women are
more aggressive”
(Interview, official at the Business registration and licensing authority, Tanzania BRELA,
January 2011)
Small and medium sized enterprises, the role of the private sector in development and
poverty reduction has recently started to receive more attention in development policies.
Women as business owners and managers, as entrepreneurs are an increasingly common
phenomenon. In the United States the rate of which women starts new businesses now
exceed that of men. Similar trends can be seen in low-income countries but still there exists
a gender gap ratio of women to men who engage in entrepreneurship. While this gender gap
is seemingly smaller in very poor regions it is not known why. Some research point to
societal and cultural factors influencing this gender gap but there is not enough research on
the complex structures and dynamics that influence women’s entrepreneurship in
“developing” countries (Minniti & Naudé 2010).
Tanzania, the East African country with a socialist inheritance from the great teacher –
Mwalimu Julius Nyerere, now officially recognizes the private sector as an important
contributor to growth and poverty reduction (Tanzania’s National Policy for Growth and
Poverty Reduction MKUKUTA II 2010). Small and medium sized businesses and
entrepreneurship are seen as especially crucial to employment creation and self
employment especially among the youth who are finding themselves unemployed in higher
numbers (SME development policy 2003). The sector, in Tanzania and in many other lowincome countries is however new and not well known (Minniti & Naudé 2010). There is no
comprehensive data available on the sectors size, structure or growth (SME development
Ministry of industry and trade). An estimate from the latest survey carried out holds that
about 37% of the households included in the study, which was conducted in 5 regions, had a
member who was operating a micro or small scale enterprise (MSE). Of these 43% were
women owned and managed. However their businesses were generally very small, informal
and operated from home or from the streets (Stevenson & St Onge 2005:8).
In Tanzania the private sector is burgeoning as the country recently moved from a socialist
to a market-based system. Women participating in this economy, to a large extent, face the
same challenges as men but also additional challenges of patriarchal systems, cultural and
societal norms and family obligations. The barriers to growth and development of
enterprises in Tanzania are many; lack of access to credit, infrastructure and markets, low
educational levels, tax and regulations (Stevenson & St:Onge 2005:10; REPOA 2008; 2009)
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
The introductory quote is a statement made by an official at BRELA. It begs the question; in a
traditionally patriarchal society like Tanzania is this evidence of the fact itself i.e. that women
are more aggressive in their business strategies or is it in fact evidence of the underlying
notion that women, as prescribed along traditional gender lines, are not “meant to be”
aggressive, forward, innovative and risk taking? These are traits that are commonly
associated with “entrepreneurial mentality” (Brush et al 2009; Ahl 2006). This leads to the
research problem of the thesis.
1.1 Research problem
The focus of the study is to explore how some Tanzanian business women approach
entrepreneurship and how they have managed to grow where so many others have failed.
How they have managed to develop their businesses in spite of the many barriers.
The research strives to fill some of the gaps left by traditional, mainstream research on
entrepreneurs which tend to be quantitative, survey based, atheoretical and not taking
structural or contextual elements in to account thus only focusing on the individual (female)
entrepreneur, more often than not in the start up phase of the company’s life (for a review
of entrepreneurship literature on women entrepreneurs see Ahl 2006;Brush et al 2009,
Lewis 2006; Mirchindani 1999).
Furthermore, the study of women entrepreneurs is almost exclusively focused on the AngloSaxon context or the Western world (Ahl, 2006:604; Hisrich & Östurk; 1999:114). When
moving away from traditional economical entrepreneurship research and to low-income
countries, research on women entrepreneurs tend to be focused on the very small, informal
micro-businesses with little growth potential and which are mainly survivalist businesses.
These tend to be reports made by organisations such as UNIDO or development agencies
such as AfDB or the World Bank (ILO 2003, Stevenson & St Onge 2005).
Recently literature recognizing women’s entrepreneurship in developing countries as an
important mean to empowerment of women and poverty alleviation has surfaced (see
Minniti and Naudé 2010 and Kantor 2002). However there are very few qualitative studies of
growth oriented women entrepreneurs’ gendered experiences and understanding of their
own roles as entrepreneurs, their motivation and goals, their management styles (Ahl 2006;
Greene 2003; Minniti & Naude 2010). An exception is a three country study of women’s
entrepreneurship in Tanzania, Ethiopia and Zimbabwe by the African Development (AfDB)
and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) (AfDB & ILO, 2002, 2003) which includes
qualitative elements focusing on the above mentioned.
The main focus of the thesis is on women entrepreneurs in Tanzania and their pathways to
developing successful business. As part of this study, ten businesses operated and owned by
women were selected from five sectors; beauty/medicinal, food-processing, Information and
communication technology (ICT), mining and textile/fashion. The research does not
compare the women entrepreneurs to male counterparts, instead it is trying to understand
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
each individual’s strategies and motivations and how their businesses have grown. I explore
the way the women perceive themselves as businesswoman and entrepreneurs, what being
an entrepreneur means to them.
1.2 Purpose and research questions
The thesis strives to continuously move between different dichotomies and levels of
analysis. I move between the individual and the structural, the overt and the covert, the
business and the person running it. Between mapping out the actual paths taken and
strategies used to launch, run and expand the businesses on one hand. On the other hand I
also explore the identities and perceptions of the women themselves, their experiences and
perceptions of entrepreneurship as a phenomenon in the context of contemporary
Tanzanian society.
Therefore the purpose of the thesis is twofold. The two interdependent purposes can be
seen as constituting a more theoretical, discursive part (1) and a more empirical, (policy
related part) (2). As outlined below these two purposes are:
1) To highlight certain normative male centred assumptions in existing research of
entrepreneurship and use gendered approaches to build a better understanding of
women’s entrepreneurship in its’ own right and not as a lesser successful variant of
male biased norm of entrepreneurship.
2) To identify pathways, strategies and structures used by successful growth oriented
women entrepreneurs in Tanzania (Dar es Salaam) in order to better understand how
women can build successful enterprises and how their identities as women, mothers,
entrepreneurs and Tanzanians influence, affect and shape their lives and their
businesses.
The overarching research question is:
-How have women entrepreneurs in Tanzania (Dar es Salaam) managed to grow their micro
and small businesses?
To further define and limit the scope of the research, using a gender aware approach and
thus in line with the twofold purpose of the thesis, the sub-questions posed to guide the
research and answer the main research question in a meaningful way are as follows:



How do women entrepreneurs understand the concept of entrepreneurship and see
themselves as business women and entrepreneurs?
How do they define success?
How are they, in their businesses, affected by contextual elements i.e. social,
economical and cultural environments as well as personal dimensions?
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
Having provided background to the research problem, spelt out the focus and purpose of the
research as well as the main research questions to be answered, the methodological aspects
of positionality and paradigms will be elaborated on ending with a discussion on feminist
research - in which the thesis takes its point of departure. This is followed by a discussion of
the research design, selection of cases and methods used for collecting and analysing data.
2.0 Methodology
2.1 Ontology and epistemology
By choosing to carry out qualitative research the researcher first of all ontologically admits
that there multiple realities exists. Qualitative research also implies the epistemological
stance of trying to get close to what is being researched and thus going to the field. By
positioning oneself in the research the researcher admits to his or her own value laden or
possibly biased interferences or influence on the study. (Creswell 2007:11).
The design of the study and methods used takes its point of departure in interpretivism and
social constructivism as the study aims to understand gendered processes, identities and
perceptions of women business owners and managers. I believe that gender roles and
identities are mainly socially constructed and my research is grounded in this belief. Gender,
I understand as a social practice not a biological attribute and as such it must be studied in
specific social contexts and times and not taken as universal or static. Gender is performed,
socially constructed, a learnt practice (Butler 1988, 1990; West and Zimmerman
1987).Where as gender and identity is performed it is not always, but can partly be,
deliberate and motivated performances.
“ /.../ the acts by which gender is constituted bear similarities to performative acts within theatrical
contexts” (Butler 1988:521)
Or in the words of Bruni et al (2004):
“/…/ subjectivity and objectivity are produced together within situated practices. Identity, therefore,
may be seen as the product of a heterogeneous engineering of material and discursive practices”
(Bruni et al 2004:407)
Naturally this can be criticized as biased since my conviction also influenced the research
focus, the use of qualitative method and the theoretical framework used. However I am
taking a pragmatic stance as I believe that the type of research carried out should be guided
by the research question and how it best can be answered, focusing on the practical
implications of conducting research. I am convinced that using qualitative methods best
answers the research questions and my epistemological stance shaping the research is
feminist research as explained in the following section (Creswell 2007:23).
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
2.2 Feminist research
A problem is never neutral; it is always attached to a person or a group of people. It is a
problem for someone. The questions asked and more importantly those that are not asked
are contributing to the understanding of a problem as much as the answers themselves. This
is the challenges which feminist theory poses to research. Feminist research “generates its
problematique from the perspective of women’s experiences. It also uses these experiences
as a significant indicator of the “reality” against which hypothesis are tested” (Harding
1987:7)
Feminist research seeks to include “women’s experience”. It holds that there is no universal
man; instead there exist only culturally different men and women i.e. from different classes,
races and cultures. It is further proposed by some feminist theorists that there is not a single
feminism. There are instead several feminisms building on the different feminist principles
or understandings adhered to by different classes, cultures and races due to understanding
and experience and contexts. Furthermore gender experiences vary or even conflict in any
one individual’s experience. Harding (1987:7) takes her experience as a mother and as a
professor as an example of this.
Research for women: In the best feminist research the purpose of the research and analysis
are not separable from the origins of the problems (Harding 1987). Feminist research is
more about how to change oppressive conditions or defeat the forces that inhibits
emancipation of women than about finding some absolute or pure truth. Thus, feminist
research projects originate in women’s experiences with political struggle. However it is
important to note that as Harding points out, following Kate Millet, that the kitchen and the
bedroom are as much the sites for political struggle as are the board room or the polling
place (Millet in Harding 1987:8) “It may be only through such struggles that one can come to
understand oneself and the social world”.
2.3 Positioning myself as a researcher
However “neutral” and “open” I want to be as a researcher I too will inevitably be influenced
by the discourse on women entrepreneurs and implicit gender assumptions in my research.
The discourse on women entrepreneurs that is shaped in part by entrepreneurs themselves,
by the media and by the research community will of course also influence my research.
My own background and understanding will also shape the questions I pose to the women
interviewed as well as the analysis and conclusions I draw from their answers. My
experiences, background and my position, as the researcher – the one asking the questions
will affect my understanding of them and the answers they give to me (Yin 2009, Kvale &
Brinkmann 2009). This is inevitable.
My identity as a middle class, young woman academic from a European country, a country
in which gender equality is said to be at one of the “highest” levels in the world, forms part
of my pre-conceptualized ideas and understandings of gender, women and
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
entrepreneurship. I aim to go beyond stereotyping and biased analysis. I am striving to
remain open to the notion that biases are there and that I too am a product of my time and
culture where gender relations and identity are very much built on the often hidden
hegemonic masculinity biases. I try to make visible these hidden gendered interpretations of
women’s entrepreneurship by building on other scholars work and using the so called
“gender lenses”.
2.4 Methods and selection
According to Kvale & Brinkmann (2009:83) the word method can be understood according to
its’ Greek origin in a broad sense as “the way to a goal”. In this section I will outline the way
to the goal of answering the research questions of the thesis. The section starts off with a
discussion on research design and then moves on to describe the type of data used in the
thesis and how this data was gathered. The method of selection will be elaborated on as well
as the design of the semi-structured interviews. I will then describe how the material was
analysed to deliver the findings and conclusions of the study.
2.4.1 Case study approach
According to Yin (2009) case studies are needed when a researcher wants to “understand
complex social phenomena” (Yin 2009:4). It is an approach that is used by a number of fields
including political science, business and education. Bearing in mind that I am dealing with a
contemporary and ‘living” process and a research topic that is not possible to remove from
its natural setting or context, I have chosen to use the case study as a method. (Yin 2009:811) The thesis was designed as a multiple case study that will generate results in a
synthesised report. Each individual enterprise constitutes a case-study. While the
enterprises are the cases the women owning and managing them are the focus of the thesis.
In line with feminist research the women are not seen as cases but instead their lives and
identities, views and perspectives on entrepreneurship form an integrated part of the cases
i.e. the enterprises. In addition when conducting case studies it is almost always better to
conduct multiple case studies as opposed to single case studies as this will increase
generalizability. (Yin 2009:61-64)
2.5 Collecting data
The data used is both secondary and primary data collected mainly from four different
sources:




Reports and documents on private sector development, entrepreneurship, micro
small and medium sized enterprises (MSMEs) and women entrepreneurs published
by government bodies and donor agencies.
Articles published by Tanzania’s leading English medium newspaper – The Citizen
Informant interviews
Semi structured interviews with women owners and operators of micro and small
scale enterprises (MSEs).
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
2.6 Secondary data
Secondary data is important to strengthen construct validity through data triangulation (Yin
2009:114-116). Secondary data is included to better understand the private sector and the
formal institutions governing it. It is made up of official documents outlining Tanzania’s
national development strategy, SME development strategy, reports by development
agencies on MSMEs and women entrepreneurs.
In addition a media analysis of articles on entrepreneurship published in the leading
Tanzanian English medium newspaper The Citizen was carried out in. This was done through
searching for the word entrepreneurship in articles published during March 2011 and
through a theory driven analysis it was explored how these portrayed entrepreneurship. The
search was internet based through the newspapers own website.
2.7 Primary data
2.7.1 Informant interviews
Four informant interviews were carried out with senior staff at BRELA (one male), the Small
Industries Devolvement Organisation (SIDO) (one female and one male) and the SME
department at the Ministry of industry and trade (one female).
The interviews were concerning women’s experiences as entrepreneurs, their involvement
in the sector as well as trainings and support provided by SIDO and other government and
donor bodies. These interviews provided background to formulating interview questions and
helped identify methods of selection and getting in touch with women who were
interviewed for the thesis. These interviews are seen as a stepping stone to the field and to
the focus of the thesis – the women’s own experiences.
2.7.2 Semi-structured interviews
The most important method of collecting data used in the thesis is the semi-structured
interviews, also known as the qualitative interview (Yin 2009:106; Kvale & Brinkmann 2009).
The semi-structured interviews were carried out with ten women owning and managing
micro or small scale businesses. The women selected were those who were deemed to be
“successful growth oriented” women entrepreneurs. The two concepts; successful and
growth oriented will be elaborated on below in the selection of cases section.
The focus is multi-sectional and included sectors where traditionally many women are found
(textile/fashion, food processing and beauty/herbal medicinal) and also two sector that are
traditionally not seen as “women friendly” but where a growing number of women can be
found starting businesses (mining and information and communication technology - ICT)
(informant interview SIDO January 2011)
The semi-structured interviews each took between thirty minutes and one hour and were
organized around the following themes:
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management







The business and it’s pathway to growth and strategies used
Goals for the business and the individual
Motivation, why starting a business and why continue
Defining success
The entrepreneur and the business woman
Learning and changing
Contextual elements and personal dimensions – Identity, family/work, conflicts,
context, relationships and history
Each theme had a set of guiding questions to support me as an interviewer. The interviews
moved from one theme to another. The order depended on the issues that were brought up
by the interviewees themselves but making sure all the themes were covered (Kvale &
Brinkmann 2009: 130).The interviews were all conducted at the office or workplace of the
woman interviewed. This gave me as a researcher a chance to observe the products and
businesses. More importantly, it provided the opportunity to observe how the women
interacted with staff and customers as well as providing the women with a safe and well
known environment
2.7.3 Analysis of semi-structured interviews
The interviews were recorded and transcribed word by word to enable the analysis of
hidden meanings and intonation that can have bearing on the content of what was said.
(Kvale & Brinkmann 2009:180). The analysis was done in two steps. A first analysis was made
simultaneously with the transcription process, identifying and coding themes and concepts
that were brought up by the women. A second theory driven analysis was carried out once
all the interviews were transcribed through searching across the interviews and coding the
statements according to the theory and framework used (Kvale & Brinkmann 2009:236). The
results from the two analytical steps were largely overlapping and coherent and this thus
strengthens the internal validity of the study.
2.8 Selection of cases and sampling technique
In multiple-case studies Yin (2009:54) writes that the rational used is not sampling but
instead literal replication choosing cases that are likely to generate the same result. This was
used for selecting the case of this study. Criteria for selecting cases to be included was set up
based on the research problem, the purpose of the thesis and practical limitations in terms
of money and time.
To be included the enterprise should:



Be started, owned and managed by a woman
Be a formal or semi-formal enterprise i.e. be registered with the authorities under
Tanzanian business law
Have started without major investment or capital
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management



Be micro, small or medium sized
Is growth oriented and have experienced growth from the time it had started to
present in terms of turnover, employees or sales1
Be located in Dar es Salaam
The most important aspects when selecting the cases were that the business was owned and
operated by a woman and that deliberate growth strategies had been used and potential for
growth had been shown. No medium sized enterprise fitting these criteria was found. Below,
the concepts of micro, small and medium sized enterprises in the Tanzanian context,
“growth oriented” and “success” will be defined and rational for the criteria used will be
provided.
2.9 Definition of micro, small and medium enterprises
There are various definitions of micro, small and medium enterprises (Kushnir et al 2010;
Gibson & Vart 2008). However as this issue is of subordinate importance to thesis I will not
dwell on it. I have chosen to use the official Tanzanian definition which is based on number
of employees and capital investment. As it proved difficult to access information on capital
investment this category was excluded and instead focused was placed on the employment
category.
Table 1: MSME definition in Tanzania
Category
Employees
Micro-enterprise
1-4 employees
Small enterprise
5-49 employees
Medium enterprise
50-99 employees
Large enterprise
100+
(SME policy April 2003 in Stevenson & St Onge 2005:7)
Capital investment in machinery (Tshs)
Up to 5 million
5-200 million
200-800 million
Over 800 million
As seen in the table the definitions of micro enterprises and small enterprises can be made
on the basis of having fewer than five or above 5 up to 49 employees. The enterprises
selected for this study all fall under these two categories.
2.9.1 Micro and small scale women operated and owned enterprises in Tanzania –
definition, rational and background to the sector
The focus on growth oriented micro and small sized enterprises is motivated by a wish to
look at those enterprises that have potential to contribute to broad based economic growth
and in reducing poverty levels. These enterprises differ from the so called
marginal/survivalist groups of entrepreneurs which are often situated in the informal sector
and often do not show much potential for growth whether in terms of generating higher
profits or employment creation. (SIDA 2004:27; REPOA 2008) Survivalist businesses where
1
Two of the women did not want to declare their turnover,one did not know as she was no longer in charge of
accounting and did not have the information available at the time of the interview. I tried to reach her but
without success after the interview as she had promised to check on this.
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
women for example sell home cooked mandazi, chapati or boiled potatoes are taken up
because of lack of other opportunities precisely as the term survivalist implies (SIDA 2004).
The enterprises targeted in this study also differ from the women owned and operated
medium and large enterprises which in Tanzania are often run by women who have ties to
politicians, or are politicians themselves i.e. women from wealthy families. These women
can usually generate their own capital or borrow more easily from banks or investors as they
have the networks to access such funding (personal conversation with officer from
Department for International Development DfID).
This is not to say that these women, both from the lower and higher economical strata are
not entrepreneurs or that they are not playing important roles in Tanzanian society nor that
they are less interesting cases to study. For this particular study however, the focus is on the
growth-oriented and dynamic micro and small sized enterprises. By dynamic I mean that
they have shown growth potential. Whereas by growth-oriented I mean that the women are
purposely following strategies and setting goals to enable their businesses to grow
(Stevenson & St Onge 2005).
The growth oriented dynamic MSMEs are also a source of employment for semi-skilled or
unskilled workers. Training is often provided at the work place. This makes them potentially
poverty reducing through employing a segment of the population in urban areas who are
more likely to be unemployed or underemployed and consequently poor, most notably
youth and women. (SIDA 2004; REPOA 2008; Stevenson & St Onge 2005)
While these dynamic, growth oriented businesses can have a beneficial impact on economic
growth and poverty reduction in Tanzania, they are few in number. This is especially true in
regards to businesses that are owned and managed by women. A study from ILO and AfDB
(Stevenson & St Onge 2005:7) map out three segments of women entrepreneurs in
Tanzania, however they leave out women operating and owning medium sized or large
16
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
enterprises
as
those
mentioned
above.
Figure 1: The three segments of women entrepreneurs and their unique constraints. (Stevenson & St
Onge 2005:7)
The enterprises included in the study are in the top two segments of the pyramid; the formal
micro-enterprises (1-5 employees) and with potential for growth or small enterprises that
are growth oriented. Half of the 10 case studies are in this latter segment if measured by
permanent employees.
2.10 The growth oriented business
With growth oriented it is understood that one of the aims for the enterprise is to increase
turnover and sales. This often, although not always, means employing more people (Gibson
& Vart 2008) As seen in the pyramid above the number of so called growth oriented
enterprises or enterprises with growth potential is considered to be very small or even “tiny”
in Tanzania. However, there is no up to date comprehensive inventory of the (M)SME sector
in Tanzania (Stevenson & St Onge 2005:7). The SME department under the ministry of
industry and trade was in February 2011 undertaking work to correct this problem with a
nationwide survey of SMEs (Informant interview January 2011). At the time of writing this
had not yet been published.
The growth-oriented enterprise is in mainstream2 entrepreneurship literature seen as a
special or different form of enterprise when these firms are owned and operated by women.
Women are claimed to prefer “small and stable” enterprises (see review of literature on this
subject by Lewis, 2006:456-57).
2
Mainstream here means the academic entrepreneurship literature published in renowned entrepreneurship
journals such as Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Journal of Business Venturing, The Journal of Small
Business Management and Entrepreneurship and Regional Developmen (Ahl 2006:595)
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
This assumption is part and parcel of the male biased economic rationality discourse on
entrepreneurship where the growth oriented firm is seen as superior, and should be given
more support. It relates to the fact that most growth oriented enterprises are started by
men in their 30s to mid 40s, who have formal qualifications, experience in the private sector
and were not unemployed before the start of their new ventures. This view ignores the fact
that also many men run “small and stable” enterprises and instead poses the non-growth of
firms as a problem for women (Lewis 2006; Ahl 2002). Brush et al (2009) explains the
coming about of such biases in the following way:
“A male-bias emerges not necessarily by intention but rather by omission, namely the failure
to consider the underpinning reasons why and how female entrepreneurs and their
businesses are different, and ask pertinent questions on this score.” (Brush et al, 2009:10)
I aim to include such questions, understanding why and how the female entrepreneurs are
different from the male centric norm of entrepreneurship. The women running the
enterprises included as cases in this research are all aiming to grow their businesses.
According to the entrepreneurship literature as explained above, this makes them
“different”. The focus on women owned and managed growth oriented businesses provide
an interesting case to see how the concept of entrepreneurship shaped by discursive male
centric practices affect women’s own perceptions and attitudes to entrepreneurship,
identity and gender.
2.11 Defining and conceptualizing successful micro and small scale
enterprises
The enterprises selected are deemed successful as measured mainly by economic success
i.e. those that had managed to grow their businesses in terms of turnover or employment.
This was a starting point for selecting the cases and I recognize that there are other
important dimensions to measure the success of micro and small scale business. Kantor
(2002) in her study of women entrepreneurs in South Asia writes:
“Success for women in cultural contexts framed by gendered constraints on economic
opportunities must include an empowerment as well as an economic dimension, and
examination of the determinants of both dimensions of success must be sensitive to the
influence of social norms on women's ability and willingness to achieve these outcomes.”
(Kantor, 2002:132)
Thus she argues for the definition of success to include an empowerment dimension in
addition to the economic dimension to measure. Entitlements and freedom as defined by
Sen (2000) are important aspects of measuring success for micro and small enterprises and
for programmes and policies aimed at facilitating women’s participation as entrepreneurs
(Kantor 2002:132-133). While the selection of cases was based on the notion of success as
18
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
economic growth, the concept was broadened in the interviews and subsequently in the
findings and analysis
2.12 Quality of research
According to Yin (2009) the four most commonly used tests that social research can be judge
by are construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability.
2.12.1 Validity
Validity relates to whether the research is exploring the concepts it is said to explore and
how the theoretical concepts fit with the data gathered.
Internal validity
The interviews conducted were designed through identifying certain themes from the
empirical based reports on women entrepreneurs in Tanzania (Stevenson & St Onge 2005;
SIDA 2004) theoretical and methodological literature reviewed (Ahl 2006, Mirchindani 1999,
Harding 1987) and were thus theory driven. The concepts explored in the interviews can as
such be assumed to fit the theoretical concepts quite well. This was seen when analysing the
transcribed interviews. The stories the women told matched well with the themes identified
by the theoretical framework. The approach used conducting the interviews was theory
driven but flexible to try to avoid biases that could mean missing important and interesting
aspects not covered by theory (Kvale & Brinkmann 2009:283). The risk of being biased by
theoretical reading and only find what one looks for is especially important to be aware of as
the theory and framework used were developed almost exclusively based on studies on
western women’s entrepreneurship.
External validity
The study focuses on pathways taken by women entrepreneurs’ micro and small sized
enterprises in Tanzania. More specifically it takes certain geographical and cultural
considerations in to account and will as such have limited generalizability to contexts outside
of Tanzania. Questioning the value of one-size-fits all policies and the usefulness of
conducting statistical quantified studies, the aim is not aim to generalise the results from my
study outside its context.
2.13 Reliability
The final issue of reliability is meant to ensure that the research is done in a transparent way
and that it can be replicated by another researcher – arriving at the same results. In other
words it means that the results from the study are reliable (Kvale and Brinkmann 2009:245).
To ensure this I have, in this section, carefully outlined the methods used. Two issues that
might affect reliability are language barriers and my being an intern at AfDB while
conducting the research.
English is not the first language of the respondents or the interviewer and author. In most
cases this did not, at least at face value, seem to be a problem in most of the interview
19
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
situations. However two of the women interviewed had some difficulties in expressing
themselves in English and with one of the women the husband had to be called to help out
with translating. This of course could affect the reliability of the woman’s responses as she
might not feel she was able to express herself freely with her husband in the room. However
the interview questions are not very provoking and the woman did not seem to have a
problem expressing her view in front of her husband.
Another possible limitation or bias that might affect the reliability of the views and thoughts
expressed by the interviewed women that I wish to make visible, is my affiliation, as an
intern, with AfDB Tanzania field office. The women could have thought that if they answered
in a certain way they would benefit or worse if being for example to critical their views
would be reported to third parties. However I deem this risk as being very small due to the
simple fact that most women actually didn’t really know what AfDB was.
2.14 Ethical considerations
As a researcher I am responsible to ensure that the participants in the study give their
informed consent. Thus I made sure that they understood what the purpose of the research
was and how it would be used (Kvale & Brinkmann 2009:70). In the interest of protecting the
women’s privacy as they often revealed quite personal stories all the names used in the
presentations of the cases are pseudonyms and no names of any of the enterprises are
disclosed. Equally, the names of informant interviews are withheld on the basis of lacking a
written consent to use their names (Kvale & Brinkmann 2009:70).
2.15 Summary of the introduction section
In the introduction section the background to the research focus – growth oriented micro
and small scale enterprises owned and managed by women entrepreneurs in Tanzania has
been outlined. Furthermore the research problem and purpose has been spelled out and
specific research questions posed. The second part of the introduction section dealt with
methodology as well as methods and selection of cases.
2.16 Disposition of the thesis
The first part of the thesis section builds the theoretical framework. This part consists of the
following; Previous research and introduction to the theoretical framework, the theoretical
framework including the theory of hegemonic masculinity, entrepreneurial mentality and
the 5M framework.
The second part of the thesis section consists of the presentation and analysis of primary
and secondary data through applying the concepts, theory and framework as described in
the theory section. This part begins with a presentation of the selected cases, i.e. the ten
micro and small scale enterprises.
20
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
The third section – the conclusion, is made up by a summary of the findings, a conclusion of
the research where the research questions will be answered and questions for further
research will be outline.
3.0 Theoretical framework
3.1 Previous research and introduction to the theoretical framework
There is very little academic researched published in major academic journals on
entrepreneurship when it comes to women’s enterprises in low-income, or “developing”
countries (see Ahl 2006, Greene 2003, Mirchindani 1999 for extensive reviews of research
on women and entrepreneurship). Only two articles dealing with non-European or nonAmerican cases or research were referred to in any of the articles reviewed for the
theoretical framework. This was a multiple case study on women business owners in Turkey
(Hisrish and Özturk 1999) and a study on micro businesses in South Asia (Kantor 2002).
There is some “global” research on women and entrepreneurship published, but global
refers to European, Australian, and American i.e. what we might call western societies (see
Brush et al 2006).
A few studies on African women entrepreneurs have been published but seemingly not in
any of the major entrepreneurship journals. One article on was found in the renowned
Journal of International development, a case study on the Gambia where small scale women
entrepreneur’s challenges and opportunities are discussed (Della-Giusta and Phillips 2006).
The lack of studies on women entrepreneurs in developing countries published in
entrepreneurship journals represent a bias in the entrepreneurship literature much like the
bias towards male norms of entrepreneurship. Women’s entrepreneurship in non-western
countries does not seem to inform new approaches to build gender aware theory and
research on entrepreneurship. Just like women in western countries have not been taken
seriously as entrepreneurs it seems that women in developing countries are not taken
seriously in the building of new approaches to the study of women’s entrepreneurship.
The theoretical framework used in the thesis will be outlined in detail in this chapter. In brief
it can be summarized as a having three levels. I will start with the overarching abstract level
of hegemonic masculinity theory (Connell 1987; Connell 2005; Connell and Messerschmidt
2005). The concept of the entrepreneur as male gendered and the entrepreneurial mentality
discourse will then be outlined. This is very much built on the hegemonic masculinity
identity. Thirdly, in order to bring the study to a more tangible and concrete level the 5M
framework is introduced (Brush et al 2009).
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
3.2 Hegemonic masculinity
On a societal level there is, just like on a face- to-face (individual) level, an ordering of
versions of masculinity and femininity. The theory of hegemonic masculinity is based on the
notion that through ascendancy women are subordinated to men and that other forms of
masculinity are subordinated to the hegemonic version of masculinity (Connell 1987; Connell
and Messerschmidt 2005).
Hegemonic masculinity and its cultural ideal is not necessarily based on real but instead
rather on idealized models of masculinity - like action heroes played by Stallone,
Schwarzenegger or Bruce Lee or on ideals far from the lived lives or attributes of ordinary
men, figures such as Muhammed Ali. Although few men live up to these images many join in
the sustaining these models or ideals. This relates to the idealised version of the
entrepreneur as the self-made man which will be discussed under the headings
Entrepreneurial mentality and the entrepreneur as male gendered.
3.3 Femininity
Just as masculinities, femininities are historical (and contextualized on regional, local and
individual levels my remark) patterns. New forms of femininity appear and disappear over
time (and space). Just as with hegemonic masculinity, ideological and cultural
representations of femininity are based on actual femininity but not necessarily
corresponding to the actual lives led by women. (Connell 1987:186)
An important aspect of the formation of femininities is that all forms of femininity are
constructed under the subordination of women to men. As such there is less scope for a
form of hegemonic femininity to be created and achieve ascendancy over other forms of
femininity in the way that a hegemonic masculinity has been achieved among men (Connell
1987:187). Due to this, actual femininities are likely to be more diverse than actual
masculinities.
3.3.1 Emphasized femininity, compliance and resistance
However, one form of femininity –“emphasized femininity” can be seen as being given more
space and cultural recognition today. This pattern of femininity centres on the option of
compliance with hegemonic masculinity and subordination of women. It is organized as an
adaptation to men’s power (Connell 1987:187). Compliance, nurturance and empathy are
regarded and celebrated as feminine traits. This type of femininity is promoted in mass
media and marketing with an intensity far greater than any form of masculinity (Connell
1987:187-88).
Other forms of femininity are based on the non-compliance with this subordination or the
active resistance to it. Yet other forms are integrating complex strategies of compliance,
resistance and co-operation. The interplay of these different forms of femininity constitutes
a major part in the dynamics of change of the gender order as a whole. (Connell 1987:18485)
22
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
The next section moves on to explore the concept of entrepreneurial mentality and the
entrepreneur as male gendered. As will be shown below entrepreneurial mentality; what it
means to be an entrepreneur is based on male biased, gendered processes and hegemonic
masculinity identity.
3.4 Entrepreneurial mentality
The discourse around the practice of being an entrepreneur influences and forms the
entrepreneurial practice itself. This is how the concept of entrepreneurial mentality emerges,
shaping the constraints and actions of entrepreneurship. This takes form through discursive
practices3 of entrepreneurs themselves, media representation of entrepreneurs and their
achievements as well as academic research on entrepreneurship. The discourse on
entrepreneurial mentality includes what it means to be an entrepreneur, who can be an
entrepreneur, and what or who the economic governance of entrepreneurship manages
(Bruni et al 2004a). This will be elaborated on in the discussion of the entrepreneur as male
gendered below.
3.5 Otherness and the female entrepreneur
The concept of otherness has been widely used in feminist and postcolonial thought.
Otherness is generally perceived in two distinct ways; first as meaning “lack” or “less” of
something - an unfortunate position from which one is assumed to want to be rescued.
Secondly and contrary, otherness is perceived as “more” i.e. different but better - a resource
and something assumed that one would want more of (Fournier 2002:68).
Ahl (2002, 2006; see also Mirchindani 1999:229) describes how research on women
entrepreneurs by searching for differences between men and women entrepreneurs and by
making gendered discourses on entrepreneurship invisible continues to construct women
entrepreneurs as “the other”. This creates policy solutions that are geared towards helping
women become more like male entrepreneurs as they are perceived not to measure up to
the male norm in how they run their businesses, the strategies they use or the goals they
set. The “other” is seen as less able for example to access start-up capital or loans to grow
businesses. This judgment is made without necessarily looking explicitly in to why it might be
so (Alh 2002:63).
Alternatively, writing and researching about women entrepreneurs relates to the second
way of perceiving otherness, seeing the “other” in a positive light. Because many women’s
experiences with entrepreneurship does not live up to the entrepreneurial role of the selfmade man (nor does those of men always) women as business owners and managers are
seen as the opposite of this. Instead a picture of the “Good woman” is created by
emphasizing values very similar to those associated with the “Good mother” – nurturing,
relational, democratic and ethical (Ahl 2002). However, as Ahl (2002:59) points out this do
3Discursive
practices are “practices which systematically form the object of which they speak”. (Focault 1972:49)
23
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
not question the male/female dichotomy but instead supports it. This type of analysis relates
to the hegemonic masculinity/emphasized femininity dichotomy.
3.6 Discursive practices of entrepreneurship research
Alh (2006) through a discourse analysis of 81 research articles on women’s
entrepreneurship4 shows how this research is based on ten discursive practices that feed
into the process of “othering”. These are:









The Entrepreneur as Male Gendered
Entrepreneurship as an Instrument for Economic Growth – building on the
modernistic project and economic rational theory where the market place is seen as
value free, neutral and agendered
Men and Women as Essentially Different
The Division between Work and Family
Theories Favouring Individual Explanations i.e. not factoring in structural and cultural
differences
Research Methods that Look for Mean Differences – a bias on using quantitative
methods
An Objectivist Ontology
Institutional Support for Entrepreneurship Research
Writing and Publishing Practices
While all of these discursive practices are interesting and important to highlight there is
unfortunately not enough space to elaborate on the other nine. Fitting with the scope, focus
and purpose of the thesis I have chosen to focus on the first discursive practice – the
entrepreneur as male gendered.
3.7 The Entrepreneur as male gendered
Ahl (2006) in her discourse analysis identifies how the entrepreneur is described, what
personal traits and characteristics the entrepreneur is said to have. This is done through a
review of both founding texts and more contemporary research articles. In the founding
texts (e.g Schumpeter 1934, 1983) the entrepreneur is described as a man who is daring,
courageous, wanting to form his own kingdom, who seeks out challenges and who are
competitive for the sake of wining not for the prize awarded when winning. This is type of
man is unusual and extraordinary. The modern versions of entrepreneurship articles that
focused on the entrepreneur as a person followed this pattern albeit not using the pronoun
he (Ahl 2006:599).
4
73 of these articles were empirical and 8 conceptual, they were published between 1982 and 2000 in four leading
entrepreneurship research journals Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Journal of Business Venturing, The Journal of
Small Business Management and Entrepreneurship and Regional Developmen (Ahl 2006:595)
24
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
The words found to be used to describe the entrepreneur were compared to the words
associated with masculinity in Bem’s masculinity and femininity index. This is an index of
characteristics that are generally held to describe masculinity versus femininity. It was
developed by an American psychologist based on comprehensive research. It is in other
words: a social construction of gender5 (Ahl 2006:600).
The masculinity words in the index compare very well with the entrepreneur words found in
the articles (see table 2 Masculinity, femininity and entrepreneur words below).
(Ahl 2006:600)
5
While the index was created in America in the 1980s, it has since been tested in other cultures and was found to apply
there too although not all the words were found relevant (Ahl 2006:600). However, it is quite self-evident that not all of it
will be a perfect match to how masculinity and femininity is perceived across cultures and time as the social construction of
gender changes. But it is a very powerful and illustrative conceptualization that I believe does apply to a certain degree at
least, to the Tanzanian context
25
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
When comparing the femininity words and finding that they did not correspond to
entrepreneurship words Ahl (2006) uses the opposite of entrepreneur words and compare
them to the femininity words. Most words that describe socially constructed femininity do
not correlate at all with the words describing the entrepreneur. In fact, the opposite of
entrepreneur words matches some of the femininity words. It is from this that Alh (2006)
draws the conclusion that entrepreneurship is a masculine concept. A masculine concept
built on the hegemonic masculinity. Also, looking at Bem’s femininity words that did not
show up in the literature on entrepreneurial traits, these words I would argue are closely
related to the so called emphasized femininity - compliance, nurturance and empathy
(Connell 1987:187-88).
The discourse that understands the entrepreneur as male is however not only a bias that
exists in the ivory tower of research (Ahl 2002, 2006; Lewis 2006; Mirchindani 1999; Bruni et
al 2004a, 2004b). The ideal entrepreneur as the heroic, self-made man is pervasive in media
and the general public discourse as well which will be shown in the findings and analysis.
This discourse shapes the practices of entrepreneurship, the research on entrepreneurship
and the policy choices made by governments and in low-income countries policy and
programmes by donors, as well as the identities of entrepreneurs themselves.
This section has described the hegemonic masculinity theory, entrepreneurial mentality, the
process of “othering” and the entrepreneur as male gendered which can help identify and
understand socially constructed gender identities in relation to entrepreneurship. However,
the thesis has two purposes and in order to realize both as well as providing support and
clarity the 5M framework is also used. This framework will be described below.
3.8 The 5M framework
The 5M framework was developed by Brush et al (2009) to enable the holistic study of
women’s entrepreneurship in its own right. It includes the dimensions of Markets, Money,
Management, Motherhood and Macro and meso environment and is an extension of a
framework developed in earlier entrepreneurship literature (Bates et al 2007) where the first
three Ms (markets, money and management) were originally included. This was deemed
insufficient by Brush et al (2009) to enable gender aware studies of women’s
entrepreneurship.
Brush et al (2009) just like Bruni et al (2004a, 2004b) first of all states that entrepreneurship
is socially embedded; it is as much culture as economics. Entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs
and enterprises exists not in a value free, neutral market place but within each society and
context – influenced by and influencing norms and values of that society.
26
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
In order to illustrate the interconnectedness of the 5Ms in the framework, Brush et al use a
Venn diagram with its overlapping circles emphasizing the interrelated categorize or
dimensions of the framework.
Figure 2: Venn diagram of 5M framework, Brush et al (2009:13)
In the centre they place the Motherhood dimension using the abbreviation M’HER - in order
to highlight how gender is an integral process to business ownership (Mirchindani 1999:230).
The placement of this dimension also points to the importance of reflecting on women’s
roles and position within the family or household and to symbolize how gender awareness
and analysis is the node of the entire framework (Brush et al 2009).
Market is placed at the top of the Venn circle as the existence of and access to markets
constitutes opportunity for the entrepreneur. It is connected to Money and Management
circles as these are prerequisites for entering and surviving in the market. Where market
represents opportunity, money and management are seen as enablers to exploit this
opportunity (Brush et al 2009).
Macro and meso environment creates the outer circle which shape and mediate all the other
dimensions in the framework (ibid).
In order to better understand the framework and its components the next section will
elaborate on each of the Ms emphasizing the Macro and meso environment and
Motherhood. Even though Motherhood is placed in the centre of the diagram I will,
following the general disposition of the thesis, go from the overarching context - the outer
circles Macro and meso environment and then move to the family and individual level,
represented by the Motherhood dimension.
27
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
3.8.1 Markets, Money and Management
Access to markets, money (start up capital, capital for investment to expand the business
and so forth) as well as human resource in terms of management skills is crucial to any
successful business, to launch it, to sustain it and more specifically to expand it. The 3 Ms are
considered the building blocks of the enterprise (Bates et al 2007).
3.8.2 Macro and meso environment
The macro and meso environment dimension includes aspects beyond the market such as
societal expectations and cultural norms (Brush et al 2009:9). Macro environment concerns
national policies, strategies, cultural and economic influences. Meso environment includes
regional support policies, services and initiatives (Dopfer et al., 2004; Pitelis; 2005 in Brush et
al 2009:10).
Macro environment is exogenous and thus very difficult or impossible for women
themselves to assert more than very limited control over. Macro environments frame
gender socialization by and through social, cultural and institutional arrangements that form
how women themselves as well as others perceive their businesses and influences the
strategic choices they make in running their business (Brush et al 2009:11-12).
Meso environment forms the link between the macro level’s economic, social and cultural
institutions6 and the micro level - meaning the individual, the household/family and the
business. This link is made up of institutions or structures at the intermediate level, such as
business associations and networks. Social capital and networks are important to women’s
access to financial capital (Brush et al 2009).
3.8.3 Motherhood
Motherhood is the metaphor used to represent the household and family context. Gender
and power structures affecting labour division and access to resources within the household
are often not explicitly looked at in entrepreneurship studies but are likely to have effects on
women’s businesses. Women are more often than men implicitly or explicitly assigned
reproductive and domestic responsibilities (Brush et al 2009:9). The family and the
household can also function as source of social and financial support for starting up and
expanding businesses (Brush and Manolova 2004).
3.9 Summary of theoretical framework
In the previous chapter the theoretical framework of the thesis has been presented. The
framework starts out on the mass level with hegemonic masculinity theory describing how
6
institutions in the broad sense as both encompassing the actual “real” institutions as well as “the rules of the
game” – building on North (1987)
28
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
one form of masculinity has acquired hegemony that builds on the subordination of women
and other forms of masculinity. Femininity on the other hand is more fluid and varied. One
form of femininity “emphasized femininity “fits” with the hegemonic masculinity. This form
builds on compliance with hegemonic masculinity and celebrates features such as nurture
and empathy. Other forms of femininity use complex strategies of resistance and compliance
with the hegemonic masculinity. The interplay of these different forms of femininity
constitutes a major part in the dynamics of change of gender order as a whole.
The theory section then moved on to discuss how entrepreneurship is a cultural and social as
well as economical phenomenon and described how the entrepreneur is seen as male
gendered. Through a process of othering women entrepreneurs are perceived as not
measuring up to the male centred norm of entrepreneurship or in other cases as being the
other in terms of providing an opposite to the male entrepreneur with traits similar to that
of the “good mother”. This does not question male/female stereotyping but instead
reinforces it.
Lastly, the 5M framework with its dimensions Markets, Management, Macro and meso
environment and Motherhood was presented. The interesting aspect of the five dimensions
is not only that it serves as a framework to investigate how the women interviewed
managed to develop and grow their businesses, highlight barriers for women entrepreneurs
and making us more aware of gendered biases in the study of entrepreneurship, but that it
also helps us to focus on and analyze women’s agency in combating and navigating through
their own gender identities in relation to hegemonic masculinity, entrepreneurial mentality
discourse, processes of othering and macro and meso constraints that effect their lives,
identities and businesses.
4.0 Findings and analysis
4.1 The cases
Before venturing in to presenting the findings and analysis a brief overview of the cases is
provided here. As described under selection of cases 10 micro or small scale enterprises,
started, owned and operated by women and situated in the Dar es Salaam area, Tanzania
was selected. An overview of the ten enterprises and the women interviewed will be
presented in table 3 below. All names are pseudonyms to protect the women’s privacy and
uphold confidentiality (Kvale & Brinkmann 2009).
29
Pseudonym
Tumaini
Age
Family
Highest educational
Business sector
Started and/or
Erika
Rubin
level
registered year
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
29
Divorced
2 children
Secondary school
Textile
Type of products or
services produced
Employees
/of which
female
Started 2003
Registered
2007
Curtains, uniforms
for institutions, car
seat covers, sofa
reupholstering
16 permanent
/ 7 women
4 permanent
/ 2 women
3-5 seasonal
employees
4 permanent
8 temporary
Does not want to
declare
Women: 7/12
2009/10:42 million
Mango products
and nuts– jams,
dried, chutneys
20 permanent
2000: 30 000 USD
Zahra
53
Divorced
3 children
Secondary school
Food -processing
Registered
2002
Dried fruits, jams
Maisha
51
Not
married
1 child
Bachelor of law
Textile
Started in 1993
Registered
2000
Handicraft
products, home
decor
Halima
57
Married
4 children
Postgraduate
degree in financing
Food processing
Registered
2000
Turnover at start &
year 2009/10
( Tanzanian shilling if
not otherwise
specified)
2003:100 000/week
2009/10: 40 million
1993: Approx 1
million
2009/10:351 000
USD
Naima
56
Married
3 children
Teachers training
Mining and
agribusiness
Started 1999
Gemstones (trader
and miner) will start
gold. Recently
started farming
6 permanent
all men
Kamili
52
Married
4 children
Form 4
Beauty/medicinal
Started in 2004
Beauty products,
dietary supplement,
medicinal etc
3 permanent
/2 women
10 seasonal
Gemstones –,value
addition, cutting
and polishing,
making jewellery
Spices – masala,
ginger, chillies
12 permanent
/8 women
2009/10: Approx
65 000 USD
4 employees
/3 women
“in 2001 I started
with 20 shilling”
2009/10: 5milion
Computer classes,
secretarial services
for schools and
other customers
Designs and makes
clothes and
accessories
4 all women
Does not want to
declare
14 permanent
N/A
Tamasha
60
Divorced
2 children
Diploma
Mining
2003
Zawadi
50
Married
3 children
Form 4
Food processing
2001
36
Married
4 children
Bachelor of
business
administration
Mainly IT &
secretarial
N/A
60
Married
3 children
Secondary school
Textile/fashion
17 years
Akila
Sadaa
Not sure of how
much when started
but it has grown
substantially
2009/10: 20 million
2005: 3 million
2009/10:13 million
Table 3 Overview of cases
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
4.2 Disposition of findings and analysis
Using the 5M framework to structure my research I have tried to fit the findings presented
below in to the five dimensions. As the framework itself shows (see figure 2) the dimensions
are all interconnected and it is sometimes difficult to place a certain issue under one of the
Ms as it could fit in to several. This interconnectedness is the whole point of the framework.
However this means that it is necessary for some subjective judgments made on behalf of
the user. Depending on what I want to emphasize with a certain section I therefore choose
put a certain theme under e.g. Motherhood and not Money or Macro.
However, before the findings are presented and analysed within the 5M dimensions, the
themes of success and entrepreneurial mentality (Ahl 2006, 2002; Bruni et al 2004a, 2004b)
are explored to explicitly highlight the women’s own perceptions of the entrepreneur, the
successful business the successful business woman.
4.3 Defining success
The successful business and the successful business woman
Economic gain and growth of the business is explicitly and implicitly stated as the raison
d’être for any business (Bates 2007). A successful business is thus a business that grows and
expands in terms of turnover and sales. Kantor (2002) however highlights the empowerment
dimension of determining the success of women’s (micro) businesses. Most of the women
interviewed employed the economic rationality concept on what can be regarded as a
successful business.
“A successful business on my side, I can think of growing. Growing means expanding the
business” Akila 29 explains her view on what a successful business is.
Interestingly, the women tend to use somewhat different criteria when discussing what a
successful business is from when they were asked to define what a successful business
woman is. While the success of the enterprise was judged more on growth and economic
gain, the woman behind the business was deemed successful more on the perspective of
empowerment and being able to take care of her family, paying school fees for children and
so forth. Also, being able to pay salaries to your employees and satisfying customers was
proof of being a successful business woman. Running your business with integrity and being
trustworthy was often mentioned as traits of a successful business woman.
The following two quotes from Zahra 53 illustrate this distinction. Zahra is running a business
producing dried fruits and jam. She is divorced with 3 children.
“Yeah the business is successful they say… when the market is there. Because we are doing
business for money so the market is there. And there is nothing (as) good about any business
if you are assured that the market is there. You are producing something and people are just
waiting to take it. That is successful business. And again, the business that you like it, you
enjoy doing it”.
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
Here it is also interesting to note how Zahra says “they say”. I will return to this under the
Meso environment to discuss how the courses on entrepreneurship and business
management offered by a number of actors are likely to affect the women’s views on
entrepreneurship. However returning to the distinction made between successful business
and successful business woman, Zahra expresses it like this:
“A successful business women? Oohh (laughs) I can say I am a successful business woman,
yeah… Because for all these years I have kept this same business, though I am not another
Reginald Mengi7 or so but being single handed I have managed to take my children to school.
And I am running life without depending on a husband. That I am doing things which even
some married couples are not really... they are envying me.”
Another important thing in order for the business to become successful is that you choose a
business that you have a passion for. Something you like, or love doing.
4.4 Entrepreneurial mentality and how to make a business grow, to become
successful
The three themes successful business, successful business woman and the good
entrepreneur sometimes overlap but they are separated to show the differences that do
exists in the way women perceive the concepts.
Most of the women said that commitment and hard work was among the most important to
become a successful entrepreneur.
Sadaa 60 with a very well known textile and fashion enterprise says that an entrepreneur is
“A trustworthy person, hard working, spending most of your time working. Being creative,
being alert, to hear. A good entrepreneur is also a person that will test whatever.”
Zahra 53 says that: “A good entrepreneur is the one who gives time and commitment to
whatever he or she is doing.”
When asked how one becomes a good entrepreneur, Kamili 52, producing beauty products
from a medicinal plant, says one needs a marketing strategy and most importantly: “You
have to start your own vision, that I want to do this and this and this. Until you will be
successful in the end, but not to follow somebody’s idea. You create your own idea.”
A good entrepreneur is someone who is committed and devoted – hard working and
disciplined, creative, has their own vision and strategies, is willing to take risks or “a person
that will test whatever” like Sadaa is saying. Another thing that was often mentioned was
7
Reginald Mengi is a well known Tanzanian and very powerful business man who among other things control
large parts of the media in Tanzania. He is the founder and Executive Chairman of IPP Group, one of East
Africa's largest privately owned companies.
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
integrity. As an entrepreneur they say, you have to be a role model, you always have to think
of your business and how you behave.
The words the women use to describe a good entrepreneur relates very well to the words
generally held to describe masculinity (see table 2) and the matching entrepreneur words
(Ahl 2006).
When asked who are better entrepreneurs, women or men, all the women answered that it
was in fact women. Without a doubt in their mind. Women are more responsible and
trustworthy. Thus these two traits, I argue, is part of entrepreneurial mentality as the
women interviewed perceive it, even though they were not brought up when directly asked
about what a good entrepreneur is.
The rationale given for why women are better entrepreneurs than men is because they take
care of their families. Women are better entrepreneurs because they are trustworthy and
have integrity. The consequence of women’s entrepreneurship, of them running businesses
is that the family is looked after. Thus they are better entrepreneurs. This relates to the
Motherhood dimension and will be further elaborated on under that very heading later in
the chapter. The women interviewed spoke about the resourcefulness of women, how they
to make sure the family eats, how they will do anything – just like the entrepreneur which
Sadaa described as “a person that will do anything”. It can also be seen as what Maisha, 51
talks about as “commitment” or “hardworking” which to her describes a good entrepreneur.
Traits that according to Bem’s index belong to masculinity and thus entrepreneurship, but
according to the woman I interviewed in fact are what describe women and femininity.
4.4.1 Motivation - empowerment and responsibilities
“What motivates me is that there are people who depend on the money that passes my
hands.” (Sadaa, 60)
What motivates the women can be summarised as empowerment, joy and responsibilities.
Many of the women were employed earlier and took early retirement or left their jobs for
other reasons. What drives and motivates the women, why they want to be entrepreneurs is
generally expressed in term of wanting to be independent, being one’s own boss, to reap the
benefits of hard work – something they felt they couldn’t do when employed, to challenge
themselves, learn and develop new skills. What motivated the women to keep going was
often the satisfaction of their customers, the passion they felt for the products and services
they were producing, and the people that depended on them, family members and
especially children but also their employees.
Kamili 53, describing the benefits of being self-employed says it is good because not only can
she employ others but also:
“You are the decision maker /.../Yourself can be satisfied that now I can do something.
Because now I am a grown mama. I have children, I have grown children. So, sometimes, this
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
is, it is not enough to be employed by somebody, but you employ yourself. Yeah, you can
employ yourself. It is small money, but you are comfortable. And also you must be so much,
use your common sense, yeah like, if I do not work hard, I will not have anything to eat.”
Tumaini, 29, on her behalf, when talking about motivation, says:
“As I told you before I started this business on passion. So it’s like business is my life. If I sleep,
if I wake up, if I don’t have any important with any client then I have an appointment for any
organization, then I want to see, how… Because paying 16 people I have to have 2 million
every end of the month for the salaries so it’s like every morning that I wake up I have to find
out, how am I going to make it?”
The women interviewed all agreed on that becoming an entrepreneur had changed their
lives to the better. Not only in terms of material things or increased wealth but as persons
they had experienced and learnt new things and expanded their horizons, some had been
able to travel. They now feel more empowered. This empowerment – the freedom,
challenges and independence was often also partly what drove them to become
entrepreneurs in the first place.
4.5 Market
Classical entrepreneurship literature focuses on the market as the most fundamental aspect
of entrepreneurship. Bruni et al (2009) puts the market dimension on top of the Venn circles
as it symbolizes opportunity. The women interviewed had a similar view as the market
dimension was also seen an important aspect of being a successful entrepreneur. Their
businesses, they say, are successful because people like their products. This is also a source
of motivation for many of the business women to keep doing their businesses. Not only to
increase sales to make more money but because they feel pride that people like their
products.
While the food processing ladies mainly sell to supermarkets, the women in textile and
mining mainly sell to individuals. Akila with her secretarial and computer services uses her
everyday life to access new markets through her children’s school for example. A few of the
businesses are exporting; most of them want to start exporting. In terms of marketing
strategies word of mouth is predominantly used to market their products. Some that have
been around for long like Sadaa with her textile business advertise in magazines and
billboards. Trade fairs and exhibitions are used as ways to access markets and promote their
businesses and some women have managed to turn people in their business networks into
customers.
4.6 Money
Capital is vital to set up and to expand any business; you need money to make money.
However credits do not come easy in Tanzania, nor are they cheap. Even larger firms are
having problems accessing credit from national. For smaller entrepreneurs there is always
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
the possibility of lending from microfinance institutions (MFIs). Recently commercial banks
are also starting to target MSMEs and especially women. Most of the women had at one
point or another taken a loan from a bank, MFI or donor foundation. But all who have
borrowed from MFIs or commercial banks have the same grievances - the interest rates are
sky high, procedures cumbersome, amounts small and loans short term. They felt that lack
of access to credit was hindering their enterprises development and growth. This picture
corresponds to the one that Stevenson and St Onge (2005) paints on the barriers hindering
women entrepreneurs and in fact any entrepreneur in Tanzania. However, macro level
environment structural constraints in forms of societal and cultural norms can make it even
harder for women. In many cases, to lend any substantial amount you have to have
collateral such as housing or a land title. The women tell me that many women in Tanzania
lack this or they own assets jointly with husbands who in that case have to agree to use
them as collaterals. However these structures are changing because Tanzanian women have
fought for their rights says Halima, 57.
Halima was lucky enough to, through networks she had managed to build during her former
employment in a charity organisation, access a large loan with zero interest from US African
development foundation which enabled her to develop her business further.
Some of the women, not able to get such large (and interest free) loans have managed to
access capital through borrowing from relatives.
4.7 Management
In general the women say they have close relationships with their employees. They look
upon themselves and their staffs as part of a family; sometimes this is true in the literal
sense of the word as well. Team work is important some of the woman stress and to listen to
your employees. From the observations I could make the women did seem to work closely
with their employees and in a familiar manner, themselves often also doing actual
manufacturing or production. This was also a strategy used to exercise control over quality
of work.
Most of the staff training is usually done in-house by the women. For some, like Zahra this is
also a strategy to be in control of her business. She used to operate a hair salon and a textile
business but found that this challenging as she herself did not possess the skills necessary for
those businesses and had to rely on her employees’ ambition and being dependent on their
will to work hard. When she started her current business she made sure she was the one
with the skills. She took a course in food processing with SIDO and finds that as she trains
the staff herself; if they do not perform she can just train other new people herself. However
she also stresses that her and her staff are all as a family.
Akila with her secretarial business says that the follow up is essential for growing your
business:
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
“The most important thing I think is follow up. To know what your customer wants and how
to meet their deadline and even to upgrade my employees especially those who are dealing
with this secretarial. Sometimes if you purchase new equipment you have to show them how
to operate it.”
As will be elaborated on further under Meso, all the women had undergone various courses
and trainings. It was noticeable how these trainings had affected their management
perspectives.
4.8 Macro and meso environment
4.8.1 Macro
Tanzanian society is relatively conservative. This statement is made on the basis of the
observations I was able to make during my 8 months stay in Tanzania as well as on the
women’s own descriptions of their society. Tanzania only recently acknowledged the role of
the private sector in development and the importance of SMEs for poverty reduction and
employment (see for example SME development policy 2003 and MUKUKUTA II 2010).
In order to illustrate the macro environment level impact on how entrepreneurship is
construed I present a media review below and a poster for a conference on women
entrepreneurs are analyzed below. After that I will go on to discuss how the women
interviewed felt that macro environment effected their lives and businesses.
4.8.2 Entrepreneurship in the media
General entrepreneurship articles were urging entrepreneurs to be innovative, courageous,
and hard working – the typical entrepreneurship words. This is thus fitting very well with the
words the women use to describe what makes a good entrepreneur and also features on
male entrepreneurs where representing entrepreneurial masculinity and described
entrepreneurs from the self made man concept (see for example the feature on the Barrick
Gold8 founder Mr Munk about his rise to become a successful entrepreneur
(http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/sunday-citizen/40-sunday-citizen-news/9223-special-reportbarrickowners-story-from-rugs-to-riches.html Retrieved 3/5 2011 11.36)
Women’s entrepreneurship was mainly highlighted in the sense of them taking the greater
responsibilities for supporting their families e.g. an article on Exim bank targeting women
entrepreneurs: “apart from the opportunity of securing loans though their savings, the
product has been divided into two categories; savings for day-to-day expenses and for the
special expenses such as school fees, business and healthcare. “
http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/business/13-local-business/9021-exim-bank-empowerswomen-entrepreneurs.html (retrieved 3/3 2011 11.30)
8Barrick
Gold is a Canadian mining company with several mines in Tanzania
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
The media re-presentation in Tanzania follows the approach used by academic research on
women entrepreneurs (Lewis 2006; Ahl 2002:59-60). Women entrepreneurs are “the
others” and seen at the same time as an opportunity and a challenge. They are representing
opportunity as untapped resources and a challenge in terms of needing support to become
more empowered and able entrepreneurs a rational provided in donor and government
programs targeting women entrepreneurs. The structural reasons behind said need for more
support are not discussed. Also, women’s entrepreneurship is seen mainly in the light of
Motherhood – they are even as entrepreneurs, first and foremost responsible for the family
and their children.
This poster for a conference and networking seminar about and for
women entrepreneurs saying “Support your Mama, Aunt, Sister or Wife” also illustrates how
women are mainly seen as in relation to their families. They are something to someone. Not
entrepreneurs in their own right. They should be supported. And they should be supported
because they are part of the family, taking responsibility for the family.
The women interviewed feel that people in their surroundings, their neighbours, their
relatives and immediate family and their friends look up to them. They feel that they are
respected in their communities because they have achieved something - because they are
successful entrepreneurs. However they said it can be difficult for women to become
entrepreneurs due to societal and cultural norms. This was mostly in the early phases of
entrepreneurship.
Tumaini, 29, describes how becoming an entrepreneur is very difficult for a woman due to
cultural norms.
“Not all are made to be entrepreneurs, not all are meant to be entrepreneurs. Although we
are teaching, we are being taught, not all can do it. It is very hard because of especially
African men. It needs like, you have to make a decision. It is like you are becoming a born
again person, now I am surrendering everything. Because our culture, I would say my culture,
you have to first of all to find a husband, you don’t talk to people, if you are a lady and you
talk to people to say A B C… Because in our culture it is really bad.”
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
Some experienced that there was scepticism at first, that people did not believe that they
could succeed. The two women in mining have experienced more scepticism than the
others. Tamasha 60 was advised by her relatives that mining was not a business for ladies
and that maybe she should do some other business that is easier for women.
4.9 Meso environment – trainings and networks
An important feature regarding the meso environment and entrepreneurship in Tanzania are
the multitude of often donor funded (and founded) trainings, seminars, networking groups
and courses for women entrepreneurs. Most of the women had attended at least one such
course and all the women had been attending courses with the governmental organisation
Small industry development organisation (SIDO). SIDO is very active in providing trainings,
support and facilitation. SIDO often partner with international donors, bilaterals,
multilaterals and NGOs. The University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) has a whole department for
entrepreneurship and some of the women had attended short courses there too.
“If you want to be a good entrepreneur, you have to follow the laws of business because I am
trained now, I know how to keep records how to manage my business, and how to change
(the way of doing) business.” (Naima, 56)
The women seem to subscribe to the teachings at these courses on business skills, marketing
and managing strategies, and general business administration.
The women attended various trainings within their specific field. Practical course on how to
develop their products within their sectors, food processing and textile courses being the
most commonly offered by SIDO, commercial banks as well as from donor organizations.
Business skills such as marketing, management - both organizational and financial were also
courses that most of the women had attended. They all saw that these courses had helped
them develop their businesses, access new markets and provided them with useful skills and
knowledge as few had previous experience from running an enterprise or education within
the field.
Zahra, 53 says:
“I don’t have the background of business, so it was just hitting and missing, sort of. But after
starting to attend these trainings there has been improvement, even myself I have built
confidence, I can talk, and I know exactly what is needed in my industry I know what are the
requirements, standards of the food industry.
From the way that the women speak about the business management and entrepreneurship
courses they have attended, from what the informant interviews tell about the content and
structure of the courses and from the way media and donors writes about entrepreneurship,
the conclusion is drawn that these trainings follow the discourse on entrepreneurship based
on intertwined hegemonic masculinity and rational economic thought. This has had a major
influence on the way women themselves understand entrepreneurship and the
38
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
entrepreneurial mentality. It has also helped the women to actually improve their businesses
in terms of economic growth and can as such be perceived as filling the purpose set out by
the organisers.
4.9.1 Networks
“I become a successful woman because I exchange ideas with other entrepreneurs. I get new
knowledge in business, I tried to change business, and I get money. Networking. I become a
business woman (an), entrepreneur.” (Naima, 56)
Networks are another important aspect of the meso level institutions. The women were all
part of different networks or organisations. They attended workshops, trade fairs and were
sometimes able to travel to other countries through these associations. The networks are
however predominately female. The women themselves, donors and the governmental
organisations are practising segregated initiatives. This again feeds into the process of
othering. The women did find the contacts they made through the networks helpful to a
certain degree.
Trade fairs were seen as positive opportunities to exchange ideas and also to access
markets. These are often based on sector and not gender. However special women
entrepreneurs’ trade fairs do exist such as the one discussed under the Macro dimension.
4.10 Motherhood
Most of the women expressed that is harder for women to become entrepreneurs due to
women being responsible for taking care of the family. These responsibilities can hinder
women to devote time and energy into business they all agreed. Although for most of them
this was not a problem as their children are already grown up, their husbands are supportive
or they do not have husbands. They do however tell me stories of other women
entrepreneurs that they know who are struggling because their husbands and children do
not understand what they are doing and wants them to look for a job instead of being
entrepreneurs.
Interestingly, starting and expanding a business and the importance of becoming a
successful entrepreneur and thus earn a sufficient income was often stated as being based
on the responsibility to pay for, and the pride to be able to do so, school fees for children in
secondary and tertiary education. Also, four of the ten women have named their companies
after their children’s initials or names showing the centrality of children and family in the
lives and businesses of these women.
While three of the women interviewed were divorced and one never married although she
had a child, two of the women were more vocal and personal when they told the stories
about their disappointments in marriage.
Tumaini’s husband took their mutual children when they separated. When Tumaini’s
children were taken away from her she chose to focus on her business. This can be
39
Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
interpreted as a sort of crisis not only emotionally because her children whom she loves
were no longer around her, but also as a crisis of her femininity. This femininity I argue is
based on being the Good mother, and what the women describe as the African women or
the African mother (see the discussion on the good entrepreneur).
“I never had the chance of staying with my kids after... I started, when I entered in to serious
business then my ex-husband took the kids from me. So it was a challenge. Then on the other
side I said I am not going to fight for the kids for now let me fight for the future on the other
hand so he took the kids from me. Then I lost the love of my children but then I had to get a
passion to concentrate on business. So that’s the other part of it, so the kids, it has now
become, getting closer to them. But for the past 5 years… African men are like that. He was
trying to…Even not let me have a closer time with the children. But I said now (that) this is
not working let me just concentrate on one thing so I may not lose everything. I just
concentrated on my business.”
For Tumaini the role as a mother was not available in the same explicit way anymore and in
a sense could be replaced by something else, the role as an entrepreneur. Most of the
women have children who are grown up, and who already left the house when they started
their business “seriously” indicating that dualism between family and business is very much
real and has an impact on women’s decisions to become entrepreneur and to an extent to fit
in to the hegemonic masculinity form of being an entrepreneur -being able to work non-stop
and taking risks. But this change also had an empowerment dimension for Tumaini. She
misses her children but at the same time her business has enabled her to feel like a new
person, to have found her calling almost.
For Maisha, who is not married, she feels this makes it easier for her to be a business woman
she can decide herself what she wants to do, if she wants to take a loan for example. When
asked to elaborate on why she thought it was more difficult for women than for men to run
a business she talks about this but also says:
“The women are very engaged much in family issues compared to men because the men are going for
their businesses if they are working. Women have to make sure that everything at home is ok…/.../.
For Tanzanian women it is a bit difficult. It is hard for them to perform business well. Because of
family commitments. She also feels that society is changing but not the gender roles in relation to
family responsibilities: “Although! They have tried now… they are changing the men also, their
attitude is changing but it is still the family responsibilities are there.”
5. 0 Summary of findings and conclusions
By using the theory of hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity (Connell 1987:18488, Connell and Messerschmidt 2005), connecting this to and exposing gendered biases in
discursive practices surrounding the entrepreneur, most notably entrepreneur mentality as
based on a male norm, and using the institutional framework of the 5Ms as proposed by
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
Brush, et al (2009) the study has shone some light on important aspects of female
entrepreneurship, not as a form of “otherness” but in its’ own value and hoping to better
understand female entrepreneurship and the cultural, social and personal dimensions that
effects it by doing so.
This multiple-case study including ten micro and small scale businesses owned and
management by Tanzanian women in Dar es Salaam aimed at fulfilling two purposes; to
highlight male biased assumptions and gender blindness in the discourse and discursive
practices on entrepreneurship as well as exploring women’s own perceptions of identity and
gender. The second more straight forward empirical purpose was exploring women
entrepreneurs pathways to growth, but still taking in to account how structural gendered
processes affects and is affected by this pathway, the strategies and goals.
One overarching research question together with three more specific research questions
guided the research. These will now be answered below.
5.1 How have women entrepreneurs in Tanzania (Dar es Salaam) managed
to grow their micro and small businesses?
The women in this study have all managed to grow their business from very low levels,
despite difficult circumstances – cultural, societal and personal dimensions affecting their
entrepreneurship as seen by the accounts in the findings and analysis section. They have
managed to send their children to higher education, they are providing employment
opportunities for others and they are committed to the development of their societies.
While stressing personal traits as important to become successful in business (see below)
they also judge the following as crucial to having enabled them to grow their businesses:







Access to markets through trade fairs and networks
Family support –members of the household or other relatives providing loans to
expand and invest, labour in times of need or permanent, advice and help to access
new markets. As will be discussed further below, the support of family can be
essential due to gendered divisions of labour in the household
Family structure, not having responsibilities for children was seen as an enabling
factor to focus on business development
Meso level institutions such as the courses provided by SIDO has enabled growth
through new skills both technical sector specific and business management
Staff are treated as part of a family and many of the women emphasize the
importance of taking advise from staff and learning together
Being passionate about the business one is doing
While not mentioned by the women themselves, all of them had a least some
secondary education which is assumed to have affected their ability to grow their
businesses (Stevenson & St Onge: 2005)
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
5.2 How do women entrepreneurs understand the concept of
entrepreneurship and see themselves as business women and
entrepreneurs?
This research question overlaps somewhat with the final research question and will thus
partly be answered under that question as well. In brief however, an entrepreneur is hard
working, committed, devoted and willing to take or risks or “do anything”. An entrepreneur
is innovative and has her/his own vision and strategies. This fits with the description found
by Ahl (2006) to describe masculinity traits but also the entrepreneur. According to the
women however, a good entrepreneur is also trustworthy and reliable – traits that by them
are seen as belonging mostly to women. Women are thus better entrepreneurs than men it
was concluded by the women interviewed.
5.3 How do they define success?
The successful business is one that grows, that can provide income and is thus defined after
economic rationality. But a good business is also one that gives pleasure, something the
entrepreneur one is passionate about. The successful business woman of course has a
successful business as defined in the previous sentence but is also someone who provides
for her family and her staff, the people that are dependent on her. There is some sense of
empowerment connected to being a successful entrepreneur and an important reason to
want to be an entrepreneur and to expand and grow had dimensions of this expressed as
the ability to be economically empowered but also to be one’s own boss, challenging one’s
ability and grow personally through learning and experiences.
5.4 How are they, in their businesses, affected by contextual elements i.e.
social, economical and cultural environments as well as personal
dimensions?
The Macro and meso level environment through trainings and the media representation
serve to feed in to the entrepreneurship discourse; they are the discursive practices that
form the practice of the object of which they speak (Focault 1972). The women themselves
are part of this discourse but at the same time they transform the entrepreneurial mentality
perceived to be male, to become something that is instead typical of women, of the African
woman and the African mother.
While societal norms and responsibilities are perceived to be hindering women from
becoming successful entrepreneurs – much due to time constraints, what and how women
are – their femininity in fact makes them good entrepreneurs. The problem for women
entrepreneurs are the practical and structural barriers, such as laws, gendered divisions of
labour within the household and society at large; unequal power relations, culture - men’s
and family’s failure to understand and support. It is not psychological traits or lack of skills or
abilities that makes it hard for women to become successful entrepreneurs. While
subscribing to the masculine version of entrepreneurship the women perceive these traits
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Erika Rubin
Lund University
Master of International Development and Management
not necessarily as masculine traits. Instead women are hard working, committed, brave and
heroic as entrepreneurs and as mothers - because they are mothers.
As seen from the findings and analysis I claim that generally emphasized femininity is very
strong as a form of femininity in the Tanzanian society. The identity as the “good mother” is
important. This role at the same time fits with and is contrary to the women’s own
perceptions of the good entrepreneur. While the good mother as form of emphasized
femininity is held up in the literature as nurturing, relational, democratic, and ethical (Ahl
2002) - femininity is seen as the opposite of entrepreneurial mentality (Ahl 2006) This is in
the approach to othering as “more” and “better” (Fouriner 2002). To the women
interviewed the good mother is a good woman and a good entrepreneur, this mother and
entrepreneur is hard working, committed and willing to do anything.
Through adopting the discursive practices on entrepreneurial mentality, discursive practices
that are gendered and based on male idealised stereotypes, and adapting these to their own
experiences, what they see around themselves, the women interviewed turn the concept of
the entrepreneur in to something different. They use the complex strategies of compliance
with and resistance to men’s subordination of women by accepting the role of being
responsible for marriage, husbands and children and relatives, whilst still claiming that they
have all the necessary qualities of being an entrepreneur, thus at the same time challenging
the subordination of women and emphasized femininity.
5.5 Further research
This study has explored ten women’s perspectives on entrepreneurship and their pathways
to growth. More qualitative case studies, also of women entrepreneurs in other economic
strata to compare their perceptions and pathways to growth would be beneficial to the
understanding of women’s entrepreneurship, especially in low-income countries. This can
also inform policy choices, recognizing that as there is not one form of femininity there is not
one form of female business. To a certain degree becoming a successful entrepreneur in
Tanzania has to do with personality, about a certain determination combined with structural
factors, gender socialization, upbringing, certain events, coincidences, gender roles within
the household. More research is needed to uncover the intrinsic entanglement of these
dimensions to inform policy making to enable the gender gap to be addresses.
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