THE ETHIOPIAN JOURNAL OF QUALITY AND RELEVANT
HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING
JOURNAL OF RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE
VOL. 1 No. 3
ISSN 2224-5340
June 2014
COPYRIGHT @ RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, ADAMA
©
RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, ADAMA, ETHIOPIA
______________________________________________________________________
1
Volume 1
Number 3
ISSN 2224-5340
June 2014
_________________________________________________________________________________
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor- in- Chief:
Associate Editor
Associate Editor:
Associate Editor:
Language Editor:
Haileleul Zeleke (PhD)
Fekadu Lemessa (PhD)
Derebsa Dufera (Prof.)
Ziyn Engdasew (PhD)
Kassa Abera Telila (Ato)
BOARD OF ADVISORS
Dr. Mulatu Djote
Dr. Ayele Abebe
Dr. Birhanu Mathews
Dr. Gezahegn Gurmu
Prof. Deepti Gupta
Dr. Getachew Seyoum
Prof. Sarala Kirshna Murthy
Dr. Birhanu Mogus
Rift Valley University College
Adama Science and Technology University
Addis Ababa University
Adama Science and Technology University
Punjab University, Chandigarh, India
Jima University, Jima
Polytechnic Institute of the University of Namibia
Adama Science and Technology University
2
SSN 2224-5340
RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
The Ethiopian Journal of Quality and
Relevant Higher Education and Training
VOLUME 1
NUMBER 3
June
2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Emergency ontraception
(ECP) among Female Students, in Rift Valley and Central
University College, Adama Campuses. ...................................4
2.
Ato Temesgen File
Assessment of Sexual Coercion among Private University
College Female Students in Adama Town, Eastern Showa,
Oromyia Region.......................................................................... .25
3.
W/ro Meyrema Abdo
Prevalence of Substance use and its determinants among Rift
Valley University College Students in Adama, Ethiopia ......55
4.
Ato Mustefa Ahmed
Entrepreneurial Intent of Graduating Students: A Case of Rift
Valley University College Adama Main Campus .................70
5.
Ms Wubitu Elias
The Role Of Social Clubs in Improvement of Higher
Education Quality .................................................................99
6.
Ato Wubetu Mesele
Assessment of the Gap Between Competency Required and
Competency Acquired among Graduate Accounting
Students
----------------------------------------------------112
7.
Ato Mekonnen Soboka
Guide to Authors of the Ethiopian Journal of Quality and
Relevant Higher Education and Training…
3
123
1.
KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE, AND PRACTICE OF EMMERGENCY
CONTRACEPTIVE PILLS (ECP)AMOUNG FEMALE STUDENTS
IN RIFT VALLEY AND CENTRAL UNIVERSITY COLLEGES,
ADAMA CAMPUSES
* Temesgen File
Abstract
The essential component of human development are; long and healthy life,
acquire knowledge and to have access to resources needed for decent standard
of living. Reproductive Health (RH) is the key component of human
development, since achievements in RH outcomes; suitably address the issue of
poverty reduction.
In Ethiopia, maternal mortality rate is very high. The major reason for this is not
only the unmet need of modern contraception, but also the knowledge, attitude
and practice-gaps on contraception methods like emergency contraceptives. An
emergency contraceptive refers to methods that women can use to prevent
pregnancy after unprotected sexual intercourse or incorrect use of other
contraceptive methods. Unwanted pregnancy and unsafe abortion can be
avoided by using different contraceptive methods in general and emergence
contraceptives in particular. Its wide spread availability and use can
significantly reduce a number of abortion related morbidity and mortality.
The objective of this research is to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice
of emergence contraception among female students in Rift Valley and Central
University Colleges.
Methods: A cross sectional study was used by using self administered
questionnaire. And interview guide was also used to collect feedback from
pharmacists working in private pharmacies in Adama town. In addition, FGD
with senior students and young female instructors were also used to enrich the
data.
Result: The major finding of this research shows
 The knowledge on ECP among girls at the University Colleges was
poor.
 Although most girls are familiar with ECP, they have lack of positive
attitudes and scientific practices on ECP use.
4
Key Words: Attitude, Emergency Contraception, Knowledge, Practice
1.
Background
Development can be defined as a process of upward directional movement of
society, from lesser to greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality, productivity,
complexity,
comprehension,
creativity,
mastery,
enjoyment
and
accomplishment. For development to be sustainable it must be conceived as a
multi dimensional process. The essential component of development agenda is
the human aspect of development. This include; long and healthy life, Acquire
knowledge and to have access to resources needed for decent standard of living
(IGNOU 2008, Sociology of Development)
Reproductive health (RH) is a key facet of human development. Because, Poor
reproductive health outcomes include; early pregnancies, unintended
pregnancies, High fertility rate, poorly managed obstetric complications. These
adversely affect opportunities for poor women and their family to escape from
poverty. Thus, Productivity of the current and next generation is affected due to
inadequate health (high morbidity rate, high mortality rate and high rate of
malnutrition). On the other hand, improved RH outcomes results; lower fertility
rate and thus meet individuals/couples fertility needs, improved pregnancy
outcomes, lower STDs, increase individual, family, and social benefits, promotes
healthy and more productive work force, promotes greater resource share for
each child. (World Bank,2010).
Effective and efficient family planning enable people to attain desired number
of children, determine the spacing of pregnancies and thus enjoy healthy life.
This can be achieved through the use of contraceptive methods and treatment of
infertility (WHO, 2012).
Family planning is therefore; the low cost, simple and life saving, best
investment a country can make, thus, it reduces the risks related to unsafe
abortion, reinforces women’s right to determine the number and spacing of
children, and improves their well being and health, it also reduces the rates of
unintended pregnancy risks of early child bearing, it also reduces the risk of
unsafe abortion, infant mortality, helps to prevent HIV/AIDS, empowers women
and enhances education, and regulates population growth.
5
In Africa, 53% of women of reproductive age have unmet need of modern
contraception. In Asia and Latin America the level of unmet need is about 21%.
(WHO,2012)
Reasons for such Global unmet need according to WHO include:






limited choice of methods
limited access to contraception, particularly among young people,
poorer segments of populations, or unmarried people
fear or experience of side-effects
cultural or religious opposition
poor quality of available services
Gender-based barriers.
Tertiary school age is commonly the age of high sexual desire and activity. But,
due to the unmet need of modern contraception methods and the knowledge,
attitude and practice gaps, unintended pregnancy and chance of getting infected
with HIV/AIDS is becoming a major challenge of reproductive health of young
adults.
To address such unmet need, in addition to making contraception more readily
available, it is also essential that women be educated about the medication; how
it works, where it s available, how to take it properly to prevent pregnancy.
Because, different research works confirmed that teaching young people about
contraception; does not increase sexual activity, does not, hasten the onset of
sex; does not increase frequency of sex, and does not increase number of sexual
partner (NARAL, 2012)
Among the various forms of contraception, emergency contraceptives (EC) are
only one that can be used after sexual intercourse; offering a second chance to
prevent unwanted pregnancy, it is used if sexual abuse happen, miss use of other
contraception it prevent unintended pregnancy, and unintended child birth or
unsafe abortion. (International Consortium for EC,2004)
There are two types of ECs; Emergency Contraceptive pills and Intra-Uterine
Devices (IUDs).
6


The pills include combined oral contraceptive pills (COCs) which is
75% effective, and Progestogen only pills (POPs), 85% effective. These
regiments are referred to as ECPs
IUDs can be effective if it is inserted within 5 days of unprotected
sexual intercourse.
Regarding the mechanism of action, ECPs interfere with follicle maturation,
ovulation process, cervical mucus, sperm migration, Corpus luteum
sufficiency, endometrial receptivity, fertilization, and implantation. (WHO,
2004).
In Ethiopia, currently Emergency Contraceptive pills Levonorgestrel tablet
commonly called (Postpill) is available in pharmacies for sale without
prescription. Postpill is recommended as a onetime contraceptive method
following unprotected sexual intercourse. It is neither recommended for
regular use as contraceptive nor is it effective in terminating an already
existing pregnancy. Therefore, serious precaution should be taken in using
an Emergency Contraceptive pills.
2.
Statement of the Problem
There is unexpected discrepancy between modern contraceptive services and
high levels of unwanted pregnancy and unsafe abortion on the other. According
to the study by World Health Organization (WHO) the reason for this is; societal
change caused by rapid industrialization and urbanization lead to loosening of
family ties and erosion of traditional sanctions that inhibited premarital sexual
activity. Younger age of menarche, combined with delayed age of marriage, and
adolescents are increasingly forced to learn & exercise sexual activities from
their peers and mass media. (WHO, 2004)
3.
Significance of the Study
The study was designed to investigate the prevailing knowledge, attitude and
practice of ECPs and related gaps among female students in RVUC and CUC.
From the finding of this research one can learn the status of knowledge, attitude
and practice of students towards using ECPs. The finding of this research can
also show us the real picture ECPs utilization by tertiary school girls.
7
Government and Non Governmental organisations working in this area will get
important information that will help them to address the gaps. By using the
finding of this research similar studies could also be promoted.
4.
Aim of the Study
The study was aimed at identifying a plausible strategy for reducing
unwanted pregnancies and the associated morbidity and mortality by proper
use of ECPs as the risk of unintended pregnancy among young women
particularly students is high.
5.
Literature Review
An estimated 222 million women in developing countries would like to delay or
stop childbearing but are not using any method of contraception. (WHO,2012).
Moreover, lack of knowledge, positive attitude and scientific practices on
contraceptives even worsen the reproductive health problems particularly in
developing country like Ethiopia. WHO estimated that 84 million unwanted
pregnancies occur annually worldwide. On average, 46 million abortions take
place every year, out of which 20 million are performed under unsafe
conditions.70 thousand women die yearly as a consequence of unsafe abortion,
while 5 million suffer permanent or temporary disability. Approximately 13% of
pregnancy-related mortality worldwide is due to unsafe abortions and the
majority of these deaths (and morbidity) occur in low-and-middle income
countries. An important proportion of maternal deaths worldwide are attributable
to induced unsafe abortion: Asia (20–25%), Africa (30–50%) and Russia (25–
30%). (WHO,1994: 115). This shows that, in Ethiopia too unsafe abortion
causes high number of maternal morbidity and mortality.
Many low income countries continue to have high fertility, and high rate of
unmet need for contraceptive services, and very high maternal mortality which
negatively affect Millennium Development Goal for maternal health. In addition,
improved RH outcomes, lower STIs, have broader individual, family, and
societal benefits, including healthier and more productive work force (World
Bank 2010)
8
Research works show that high rate of sexual activities as well as limited
knowledge and use of contraceptives among secondary and undergraduate
students (Ogbuli, 2005, in International journal of medicine and medical
Sciences, vol. 2, 2010). In developing countries like Ethiopia, such mismatch
inevitably leads to serious reproductive health associated problems. There are no
absolute contraindications to the use of emergency hormonal contraception
except known pregnancy, and this is because it is ineffective. (SOGC,2003)
In Ethiopia, (15-60%) adolescent pregnancies are unwanted or unintended;
resulting from unprotected sexual intercourse. (Ethiopian Journal of Public
Health, vol.3, 2009). To address this problem serious emphasis must be made
not only to provide family planning services but also, proper orientation and
counselling of the users to bring, attitudinal change which enable them to
scientifically practice contraceptive services for maximum benefit.
Survey has been conducted in Ethiopia for the purpose of coital dependent
contraception methods since the sexual practice of unsafe abortion is a major
medical and public health problem in the country. Ethiopia has a high incidence
of unwanted pregnancies and incomplete unsafe /septic abortions (Ethiopian
journal of reproductive health, 2007). The knowledge, positive attitude and
practice of family planning methods in general and that of Emergency
contraception in particular are therefore, very important to reduce unintended
pregnancy, abortion cases, maternal mortality and morbidity.
Consequences of unprotected sex such as unintended pregnancy and unsafe
abortion can be prevented by accessing contraceptive services including ECs.
(International consortium for EC,2004). History of emergency contraceptive
dates back to the 1960's when physicians in the Netherlands administered
estrogens extracts to 13 years old girl who had been raped in mid cycle.
(Charlotte E. 1996, in Tatek T, Tizita T, and Eshetu G,2011).
Levonorgestrel – progestin only pills (morning after pills) are available as a
dedicated product in most parts of the world and has been a popular method of
preventing pregnancy after unprotected sexual intercourse. Levenorgestrel
Tablets progestin only pill (POP) and combined oral contraceptives (COCs) are
the common emergency contraceptives. ECPs are believed to reduce the chance
of unwanted pregnancy effectiveness by 52-94%. (WHO, 2012). Since it is
9
difficult to determine the infertility time of the cycle with certainty, ECP better
be provided to any women who is concerned about her risk of pregnancy
regardless of the cycle day of exposure. (Gracy A,Dunkl K 1993, in Ethiopian
journal of Health Sciences vol 20, no 2, 2010).
ECP is a drug administered after unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy. It is also
known as “post coital contraception”, less effective than regular contraception,
and it is intended for occasional or emergency as back up use only and not as a
regular contraception (Van Look, 1993:49, in Ethiopian journal of Public Health,
2009). Emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs) are hormonal methods of
contraceptive that can be used to prevent pregnancy after unprotected or
inadequately protected act of sexual intercourse. Progesterone only pills (POPs)
is an Emergency Contraceptive Pills used up to 120 hours. The pill containing
0.75 mg of levonorgestrel. Emergency contraceptives are not effective once
implantation has occurred. ECPs do not cause an abortion. (SOGC,2003). In
developing country like Ethiopia; adolescent sexual practices are mainly
unplanned and irregular. Hence, coital dependent contraception need to be
promoted. But, due to the lack of awareness on the nature of this drug & secret
nature of sexual practices among youngsters, there is strong assumption that the
drug might be misused or not as such used. Advantages of Emergency
Contraceptive Pills (ECPs) include; it works within 120 hours. But, the earlier
used the better efficacy. It is used when no contraceptive has been used, or
contraceptive accident or misuse happened, failed coitus interrupts or when
sexual assault occurred. (DKT, 2012)
Some of the reported side effects are; change in bleeding pattern including
slightly irregular bleeding for 1-2 days after taking postpills, monthly bleeding
that starts earlier or later than expected, nausea, abdominal pain, fatigue,
headache, breast tenderness, dizziness, and vomiting. This short term side effects
are not serious and they are easily managed without medical supervision.
(NARAL,2012)
According to the study conducted in Addis Ababa (Addis Ababa University &
Unity University), in 2007, 43% of the respondent heard ECP, 53% of them had
positive attitude towards ECs, and 4.9% of them used EC.(Wegene Tamire and
Fikire Enkusilassie, 2005). The study conducted in Bahir Dar University
(Ethiopia) in 2009, 83.5% heard about EC, only 36.6% responded to be correct
timing of using ECP. And 96.4% were not well aware of conditions that EC can
10
be used. Of those who practiced unsafe sex 73.4% used EC (Ethiopian journal of
Public Health, 2009)
In addition to making ECP more readily available, it is also essential that women
be educated about the medication, how it works, and where it s available, and
how to take it properly to prevent pregnancy. So, they can make responsible
decision.
6. Research Methodology
I.
Quantitative Method; A descriptive cross sectional study (survey) was
conducted among female students in Rift Valley & Central University Colleges,
both located in Adama/ Ethiopia. These University Colleges (UCs) were
selected as the study site for the following reason;
 Some of the students live with their families while others independently
live in rent houses.
 Students (boys & girls) have sufficient opportunity to stay together not
only in the university College Campuses, but also outside the campus
including their own house and elsewhere.
Sample
size
determination
through
table
Morgan (1970) was used for the study. S=
designed
𝑥 2 𝑁𝑃(1−𝑃)
𝐷2 (N−1)
by
Krejeie
and
2
+ 𝑥 𝑃(1 − 𝑃)
Where;
S= Sample size, 𝑥 2 = Table value of Chi-square for 1 degree of freedom,
N= Population size, P= Population proportion, D= degree of accuracy
According to the table system of sample size determination, from the known
population size, the sample size can be calculated or the calculated sample size
can be used from the table as shown below.
S.N
Population size
Sample size
1
1400
302
2.
1500
306
3.
1600
310
4.
1700
313
5.
1800
317
6.
1900
320
7.
2000
11
For this study, from a total of 1648 (RVUC) and 150 (CUC) female student
population, total 1798 were used. For the total of 1798 female student
population, 340 sample were taken. i.e. (317 sample size + 23 contingency = 340
sample).This is about 18.9% of the total population sample.
First departments having substantial proportion of female students were selected
for the study from all faculties. After orienting the respondents on the objectives
of the research by the researcher & selected staff members, verbal consent was
obtained from the participant students.
Consensus was also made with the respondents on the need to keep the
confidentiality of their response while filing the questionnaire. Stratified random
sampling technique was used to select respondents. After filling the
questionnaire the respondents properly placed their response in a special box
prepared by the researcher for this study.
II.
Qualitative Method; by using Interview and Focus Group Discussion
were also be held to supplement the data collected by Quantitative method.
7. Research Tools
The Data was collected by using the following tools;



Self administered Questionnaire having a total of Fifty two (52) questions
were designed in such a way that they assess knowledge, attitude and
practice and administered to gather data from female student at RVUC and
CUC, Adama campuses. The questionnaire was first developed in English,
after pre - testing it was translated in to Amharic for convenience of the
respondents.
Interview checklist developed and administered for pharmacist working in
private pharmacies, private drug stores, and a nurse working at Youth
Centre in Adama .
Focus Group discussions with selected senior health faculty students and
young female instructors were also conducted by using FGD checklists to
supplement the data collected
Data collected were organized in the way that is used for analysis and
interpretation to arrive at conclusions
12
8. Results
All responses were obtained from the total of 329, of which (277 were from
RVUC & 52 from CUC). This made response rate 96.7%.
Table1. Socio Demographic and Academic characteristics, among female
students at RVUC and CUC; Adama,
S.N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
7
8
9
10
Characteristics
Faculty

Health stream

Non Health stream
Study Program

TVET

Degree
Duration of the study year

3 years

4 years
Current year of study

1st

2nd

3rd
Age

15-19

20-24

≥25
Marital Status

Single

Married

Divorced

Widowed

No response
Number of Children (for those who married)

None

One

Two & above

No response
Place of Origin

Rural

Urban

No response
Religion

Orthodox

Protestant

Muslim

Waaqeffata

Others
Nation

Amhara

Oromo

SPNN

Tigre

Afar

Somali

No response
13
Number
Percentage
164
165
49.8
50.2
140
189
42.6
57.4
234
95
71.1
28.9
94
98
136
28..7
29.9
41.4
74
187
39
24.7
62.3
13.0
253
58
7
4
7
76.9
17.7
2.1
1.2
1.1
16
16
16
12
26.6
26.6
26.6
20.0
100
221
6
30.6
67.6
1.8
162
69
68
8
22
49.3
20.9
20.7
2.4
6.7
100
119
56
11
5
1
37
30.4
36.2
17.02
3.3
1.5
0.3
11.2
The socio demographic characteristics of the respondents as shown in Table 1,
reveals that;



164 [49.8%], from health science stream.
165[50.2%] from non health stream.
Both TVET 140 [42.6%] and Degree189 [57.4%] were covered in the
study.
Age structure of respondents shows;

74 [24.7%] in 15-19 years of age;

187 [62.3%] in the age of 20-24 years;

[13%] were above 25 years of age.
Marital status
•
The majority 253 [76.9%] were single, 58 [17.7%] married, Few of
them divorced 7 [2.1%], and 4[1.2%] widowed.
•
16 [26.6%] of those who married have no children while 32[53.3%] of
them have at least one child.
•
221 [67.6%] of the respondents and 100 [30.6%] were lived in urban
and rural respectively.
Place of origin; the majority 221[67.6%] urban, and 100[30.6] were rural.
Concerning religion; 162[49.3] Orthodox, 69[20.9%] Protestant and 68[20.7%]
were Muslims.
14
Table 2. Response of female students on specific information on sexual practice of the
respondents in RVUC and CUC, Adama campuses,
S.N
Specific Information
Respondents
1.
Age at which you first
practiced sex

Below 15 years

15-19

After 20

No response
Your first sexual practice

By agreement

By force
Are you ever pregnant?

Yes

No
Age of first pregnancy

Below 15

15-19

After 20
329
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Have you ever encountered
unintended pregnancy

Yes

No
Have
you
practised
abortion?

Yes

No
How many times you
practised abortion?

Once

Twice

More than two
times
How your abortion was
conducted?

Self inflicted
 By Medical Professional

Untrained
abortionist

No response
Do you know emergence
contraceptive pills (post
pills)?

Yes

No
What was your first source
of information on ECPs?

Friends

Media

School curriculum

News paper and
magazines

Others
195
195
93
Response
rate
Percentage
21
94
80
134
6.4
28.6
24.3
40.7
158
37
81
19.0
93
102
47.7
52.3
9
46
38
9.7
49.5
40.8
68
25
73.1
26.9
67
26
72
18
41
15
11
61.2
22.4
16.4
10
41
12
14.7
60.3
17.6
5
7.4
265
46
85.2
14.8
79
130
49
4
29.2
48.2
18.2
1.5
8
2.9
93
93
67
68
311
270
15
Data (Table 2) on specific information on sexual practices shows;



21 [6.4%] first practised sex at the age of 15 or
below.
94 [28.6%] first practised sex at the age of 15-19,
80[24.3%] in the age of 20th.
First pregnancy status by age;

9 [9.7%] for those girls below the age of 15

46 [49.5%] pregnancy was recorded for the age group between 15-19
years.

38 [40.8%] for those above 20 years.

Rate of unintended Pregnancy 68 (73.1% of those who were ever
pregnant)

Abortion cases 67[72% of those who were ever pregnant] and 98.5% of
those who faced unintended pregnancy.

Regarding the awareness on Emergency Contraceptive pill 265 [85.2%]
of the respondents heard the accessibility of ECP and 46 [14.8%] have
no awareness about the accessibility of ECP. The source of their first
knowledge on the accessibility of ECP is Electronic Media like TV 130
[48.2%], Friends 79 [29.2%], and School Curriculum 49 [18.2%], &
News paper and magazines accounts 4 [1.5%]. However, from this data
one can conclude that none of these sources significantly played an
overriding role in raising the awareness female students. The
contribution of electronic media and peers in creating awareness on the
availability and accessibility of ECP is more important.
From this finding one can also learn that the school curriculum failed to
serve the intended purpose in raising the awareness, attitude and
scientific practices of ECP

16
Table 3: Response of female students on knowledge questions towards ECP in
RVUC & CUC, Adama campuses, with major emphasis on when to use ECP?
S.N
Knowledge question
on when to use ECP?
1.
Frequency &
Percentage of
Correct
response
210(63.8%)
Frequency &
Percentage of
In
correct
response
68(20.7%)
I
don’t
know
When sex performed
51(15.5%)
without
family
planning. N=329
2.
If condom rapture 202(61.4%)
50(15.2%)
77(23.4%)
during sex. N=329
3
If there is rape. N=329 228(69.3%)
43(13.06%)
58(17.6)
4.
Recommended time to 102(31.4%)
165(50.8%)
58(17.8%)
use
emergence
contraception. N=325
5.
Recommended
77(23.9%)
185(57.5%)
60 (18.6)
number of doses. N=
322
6.
Recommended time 105(32.5%)
176(54.5%)
42 (13%)
between doses. N=323
Data collected (Table 3) to assess status of knowledge on when to use ECP
shows that higher proportion of the respondents 210 (63.8%) know when to use
ECP. i.e. if sex is performed without family planning 202(61.4%), if condom
raptures during sex 228 (69.3%), if forced sex like rape happen.
But, surprisingly the majority of the respondents either incorrectly responded or
don’t know;
1.
2.
3.
The recommended time to use ECP 223 (68.4%)
Recommended number of dose 245 (76%), and
Recommended time between doses218 (67.4%).
Consequently, the researcher concluded that even though most of the
respondents seem to have heard about ECP, the information was incomplete. As
a result, female students were not aware of the recommended time to use ECP,
the recommended number of doses, and the recommended time between the
doses. Thus, as shown in the results knowledge of what constitutes ECP among
female students was poor.
17
Table 4 Comparative analysis of the response of health faculty & non health
faculty female students on knowledge questions towards ECP in RVUC and
CUC, Adama campuses,
Knowledge question; when to use
ECP?
1.
2.
3
4.
5.
6.
When sex performed without
family planning. (N=281)
If condom rapture during sex.
(N=258)
If there is rape.
(N= 277)
Recommended time to use
emergence
contraception(N=306)
Recommended number of dose
(N= 283)
Recommended time between
dose(N=307)
Frequency and Percentage of Correct
response
Health Faculty
Non
Health
Faculty
116(41.3%)
92( 32.7%)
116(44.9%)
84(32.5%)
121(43.7%)
106(38.3%)
81 (26.5%)
73(23.8%)
47(16.6%)
44(15.5%)
64(20.8%)
55(17.9%)
From the (Table 4), one can understand that health faculty students have to some
extent better knowledge of ECP thus, higher proportion of correct responses
were noted when compared with those students from other faculties. 26 (7.9%)
of the respondents from health faculty have taken courses related to reproductive
health. This might be the reason for relatively better knowledge shown in the
study.
18
Table 5: Response on attitude questions towards ECP for female students in
RVUC and CUC, Adama campuses
S.N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11
Attitude Question
Family planning is
very important
If
I
encountered
unintended
sexual
intercourse, I would
use
emergence
contraception.
If a close friend or
relatives
have
encountered
unintended
sexual
intercourse I would
advise her to use
emergence
contraception
Wide spread use of
emergence
contraception will not
increase
the
prevalence
of
HIV/AIDS and other
STDs.
Emergence
contraception will not
promote promiscuity
Emergence
contraception is not a
means of abortion.
I
want to use
Emergence
contraception
b/c
with proper use it has
less side effects.
Emergence
contraceptives cannot
be used
as a
substitute of other
contraception.
Emergence
contraception reduces
mortality
and
morbidity of females’
related to unwanted
pregnancy.
My religion did not
greatly influence my
knowledge on family
planning.
Grand Mean
Likert Scale analysis
Agree (3)
Abstain(2)
Disagree(1)
270x3=810
10x2=20
4x1=4
Mean
2.9
214x3=642
26x2=52
13x1=13
2.7
209x3=627
29x2=58
24x1=24
2.7
109x3=327
64x2=128
91x1=91
2.1
126x3=378
76x2=156
58x1=58
2.3
141x3=423
54x2=108
53x1=53
2.3
119x3=357
74x2=148
60x1=60
2.2
130x3=390
66x2=132
62x1=62
2.3
174x3=522
34x2=68
45x1=45
2.5
167x3=501
59x2=118
49x1=49
2.4
2.4
19
From this statistical data it seems reasonable to set level of agreement. The mean
score closer to the value allocated to the abstainers, were not having positive
attitude to the given variable. Accordingly, the researcher was convinced to set
the statistical mean above the grand mean (2.4) on each parameter as agreement
or positive attitude. But, for the mean score less than the grand mean as
disagreement or Gap in attitude. Likewise, the following Gaps were noted in the
study. Some respondents agreed that availability and use of ECP favour the
prevalence of HIV/AIDS [2.1]; it promotes promiscuity [2.3], with proper use
ECPs have side effects [2.2], ECP is an abortificant [2.3], it can be used as a
substitute of other contraception [2.3], and still some respondents have an
attitude that their religion influenced their knowledge on family planning [2.4].
And again, when the attitude of respondents of the three major religions
separately analysed whether their own religion greatly influenced their
knowledge on family planning, more influence were noted for Muslims [with
mean average of 2.26], and less influence for Orthodox [ mean average of 2.5]
&Protestants [mean average 2.52] religions.
Table 6: Response of female student respondents on practice questions towards
ECPs in RVUC & CUC, Adama campuses,
Types of contraceptives
Total Number
of users
Percentage
Total
Number
of
multiple contraceptive
users
Pills
49
17.0
67 (23.2%)
IUD
11
3.8
Implants
8
2.7
Injectables
62
21.5
ECPs
98
34.0
Male Condom
60
20.8
Total Contraceptive users
221 (76.7%)
With reference to the practice questions (Table 5), ECPs is largely 98[34.0%]
used among the contraceptive users, followed by injectables [21.5%] and male
condom [20.8%]. Among ECPs users 57[58.2%] of them responded that they
used it frequently. However, repeated use of the drug is associated with less
effectiveness, but having more side effects than the regular contraceptives.
20
9. Discussion
From the findings, 265 (85.2%) of the respondents were aware of ECPs. The
major source of their knowledge as revealed in the study was media and their
friends. From FGD the participants strongly agreed that the existing sources of
information were not sufficient in developing basic knowledge, positive attitude
and the scientific practice of family planning methods in general and ECP in
particular. And the first sexual practices either by force or agreement can be
summarized as; 21(6.4%) at the age of below 15 years, 94(28.6%) at the age of
15-19 years and 80(24%) in the age of 20th
From all age group who exercised unsafe sex 68(73.1%) encountered their first
unintended pregnancy and related challenges. The reason for the occurrence of
such unintended pregnancy was mainly due to the lack of adequate information
on contraceptives in general and ECP in particular. As noted in the FGD some of
the religious teaching also negatively influenced the contraceptive use at least
among the married ones.
Wide spread use of ECPs without adequate knowledge and positive attitude
inevitably favour the transmission of HIV/AIDS, occurrences of unintended
pregnancy, induced abortion, maternal mortality and morbidity.
Interview results and FGDs have also shown that, high school and tertiary school
girls commonly acquire ECPs particularly from private pharmacies without;



Correctly naming it,
Properly requesting counselling services on when and how to use it,
Requesting Possible side effects,
 Knowing how it works for the intended purpose, and related
precautions.
As it was noted during the interview the users did not want to interact with the
service providers on how to use ECPs safely and effectively. And users of ECP
as noted in the interview young girls did not show interest to take the postpill
pack to their home. Instead, some of them even swallow the full dose at once
while still they are in the pharmacy. And, others take the tablet strip alone and
throw the pack with the enclosed instructions.
21
This finding was an indicative of the possible knowledge gap on ECPs use
observed in the study and the timing and dose needed for maximum
effectiveness. Although ECPs is not recommended as a regular contraceptive
among contraceptive users, 57 (58.2%) of them responded that they used it
frequently. Interview results conducted also confirmed that the demand for ECPs
was increasing. From the attitude test by using the Likert scale shows that Less
proportion (2.3 average mean) of the respondents had an attitude that ECPs was
not a substitute of the regular contraceptives.
This knowledge gap, negatively affect the attitude and proper practice of ECPs
use. Thus ECPs may fail to serve the intended purpose unless otherwise actions
are taken by all the concerned parties to address the gaps.
IUD can also serve as EC, when inserted within five days of un protected sexual
intercourse. But, as it is revealed in FGD most of the UC girls were not aware of
this. The practice of IUD is limited only to few married UC students alone.
.
10. Conclusions
The findings of the study showed that; although female students were generally
positive to family planning in general and ECs in particular; the knowledge on
ECPs among girls at the UCs was poor. They had lack scientific knowledge of
when and how to use ECPs effectively. They also had lack positive attitudes and
proper practice as revealed in the study. Female students in the faculty of health
sciences have slightly more positive attitude when compared with students of
other faculties. An increasing demand of Emergency Contraceptive Pills as
noted in the interview & Focus Group Discussion and its repeated use among
Emergency Contraceptive Pill users not only decrease its effectiveness in
preventing unintended pregnancy, but also exacerbates its side effects.
22
11. Recommendations
I.
Policy level
To improve reproductive health outcomes; Policy makers must ensure that
the school curricula provide an overriding role in developing the knowledge,
attitude and proper practice of contraceptives in general and emergency
contraceptive pills in particular. In addition, broader media coverage like
TV, Radio, Bulletin, Magazines, News papers can be well organized and
consistently used in such a way that it can develop awareness on
reproductive health related matters. Regular monitoring and evaluation of
the available services are also decisive for enhancement actions to be
undertaken.
II. Program Levels
Different government and non governmental agencies working in the health
sector should strengthen their commitment and address the issues of
Reproductive Health. This can be achieved through effective planning and
implementing awareness raising programs particularly for young girls by using
public gathering, mass media, school clubs like girls club, youth centres, etc.
Promoting similar research work can also play a great role in addressing the
issues of Reproductive Health.
12. REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
British Medical Journal of Public Health: February, 2012: Assessing
Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice on Emergency Contraceptives. U.K
DKT (2012) http://www.Hosted by Habesha.net.
DKT
(2012)
http://www.Post
pill
Emergency
Contraceptive,
Levonorgestrel: hosted by Habesha.net
EJ Kongnyuy and Ngassa: March, 2005: A survey of knowledge, Attitudes
and Practice of emergency contraception among university students in
Cameroon,
Ethiopian Journal of reproductive health (2007), 1(1):28-43, Addis Ababa
Ethiopian Journal of Public Health, May 2009, Volume 3, Addis Ababa
Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences, July 2010, Volume 20, no 2, Addis
Ababa
23
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Fauzia Nausheen, Javed Iqbal,Biomedica Vol 20, December
2004,Emergency Contraception: Knowledge, Attitude and
Practices of the General Practitioner, Lahor
IGNOU (2008), Sociology of Development, New Delhi.
International Consortium for Emergency Contraceptives (2004):2,5 Medical
& service delivery Guideline: Washington, DC.
International Journal of medicine and Medical Sciences, vol 2, 2010).
Krejeie and Morgan (1970), Social Research, 2nd edition, Sotirious
Sarantakos, Charles Sturt University, Australia
NARAL (2012), Pro Choice America, USA
SOGC (2003) Clinical Practice Guideline, Canada
Tatek Tesfaye, Tizita Tilahun and Eshetu Girma, 2011,
Knowledge, attitude and practice of emergency contraceptive
among women who seek abortion care at Jimma University
specialized hospital, Jimma, Ethiopia
West Indian Medical Journal, vol.59 no.6 Mona Dec. 2010: Knowledge,
attitude and practice of emergency contraceptive pills among tertiary level
students, Trinidad,
Wegene Tamire & Fikire Enquesilassie, September 2005
Knowledge, attitude and practice of emergency contraceptive
pills among female University Students in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia
World Health Organization (WHO) (1994) A Tabulation of Available Data
on the Frequency and Mortality of Unsafe abortion. 2 nd ed. Geneva
World Health Organization (WHO) (2004:2): Issues in Adolescent Health
and Development, Geneva.
The World Bank (2010): Reproductive Health Action Plan
(2010-2015), Geneva
World Health Organization (WHO): July, 2012: Emergency Contraceptive
Fact Sheet N°244, Geneva
World Health Organization (WHO): July, 2012, Family planning Fact sheet
N°351, Geneva
24
2.
ASSESSMENT OF SEXUAL COERCION AMONG PRIVATE
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE FEMALE STUDENTS IN ADAMA TOWN,
OROMIYA REGION
Meyrema Abdo
ABSTRACT
Sexual coercion refers to a range of experiences that compel a person to have
sex against her or his will. The general objective of this study is to assess the
prevalence and factors associated with sexual coercion among private university
college female students in Adama town, Oromiya region. A quantitative facilitybased cross sectional study supplemented with qualitative inquiry was employed.
Among the total of 422 school girls included into the study, 129 (30.8%) have
boyfriend and 60(14.2%) already initiated sexual activity at the time of survey at
the mean age of 20 years old. Out of these subjects, 28(6.7%) have started
sexual intercourse in a marriage, 11(2.6%) personal desire/love and 6(1.4 %) of
them due to promising words, 6(1.4%) for financial purpose and 4(1.1%) by
force against their consent, respectively.
In multivariate analysis factors like respondents having boyfriends, marital
status of the respondents, respondent’s substance uses are predictor’s of sexual
coercion. Parents related factors like students living alone without guardians,
being supported in finance by husband and boyfriends, lower average monthly
income were also significantly associated with sexual coercion.
From these results, it is concluded that Sexual violence is a complex and wide
spread problem on the victims and it is also a hidden obstacle to the economic
and social development. As sexual violence against university college female
student is pervasive, efforts must be taken by University College, female affairs
and regional government to tackle the problem and promote harassment-free
environment for young girls will be recommended.
KEYWORD: Females Violence, Sexual Coercions, Harassments.
25
1. INTRODUCTION
Violence against women includes any act of gender-based violence that results
in physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering to women. It includes
threats or such acts, as coercion or personal deprivation of liberty, whether
occurring in public or private life (WHO, 2002). Sexual coercion refers to a
range of experiences that compel a person to have sex against her or his will.
These experiences include the use of violence, threats, verbal insistence,
deception, cultural expectations or economic circumstances and the consequence
is a lack of choice to pursue other options without severe social or physical
consequences. It also includes a wide range of behaviours from violent forcible
rape to more contested areas such as cultural expectations that require young
women to marry and sexually service men not of their choosing (Erulkar, 2004).
Sexual violence and coercion compromises a significant component of overall
violence against women even though evidence remains limited due to fear of
stigma. There is high link between coercive sex and adverse reproductive health
outcomes such as unintended pregnancy, non-use of contraception, unsafe
abortion, gynecological morbidity and HIV/AIDS. A number of factors that may
increase the vulnerability of women in particular to sexual violence include
young age, alcohol and drug consumption, previous experiences of abuse,
multiple partner relations and poverty. Research has explored the types of
structural and environmental factors that put young people at greater risk of
sexual coercion, including poverty, societal norms that support sexual violence
and gender inequity, early marriage, inadequate educational and health systems,
and ineffective laws and policies (Martin et al., 2004). School-related gender-based
violence in developing countries takes place in a context of gender inequality and specific
cultural beliefs and attitudes about gender roles, especially those concerning male and
female sexuality, a pattern of economic inequality, and in some instances significant
26
political unrest and violent conflict. This context is critical to a fuller understanding of the
health and educational implications and consequences of gender violence in schools. Due
to this reason for many young women, the most common place where sexual coercion and
harassment are experienced is in the school (WHO, 2002). In Ethiopia, girls are denied
freedom of movement and are afraid of moving or walking alone in broad day
light even in the streets of big cities like Addis Ababa. Rape which was rarely
reported in the past is being reported and some of the particular cases are
horrible. In the context of the Ethiopian situation sexual coercion is a major
problem and there are few studies on prevalence and factors contributed to
sexual coercion. Especially in eastern part of the country there was no study was
conducted on sexual coercion. Most of the data was based on planning and
implementation of WHO report, police report and different health office reports.
This study is expected to provide information about sexual coercion among
public high school female students in the region. This study was used to provide
valuable information on the existing magnitude and factors associated with
sexual coercion among female students in town. It is helps as base line
information which will help policy makers, organizations and communities
working with adolescents to design intervention measures, to protect and serve
these young women in the region.
This study took place in Private University colleges of Adama town. These are
University colleges where female students from different geographical area and
socio-economic background attend. The potential for exposure to sexual
coercion appears to be high. This study area was chosen since the study subjects
are more mature in age than primary and secondary school students and may
possibly differentiate coercion from normal affection and may give a better
response to the questions. Thus this study was used to provide valuable
information on the existing magnitude and factors contributing with sexual
coercion among female students. The general objective of this study are to assess
27
the prevalence and factors associated with sexual coercion among private
University college’s female students in Adama town, from April, 2013 to
August, 2013.
The specific objectives were:
1.
To determine the prevalence of sexual coercion among private
University Colleges female students in Adama town, from April, 2013
to August, 2013.
2.
To assess factors associated with sexual coercion among private
University Colleges female students in Adama town, from April, 2013
to August, 2013.
3.
To assess short term concequences of sexual coercion among private
University Colleges female students in Adama town, from April, 2013
to August, 2013.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Magnitude of sexual coercion
Gender Based Violence (GBV) is a pervasive public health and human rights
issue throughout the world. Globally, at least one out of every four women is
beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused during her lifetime. Based on data
from more than 30 countries, 10 to 50 percent of women who have ever had
partners have been hit or otherwise physically assaulted. Between 7% and 48%
of adolescent girls and between 2 and 32% of adolescent boys report that their
first experience of sexual intercourse was forced.
28
A study done in Jimma Zone by Mekonnen & Asresash in, 2007, among the
1118 school girl students, 296 (26.5%) had already initiated sexual activity at the
mean age of 15 years old. Out of these girls, 60 or 20.4% started sexual activity
under force. Seventy five or 87.3% of subjects reported that they were raped
only once while 11 or 12.7% were raped more than once in their life time. A
total of 50 or 9.1% of the girls had experienced attempted rape, 462 or 40.9%
physical assaults (beating), 208 or 28.2% non-consensual kissing, 230 or 31.1%
non-consensual touching and 368 or 49.8%of the subjects experienced offensive
sexual languages and comments(Mekonnen and Asresash, 2007).
[
1.2. Factors that perpetuate sexual coercion against women
Adolescents in several case studies reported that coercive events were
perpetrated by adult men -including teachers, religious leaders and employers. In
the South African Demographic and Health Survey, for example, school teachers
were most commonly cited as perpetrators of rape (33%) among girls who
reported experiencing rape at 15 years or younger (Jewkes et al., 2002).
According to a study done in Jimma Zone among 1118 school girls, 296 (26.5%)
had already initiated sexual activity at the mean age of 15 years old. Out of these
subjects 60 ( 20.4%) had started sexual intercourse forcefully while 11.1% and
2.5% of them due to promising words and for exchange of gifts, respectively.
Regarding the age of the perpetrators, in 59.5% of the cases they were older than
the victims. This clearly shows that most of the forced sexes were committed by
personalities who are physically stronger than the victims. Of course, most
(38.8%) of the respondents reported that they did their first initiation with their
boyfriends; where as 25.7% and 12.7% of the sexual initiations were conducted
by husbands and teachers, respectively. The victims reported that they had
consumed alcohol (52.8%) and khat (33.5%) at the time of rape. Also threats of
29
harm and use of physical force were found to be important mechanisms used by
the rapists. The majority of the victims didn’t report to any legal body because of
fears and lack of awareness (Mekonnen and Asresash, 2007).
Conceptual frame work
 Demographic factor
(Age, gender, residence)
 Socio-economic factor
(Education, occupation)


Low decision
making
power of
female
Gender in
equality
Environmental
factor(War)
Cultural Norm
Lack of
expressing
their problem

due to fear
Political factor
of stigma
(Weak legal Support for female)
 Behavioural factor
(Use of substance)
Initiate for
harassment
Fig 1:- Schematic presentation of conceptual frame work
Source: Measure Evaluation, 2004
30
Sexual
Coercion
Of female
3. METHODS AND MATERIALS
3.1. Study area
This study was conducted in Adama town, Eastern Shawa zone, Oromiya
Region. Adama located in central part of Ethiopia at a distance of 99 km from
Addis Ababa.
3.2. Study period
This study was conducted from April, 2013 to August 2013.
3.3. Study design
A quantitative facility -based cross sectional study supplemented with qualitative
inquiry was employed
3.4. Population
3.4.1. Source population
All female students in private University College in Adama town.
3.4.2. Study population
All female students selected at random sample from registration logs for 2013
academic years.
3.5. Sample Size Determination
Quantitative part
Sample size was determined using a single proportion formula with prevalence
rate 0.5, with the level of precision (d) 0.05. An additional 10% was added as a
contingency to increase power and compensate for possible non response rate
and a total of 422 Private University College female students was involved in the
study.
Using the formula:
n = (Zα/2) ^2 p (1-p) /d^2
n =sample size
p=0.5(50%)
Zα/2=1.96 d=0.05 (5%)
(1.96)2 *.5(1-.5)/ (0.05) 2 = 384, Adding 10 % for non response rate
Total of 422 female students is involved in the study
31
Qualitative Part
Two FGDs comprised of 8 female students each those who were not participated
in the quantitative parts were conducted. Selection of the FGDs participant was
done purposively based on thier age, language and willingness. A formal FGD
guide was followed. This is to enrich or supplement the information that was
generated through the quantitative survey. In each group, data were collected
until information saturation was reached.
3.6. Sampling technique
In order to select a fairly representative sample of females from the Private
University College, selection of female student was first be stratified by their
academic year of study as 1st, 2nd year, 3rd year based on their department of
study. Then from each individual section, a sample of participants was taken by
sampling with probability proportional to the size considering the total females
in the section. In order to select the sample size, a list of all female students from
different department in each section was obtained from the Office of the
Registrar. To develop the sampling frame, the complete lists of students were
made by their department for each class and the study participants were selected
by simple random sampling method from student list. For the FGDs, purposive
sampling was used in the selection of study participants. A total of 8 girls were
participated in each FGD. The age distribution of girls who participated in the
FGDs was above 20 years.
32
3.7. Sampling Procedure
All private University Colleges in Adama town,
Oromiya Region
Paradise Valley
University
College
All department
female students
Central University
College
Rift Valley
University College
All department
female students
All department
female students
Selection of female students by simple random sampling from
each class
Total of 422 female students will be involved in the study.
Fig 2:- Schematic presentation of sampling procedure
3.8. Data collection
3.8.1. Data collection tools
3.8.1.1. Quantitative data collection tools
The data was collected by an anonymous self administered structured
questionnaire. It was
adopted from different literature developed for similar
purposes that address all of the important variables. For the quantitative study, a
structured questionnaire was prepared first in English and then translated into
Amharic and Oromic language. It was finally translated back into English in
order to ensure its consistency.
33
3.8.1.2. Qualitative data collection tools
The qualitative data was collected using semi-structured focus group discussions
(FGDs) guide lines. The guide lines will consists of open-ended questions
related to the research objectives and adapted from a WHO instrument. The
guide will be developed first in English, and then will be translated into Amharic
and Afan Oromo as the FGDs was conducted in both languages. Probing
questions was also developed to explore experience and knowledge of sexual
coercion and its consequences and community perception towards sexual
coercion which was not assessed in the questionnaires. The wording and
sequence of questions was designed in such a way that, there will be a logical
flow of ideas (from general to specific, from impersonal to personal, and from
easy to difficult questions).
3.8.2. Data collectors
Data was collected by four college female data collectors and the overall activity
will be supervised by supervisors and the PI. One days of training was given.
Data collectors were organized to facilitate the self administered data collection
process including selection of study participants and dissemination and
collection of questionnaires. Some of the female data collectors were assist the
focus group moderator by taking notes during each discussion. The FGDs were
conducted by a female moderator, assisted by reporter who fulfill the
characteristics with language and communication skills, familiarity and comfort
level with discussing sexual coercion topics, the ability to respect the dignity and
confidentiality of respondents and have previous experience with FGDs or other
qualitative data collection methods.
34
3.9. Study variables
3.9.1. Dependent variables
1. Sexual coercion
2. Consequences of sexual coercion
3.9.2. Independent variables
Socio-demographic characteristics including: age, residence, educational status,
parent marital
status, student’s marital status, religion, ethnicity, family background including
family income.
3.9.3. Operational definitions
Sexual Coercion: The act of forcing (or attempting to force) a female student
through
physical body harm, violent threats, verbal insistence, deception, cultural
expectation or
economic circumstance to engage in a sexual behaviour against her will
(Mekonnen and Asresash, 2007).
Sexual harassment: Unwanted sexual behaviour such as physical contact or
verbal
Comments, jokes, questions, and suggestions (Mekonnen and Asresash, 2007).
Rape: The act of forcing a female student through violent threats and deception
to engage in
sexual behaviours with the penetration of the vagina (Mekonnen and Asresash,
2007).
Consequence of sexual coercion: Creates implications on social, physical,
economical,
educational and psychological status of the victim women or girl. (Mekonnen
and Asresash, 2007)
Intimate partner violence (IPV): physical, sexual, psychological, or emotional
abuse, or threat of abuse, by a current or former spouse or partner (Mekonnen
and Asresash, 2007).
35
3.10. Data quality control methods
To assure quality of the data, measures were undertaken. A brief orientation
session about the purpose of the research project was arranged for all students.
Corrections of the instruments were completed accordingly. The final version of
the questionnaires was used for the data collection. One day of training about
how to facilitate the data collection process was given to all data collectors and
supervisors during the process of data collection. To improve quality during the
completion of the questionnaires and to increase return of questionnaires, the
data collection was undertaken in separate class rooms. Separate class rooms
were used to overcome the strong cultural barriers of discussion on sexual
coercion and its health consequences issues. FGD moderators and note takers
was assigned based on sex to ensure privacy and to enhance honest and frank
responses. The overall activity was monitored by the PI of the study. There was
strict supervision during data collection by the supervisors.
3.11. Data processing and analysis
Quantitative data were checked for completeness and consistency. Quantitative
data entry, cleaning and analyzes was performed by using Epi-info Version 6.04
and SPSS 16. First, descriptive statistics of percentages and frequency
distributions using tables and figures was carried out to explore the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents. Bivariate analysis and chisquares was carried out to examine the relationship between the outcome
variables and selected determinant factors as appropriate. Factors for which
significant Bivariate association observed were retained for subsequent
multivariate analyses using logistic regressions. OR with 95% confidence
interval was used to compare or see the effect of those determinant factors.
36
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Results
4.1.1. Socio-demographic Characteristics of Study Subjects
In this study, a total of 422 college girls selected and all of them completed the
questionnaire. The response rates were 100%. A study population consisted of
college girls aged 20-36 at the time of the survey. The mean age of the subjects
was 20 years (Std. Deviation of 1.34). The majority 213(50.6%) of the
participants were Orthodox followed by protestant 124(41.8%), Muslim
27(6.4%), Catholic 6(1.4%). Three hundred fifty two (83.5%) of them were live
in urban while the remaining 69.9(16.5) were live in rural areas by the time of
study (survey).
With regards to the ethnic composition majority, 206(48.9%) were Oromo,
followed by 145(34.5%) Amhara and other were include 28(6.7%) Gurage,
25(5.9%) Tigre and 15(3.5%) were other. Majority, 390(91.6%) of the
respondents were single while 30(7.4%) were married. Previously (before
survey) majority of the respondents, 392(93%) of the participants were living
with their parents and few of them, 15(3.7%) were living alone. At the time of
the survey majority of the respondents 351(83%) live with their parents.
Majority of the respondents, 258(61.5%) get health information from both radio
and TV, while other 87(20.8%) gets health information from nearby health
institution and 70(16.7%) gets from health care providers.
Concerning their patterns of substance uses, out of total respondents, 36(8.5%)
of the respondents have used kchat, of whom 19(67.3%) used some times and
15(54.3%) used always. Again out of 11 of the respondents who use alcohol,
9(77.7%) uses sometimes and 3(22.2%) uses always. Respondents were also
assessed for using of cigarettes, shisha and drug like cannabis. Of respondents 4
37
of them uses cigarettes’, 3(66.7%) uses sometimes and 1(33.3%) uses always. Of
29 respondents those use shisha, 19(65.2%) uses sometimes and 10(34.7%) uses
always
Socio-demographic Characteristics of Respondent Parents
The respondents were also asked about their parents marital status, out of total
respondents 285(67.7%) of their families were married and live together with
husband whereas 21 (5.2%) were divorced, and 27(6.5%) of them separated,
69(16.4%) have only father or mother (single parents), and 18(4.2%) do not have
parents. The household’s average monthly income of the respondents' parents
indicated that 112(26.7) of them have average monthly income less than 500
birr, 109(26.1%) of them have greater than 500 birr and 199(47.2) respondents
cannot estimate their parents monthly income. The educational levels of the
respondents' parents also indicate that 89(21.2%) of the fathers and 146(33.2%)
of their mothers had no formal education while, 39(9.2%) of the fathers and
59(13.9%)of their mothers were grade 1-4, 91(21.7%) of their fathers and
76(18.2%) of their mothers were grade 5-8, 111(26.5%) of their fathers and
95(22.7%) of their mothers were grade 9-12 and, 90(21.4%)of their fathers and
50(12%) of their mothers were 12+(higher education). Regarding to their parents
occupational status, 158(37.6%) of the mothers are housewives and 124(29.5%)
of the fathers are farmers, 132(31.5%) of the mothers and 86(20.5%) of the
fathers are merchant and, 77(18.3%) of the mothers and 158(37.6%) of the
fathers are government employee.
Three hundred ninety three (93.2%) of the respondents came from a family size
of 1-4 persons and have a mean family size of 1.1 with SD ± .253 persons. Out
of the respondents 101(24.1%) were born first order for their parents,
232(55.2%) were born 2nd-4th birth Oder for their parents and the other
87(20.8%) of the respondents born ≥ 5 birth order for their parents. Regarding
38
supporters of students for their learning materials, from the respondents
260(61.7%) of them are supported by their fathers and 281(66.7%) of them by
their mothers, while the rest 72(17.5%) by their relatives, 19(4.5%) by their
husband and 17(4.1%) by their boyfriends respectively. Out of 185 respondents
who had supporter and do not live with their family (supporter) most of them,
127(68.6%) gets money on monthly basis, the other 18(10%) gets on semester,
29(16.2%) gets once in a year and 10(5.5%) of the students never had a secured
money at all. Of those who got money 34(19.7%) reported that the money sent
was not enough.
Sexual History and Reasons for First Sexual Debut
Among the 422 schoolgirls included into the study, 129 (30.8%) have boy friend
and 60(14.2%) already initiated sexual activity at the time of survey at the mean
age of 18 years old. Out of these subjects 28(46.8%) have started sexual
intercourse in a marriage, while 10(18.1%) have started sex in personal
desire/love and 6(9.6%) of them started sex due to promising words, 6(9.6%) for
financial purpose and 4(7.5%) started sex by force against their consent,
respectively. Of course, 8(13.8%) of the respondents reported that they did their
first initiation with their boy friends, where as 7(12.7%) and 3(5.3%) of the
sexual initiations were done by husbands and brothers friend, 2(3.2%) by their
teachers, respectively.
4.1.2. Prevalence of Sexual Coercion and Reported Reasons of Rape
Victims.
Out of those ever had sexual intercourse, life time prevalence of completed rape
was 28(46.7%) and 21(35.1%) was raped in the last 12 months. Faced forced sex
that made them frightened and degrading in the life time 26(44.6%) and
20(34%) in the last 12 months. From the total respondents life time prevalence
of attempted rape was 80(18.9%) and 49(11.7%) had experienced attempted rape
39
in the last 12 months and 94(22.4%) reported to experience unwelcome touching
on their genital or breast in the in life time and 63(15.2%) in the last 12 months
and 108(25.6%) un wanted sexual act such as Verbal jokes /asked to have sex in
their life time (harassment) and 69(16.5%) in the last 12 months.
Table 4. Life time and 12 Months Prevalence of Sexual Coercion among Private
University College Female Students in Adama town, Oromiya region, August
2013.
Sexual Coercion
life time Prevalence
12 Months Prevalence
Completed rape
28(6.7%)
21(5%)
Attempted rape
80(18.9%)
49(11.6%)
Harassment
108(25.6%)
69(16.5%)
Reason for Becoming Victims of Completed Rape
Victims of completed rape were asked to report major reasons for becoming a
victim of rape, and 9(31.8%) fear of hitting, 5(18.2%) reported that it was due to
promise given to get money, 4(15.9%) were raped for passing exam and 7(25%)
fear of pointed knife, 2(9.6%) students reported that it was after they were drunk
alcohols. Students also reported that they were raped after they took drug with
alcohol and smoked on them.
Perpetuators, Conditions during Rape of Female and Mechanism of
Escapes
Out of students who experienced rape in their life time 8(29.5%) happened in the
rapist home, 13(45.6) in victims house and in 11(40.9%) was happened during
day time/afternoon time. When victims of rape requested about the perpetuator,
26(95.5%) of the perpetuator were persons known by the victims. Out of these
only 6(22.7%) uses mechanism of protection like as condom. Out of students
those escaped from the perpetuators 30(38.4%) were escaped by giving
40
promising word, 15(19.2%) were escaped by running away and 6 (8%) were
escaped by crying. Out of 28 students who experienced rape in their life time
most of them were share the condition happened to them with their sisters
9(31.8%), 7(27.3%) with their friends and 6(22.7%) did not share with anybody.
Most of them, 17(61.4%) report the condition for legal body and 4(25.9%) of the
rapist is sentenced, while the rest 7(40.7%) financial penalty and 6(33.3%) were
forced to marry the victims. Among the 28 girls who reported to experience
completed rape, 8(29.5%) had vaginal discharge, 10(36.3%) unwanted
pregnancy. Genital swelling or genital ulcer reported by 4(13.6%), STI and
HIV/AIDS 5(11.3%), 2(6.8%) of the victims respectively. Out of 10 pregnant
cases 9(94%) students reported to perform an abortion. Among those girls who
reported to experience completed rape, there was also tendency of self blame
20(72%), 15(56.8%) unhappiness, 14(50%) worthless/hopelessness, 18(65.9%)
easily frightened, 12(43.1%) thought of ending their life, phobia, 15(52.2%)
suicide ideation, 18(63.6%) hate others for what has happened to them,
10(36.3%) get angry with them self or call himself names, and its attempt as
psychiatric symptoms of reported to be experienced since the day of rape.
Fifteen (54.5%) often had headache, 16(50%) poor appetite and 16(50%) bad
sleeps/insomnia are other immediate problems reported by the students after they
experienced forced sex in their lifetimes.
4.1.3. Factors Associated with Sexual Coercion
To assess the factors associated with sexual coercions bivariate and multiple
variable analyses were conducted. Based on this factors assumed to be
associated with sexual coercion based on available literatures were selected.
Socio-demographic and socioeconomic conditions of the parents were included
41
in biviariate models. Factors which were significant and those who have P-value
less than 0.2 were entered into multiple variable analyses.
Among factors associated with respondents, the likelihood of experiencing
completed rape in their life was higher among students having boyfriend than
girls who didn’t have a boyfriend (Adjusted OR=25, 95% CI( 8.9-72.5)). On the
other hand, married respondent were exposed to coercion than un married
(AOR= 3.2, 95%CI (1.2-8.5)) and being experiencing rape in their life time were
higher
among
student
2.5,95%CI(1.4-8.5)),
girls
kchat
using
substances
like
Alcohols
(AOR=
(AOR=2.9,95%CI(1.2-6.7)),
shisha
(AOR=2,95%CI(1.1-4.7)) than those non users. Respondent age, religion and
ethnicity were not significantly associated with sexual coercion.
Concerning the association of parent related factors that predispose the students
to sexual coercion were assessed. Being experiencing completed rape in their life
time was higher among students for those money were sent by their husband
(AOR=6,95%CI(2.5-14)) , students for those money were sent by their boy
friend (AOR=4.5,95%CI(1.7-11.7)) and for those students money sent as needed
(OR =3, 95%CI(2-4)). On the other hand students those family average monthly
income is <=500 birr was more likely exposed to sexual coercion (OR=2, 95%CI
(1.5- 4)) compared to those students their family monthly income is >500. When
we compare students previously live with their parents and alone those living
previously with their parents were 80% less likely affected by sexual coercion
than those living alone (AOR=.2, 95%CI (0.075-0.5)). Marital status of the
parents, educational status of parents, family size, parents occupational status,
birth order were not significantly associated with sexual coercion (table 6).
Table 6: Comparison of Life Time completed Rape by Socio Demographic Characteristics of
Respondents, Substance use, having Boy Friend and Sexual Activity among Private University
College, Female Students in Adama town, Oromiya region, August 2013.
42
Variables
Raped
No
COR(95%CI)
p-value
AOR(95%CI)
p-value
Married
7
23
6(2.9-12.7)*
0.000
3.2(1.2-8.5)*
0.02
Unmarried
20
370
1.00
3
8
6(2-17.5) *
25
385
1.00
yes
20
366
5.9(2.5-8.1)*
No
8
27
1.00
Yes
6
23
4.8(2.-7.48)*
22
373
1.00
Yes
26
104
27.7(10-79)*
No
2
289
1.00
>500 birr
16
104
3.78(2-7)*
Supporter for the students
12
289
1.00
No
5
14
6(2.5-14.4)*
Yes
23
379
1.00
No
4
13
4.5(1.7-11.7)*
24
380
1.00
Previous guardian for students
19
94
6.8(3.4-14)*
Parents
9
299
1.00
23
373
0.2(.08- .5)*
4
14
1.00
Marital status of respondents
Substance use : Alcohol
Yes
No
Kchat
Shisha
No
Having Boy friend
Household’s monthly income
Husband
Boyfriend
1.00
<0.001
2.5(1.4-8.5)*
0.04
1.00
<0.001
2.9(1.2-6.7)*
0.02
1.00
<0.001
2(01.1-4.7)*
0.01
1.00
<0.001
25(8.9-72.5)*
<0.001
1.00
<500 birr
<0.001
2(1.5-4)*
0.001
1.00
Yes
Frequency of receiving money Sent money
<0.001
5.1(1.8-4.7)*
.002
0.002
4.8(1.8-13)*
.002
3(2-4)*
0.01
Not sent
<0.001
1.00
Alone
.2(0.075-0.5)*
0.001
43
0.001
Results of FGDs (Focus Group Discussions)
Two focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted among private University
College female students in Adama town which comprises of 6 female students in
each groups. The theme of the FGD was to distinguish the presence of sexual
coercion and factors associated with sexual coercion. It was conducted to obtain
the necessary information to construct the quantitative questionnaire and to
supplement the finding. The FGD covers a range of questions related to sexual
coercion.
Presence of Sexual Coercion
According to female participants the most common cause of rape was being
<laid> by their boyfriends. This was explained by a girl saying some boys start
by claiming that they are in love with a girl and is usually supported by his
friends and the girl’s friends. Girls’ clothing style, the way of act and being
adolescent by itself (which makes attractive) leads to being raped. Both group
agreed that there was harassment of female students in the high school. The girls
responded that harassment was performed both by male students and teachers.
The groups responded that the commonly affected age group of society by
sexual coercion was un married high school and college females (age 20-35), bar
ladies, divorced female and children even though it can be happened in all age
groups
Factors Contribute to Sexual Coercion
Students responded that girls with low academic performance were more prone
to be harassed because they usually go or communicate with lots of men instead
of understand their education.
44
Both groups responded that cultural and religious influence, place e.g. kchat
chewing and shisha house, night club and place of study (space) and peer
pressures are the common factors lead to sexual coercion.
Problem Associated with Sexual Coercion
Girls responded that the serious problems of sexual coercion were poor
academic performance that can go up to drop out from the schools, one of the
respondent said that “there was one girl a year before who was drop out from the
school after being sexually coerced”. Both groups agreed that rape leads to
different problems out of which, unwanted pregnancy, HIV/AIDS, fistula,
psychological problem, discrimination from the society, unemployment, suicide
ideation and suicide attempt were few explained outcomes of sexual coercion.
Preventions
Students responded that court, community, family and individual itself is
responsible persons to prevent the conditions. As a method of prevention both
groups of girls suggested that, giving education on behavioural change for the
community, a commitment by the government in improving and implementing
the punishment on rapists (perpetuator), having control system on provocative
video showing rooms, Khat chewing areas, and other substance uses, giving sex
education for both boys and girls (students) against rape at earlier ages and
avoiding discrimination and stigmatization of victims which may help victims to
be open and seek help.
4.2. Discussion
Among a sample of 422 school girls who participated in the study, 60(14.2%)
were already initiated sexual activity at the time of survey. Out of those girls
who started sexual initiation, 4(7.4%) started sexual activity forcefully or as a
result of rape. This result indicates the prevalence of rape as a cause of sexual
initiation is so high compared to the prevalent rate assessed in rural Uganda in
45
which 14% of the respondents reported that their first sexual intercourse had
been coerced (Koening, et al, 2004). However, the prevalence rates of coerced
first sex observed in other studies were also by far greater than this result. For
example, in a study done in Jimma zone among high school female students of
those students started sexual initiation 20.4% was reported they had their first
sexual forcefully (Mekonnen and Asresash, 2007). Nevertheless, the comparison
of the present result with those two findings indicate that they might be some
contributing factors , such as age differences, sample size differences, the study
areas(socio-economic, cultural and geographical differences).
In this study among the 28 girls who reported to experience completed rape,
8(29.5%) had vaginal discharge, 10(36.3%) unwanted pregnancy which 9(34%)
students reported to perform an abortion. Genital swelling or genital ulcer
reported by 6(13.6%), 5(11.3%) STI and 3(6.8%) HIV/AIDS of the victims
respectively, which is lower compared to study done in Addis Ababa University
female students, among the 78 girls who reported to experience completed rape,
36(46.2%) had vaginal discharge, 25(30.1%) experienced unwanted pregnancy
which 22(88 %) students reported to perform an abortion. Genital swelling or
genital ulcers were reported by 15(15.2%) of the victims respectively
(Seblework, 2004). These variations could be due to sample size difference,
socio demographic variation, improvement in community awareness about
sexual coercion and better law punishment for the case than previous time).
Among those girls who reported to experience completed rape, there was also
tendency of, 20(72.7%) self blame, 16(56.8%) unhappiness, 14(50%)
worthless/hopelessness, 18(65.9%) Easily frightened, 15(23.2%) suicide
ideation,18(63.6%) hate others for what has happened to them, 10 get angry with
them self or call themselves names and its attempt as psychiatric symptoms of
46
reported to be experienced since the day of rape, which is high compared to
study done in Jimma zone among high school students, Regarding psychological
consequences, self-hate or blaming, anxiety or fear, irritation, suicidal thought,
and depression were reported by 24.6% ( 21), 23.6%(20), 15.4% (13), 11.3%
(10), and 10.3% (9) of the rape victims, respectively (Mekonnen and Asresash,
2007).
In this study among factors associated with respondents, the likelihood of
experiencing completed rape in their life was higher among students having
boyfriend than girls who didn’t have a boyfriend, (adjusted OR=25, 95% CI
(8.9-72.5)) which is similar with a study done in Kenya showed that
experiencing completed rape in their life was higher among students having a
boyfriend than girls who didn’t have boyfriend, (OR=2.65, 95%CI (1.69- 4.29))
(Erulkar, 2004). this could be due to the fact that those who have boyfriends may
have the tendency to have the problem with their boyfriends.
On the other hand, married respondent were exposed to sexual coercion than un
married (AOR= 3.2, 95%CI (1.2- 8.5)) which is different in some study as in
many studies shows that un married females are eposed to sexual coercion than
married women or students (Rachel et al., 2002). However, this study have
similar justification with study done in Nepal shows that the most frequently
mentioned cause of sexual violence for those of married women included
husbands’ use of alcohol, economic dependency of women, and lack of social
and legal support. This is becuace sexual violence within marriage was generally
considered a private issue making it difficult for victims to seek and receive
support (WHO, 2009). In other way this may be due the fact that those who
raped could be married to the perpetuators as explained in the section of action
taken after raped.
47
In this study being experiencing rape in their life time were higher among
student girls using of substances like Alcohol (AOR= 2.5, 95%CI (1.4-8.5)),
kchat (AOR=2.9, 95%CI (1.2-6.7)), shisha (AOR=2, 95%CI (1.1-4.7)) than
those non users. These factors might predispose women because they may be
easy targets through force or deception. Alcohol might hinder women from
protecting themselves from assault (Rachel et al., 2002). This may be due to the
fact that those students who uses substance were exposed to rape because they
may take these substance with those people who they know and this substances
over activate them and make them care less to protect themselves from coercion.
Concerning the association of parent related factors, the predisposing factors of
the students to sexual coercion. Being experiencing completed rape in their life
time was higher among students for those money were sent by their husband
(AOR=6,95%CI(2.5-14)) , students for those money were sent by their boy
friend(AOR=4.5,95% CI(1.7-11.7)) and for those students money sent as needed
( OR =3, 95% CI(2-4)). This is because these students were students who didn’t
live from their parents and those of their supports like husband and boy friend
will support girls most of the time to enforce them to marry.
On the other hand students those family average monthly income is 500 birr is
more likely exposed to sexual coercion (OR=2, 95%CI(1.5, 4)) compared to
those students their family monthly income is >500 birr, which also true in
study done in some Sub-Saharan African countries, it has been observed that
young school girls who came from lower income families are tempted into
sexual liaisons by gifts and other promises from school boys, teachers, “sugar
daddies", and others (Leach et al., 2001.
In this study compared with students previously lived with their parents and
alone, those living previously with their parents were 80% less likely affected by
48
sexual coercion than those living alone (AOR=.2, 95%CI (.075-.5)). This is also
similar with the study in Kenya which showed that the odds of experiencing
completed rape in their life time was less among student living with single
parents and with both parents than students living alone (OR= 0.32,
95%CI(0.11-0.87) , (OR=0.22, 95%CI(0.09- 0.56) respectively (Erulkar,
2004).This may be due to the fact that those who live with their parents were not
allowed to go/stay with their boyfriends/perpetuators and did not have chance to
go to their friends home easily.
Strengths and Limitations of the study
Strengths
1. The use of FGD and relatively large sample are believed to provide reliable,
accurate and representative findings.
2. The study is done on a population who come from different socio
demographic and socioeconomic background of the region
Limitations
1. Adequate comparison could not be made since there are no similar studies in
many University college educational level institutions.
2. Outcome is assessed only by the report of respondents without other evidence.
3. Under reporting of rape was inevitable since study deals on sensitive issues.
5. SUMMARYAND CONCLUSIONS
5.1. Summary
Sexual coercion refers to a range of experiences that compel a person to have sex
against her or his will. These experiences include the use of violence, threats,
verbal insistence, deception, cultural expectations or economic circumstances,
wide range of behaviours from violent forcible rape to more contested areas such
49
as cultural expectations that require young women to marry and sexually service
men not of their choosing. The general objective of this study was to assess the
prevalence and factors associated with sexual coercion among private University
College female students in Adama town, Oromiya region. A quantitative facilitybased cross sectional study supplemented with qualitative inquiry was employed.
Among the total of 422 school girls included into the study, 129 (30.8%) have
boyfriend and 60(14.2%) already initiated sexual activity at the time of survey at
the mean age of 20 years old. Out of these subjects, 28(6.7%) have started sexual
intercourse in a marriage, 11(2.6%) personal desire/love and 6(1.4 %) of them
due to promising words, 6(1.4%) for financial purpose and 4(1.1%) by force
against their consent, respectively. Life time and 12 month prevalence of
completed rape and attempted rape was 28(6.7%) and 21(5%), 80( 18.9 %) and
49(11.6%) respectively. Prevalence of sexual harassments in life time and 12
months were 108(25.6%) and 69(16.5%) respectively. Victims of completed
rape were asked to report major reasons for becoming a victim of rape, of that
9(31.8%) fear of hitting, 5(18.2%) due to promise given to get money, 4(15.9%)
for passing exam and 7(25%) fear of pointed knife, 2(9.6%) students reported
that it was after they were drunk alcohols and this reason was also mentioned
FGDs.
The unwelcome physical and psychological outcomes of the rape were very
serious. Among victims of complete rape 8(29.5) had vaginal discharge,
10(36.3%) unwanted pregnancy which 9(34 %) students reported to perform an
abortion. Genital swelling or genital ulcer reported by 4(13.6%), STI and
HIV/AIDS, 5(11.3%), 3(6.8%) of the victims respectively. Regarding
psychological problems, self blame, unhappiness, worthless/hopelessness, easily
frightened, suicide ideation, get angry with them self or call themselves names,
and its attempt as psychiatric symptoms and often had headache, bad sleeps/
50
insomnia were other immediate consequences reported by the students after they
experienced forced sex in their lifetimes. In bivariate and multivariate analysis
factors like respondents having boyfriends, marital status of the respondents,
respondents’ substance uses and parents related factors like students living alone
without guardians, being supported in finance by husband and boyfriends, lower
average monthly income of family were significantly associated with sexual
coercion of female students.
5.2. Conclusions

As the findings of this study indicate the prevalence of life time
complete rape, attempted rape and harassment was 28(6.7%),
80(18.9%) and 108(22.4%) respectively. The 12 month’s rate of rape,
attempted rape and harassment was 21(5%), 49(11.6%) and 69(16.5%)
respectively.

Sexual coercion was shown to contribute to health problems faces
adolescents nowadays including unwanted pregnancy, illegal abortion,
STDs and psychological disturbances.

Factors which contribute to rape includes, false promise like to get
money help, to pass exam, physical force (being battered and show of
knife shown), and usage of substance like kchat, alcohol and shisha are
some of the factors exposes the students to sexual coercion.

Presence of boyfriends, students living alone, family income >500 birr,
marital status of the respondents, students those money was sent to
them were predictors of sexual coercion.
Based on these findings of this study it is recommended that:
At community level
51
 Awareness for the society should be given in the region through IEC
concerning prevalence, factors lead to of sexual coercion and problem
of sexual coercion.
At legal level
 Implementing the existing legal punishment: by raising the awareness
of policy-making bodies about the prevalence, factors associated and
consequent of sexual coercion.
 As sexual violence against schoolgirls is pervasive, efforts must be
done to tackle the problem and promote harassment-free environment
for young girls and encouraging the victims to report to legal bodies.
At school/college/university
 Schoolgirls must be empowered educationally about their sexual rights
and how to handle the problems.

Sensitization of the problem by police officers, teachers, and other
concerned bodies is needed. Besides, training of health professionals and
psychologists on how to handle cases of sexual abuse and counselling or
rehabilitation is strongly recommended for the regions health bureau.
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53
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54
3.
PREVALENCEOF SUBSTANCE USEAND ITS
DETERMINANTS AMONGRIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE STUDENTS IN ADAMA ETHIOPIA
Mustefa Ahmed
Abstract
Substance use remains high among Ethiopian youth and young adolescents
particularly in high schools and colleges. The use of alcohol, khat, tobacco and
illicit drug by college and university students can be harmful; leading to
decreased academic performance, increased risk of contracting HIV and other
sexually transmitted diseases. However, the magnitude of substance use and the
factors associated with it has not been investigated among Rift Valley University
College students of Adama campus. This study was conducted to determine the
prevalence of substance use and identify factors that influenced the behaviour
among RVUC students of Adama campus. A cross-sectional survey was carried
out among 425 randomly selected Rift Valley University College students of
Adama campus from June 20 to July 5, 2011 using a self-administered
questionnaire. Descriptive statistics was used to describe the study population
and cross-tabulation was done to see the association between dependent and
independent variables. Logistic regressions with 95% confidence intervals were
calculated to determine independent predictors of determinant factors. Among
425 participants, alcohol was ever consumed by 179 (42.1%) (50% males vs.
34.8% females, p = 0.002) and current consumers were 80 (18.8 %) (23.0%
males vs. 14.9% female) and khat ever use was reported by 157 (36.9 %) (53.9%
males vs. 21.3% females, p < 0.001) and current users was 57 (13.4%) (19.9%
males vs. 7.7 % females) of the students. About 38 (8.9 %) of the respondents
(16.7% males vs. 1.8 % females, p = 0.014) reported ever use of cigarette
smoking, and 15 (3.5 %) were found to be current smokers. Using multiple
55
logistic regression models, being male was strongly associated with ever use of
alcohol (adjusted OR = 3.34, 95% CI = 1.41-3.56).
Only 12 (2.8 %) of the study participants used illicit substances at least once in
their lifetime.
The main reason given by students to drink alcohol was to get relief from
tension, 34 (21.1 %), for chewing khat to increase work or academic
performance, 69 (44.2 %) and for smoking cigarettes to stay awoke, 10 (29.4 %).
The prevalence of substance use among Rift Valley University College students in
Adama is not very high. In this study 42.1% of students drunk alcohol, 36.9% chew
khat, 8.9% smoked cigarette and 2.8 % of students used illicit drugs at least once in
their lifetime.
This study has revealed that the magnitude of substance use among the college
students was considerable, although not very high, but lower than the findings of
other studies that reported for adolescents and young adults. The college must
be vigilant in monitoring and educating the students about the consequences of
substance use.
INTRODUCTION
History of Substance /drug abuse is as old as history of mankind. Human beings
have been using the deferent parts of plants as medicine for reliving different
health conditions and also as mediators in different religious and cultural
ceremonies. Until 1950s, drug abuse was uncommon phenomenon. Today, there
is estimated 190 million drug abuser around the globe, which accounts for 3.1%
of the world population or 4.3 %of the population aged 15 years and above
(Annual Conference of The Ethiopian Public Health Association, 2006).
56
Substance abuse refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive
substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs (WHO, 2010). Studies have
shown that parenting style and influences, cultural permissiveness, peer
influences, and availability among other factors, make youths, particularly those
in schools, vulnerable to substance use (Fatiregun, & Yisa, 2009). Adolescent
substance use may also have a number of adverse social consequences such as
academic difficulties, declining grades, absenteeism, truancy, and school dropout (Parry, et al., 2004).
Khat is usually chewed at special social gatherings, but is also used frequently
during work by labourers, craftsmen, farmers and students to get mental
alertness, to be less sleepy and reduce physical fatigue (WHO Advisory Group,
1980; Peters, 1983). Interestingly, studies have also reported a strong association
between khat chewing habit and high educational level (Alem, Kebede &
Kullgren, 2007; Al-Hebshi, & Skaug, 2005). Many studies (Ihunwo, Kayanja &
Amadi-Ihunwo, 2004; Ayana, Sherief & Tekli, 2002) have reported the use of
khat by college and university students and proposed that the reasons for
chewing by students are to get mental alertness, to work hard in their academic
endeavors and to get good grades, though not all studies agree with these reasons
(Mekonnen, Makonnen & Gebre-Tsadik, 1998).
Thus, this study tends to determine prevalence of substance abuse and to identify
factor associated with substance abuse among RVUC students in Adama. The
result enables the responsible bodies and policy makers to design appropriate
strategies and measure to control an increasing substances and illegal drug
traffics.
57
PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS
Study Area and Period
The study was conducted in East Ethiopian town of Adama which is located
99kms from Addis Abba, capital of Ethiopia. The data was collected from June
20 to July 5, 2013.
Study Design
A Cross-sectional study was conducted by using self administered semistructured questioner. Contents of the questionnaire are socio demographic
details, assessment of substance use and its determinants and randomly selected
students of Rift Valley University College were included in the study.
Data Collection process
A semi-structured questionnaire prepared by the investigator was used to collect
the information on prevalence of substance use and its determinants. Then the
questionnaire was given to the students to fill it in their class and collected in the
after completion. During collection of questionnaire the students were asked if
there were any unclear ideas in the questionnaire and was checked for any
unfilled information.
Statistical Analysis
Quantitative data entry were done using SPSS version 20. Data checking and
cleaning were done by principal investigator on daily bases during collection.
The data were analyzed using SPSS Version 20 and simple descriptive statistics
were used for data analysis.
Ethics
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Rift Valley University
College. Verbal consent was obtained from each participant during data
58
collection. The confidentiality of the data obtained was assured and the name
and address of the patient was omitted from the questioner.
RESULTS
Socio demographic Characteristics of the participants is shown in table 1. Out of
the total 452 students participated in the survey, questionnaires from 425
respondents were considered for analysis making the response rate 94%. Among
the study subjects, 204 (48 %) were males and 221(52 %) were females. Of the
selected subjects 353(83.1 %) were in the age group 18-29 years, 72 (16.9 %)
were in the age group of 30 & above years with mean age of 24.83 + 5.724
years. The ethnic and religion composition of the students indicates that
255(60%) were Oromo, 128 (30.1%) were Amhara, and 42 (9.9%) were others.
213 (50.1 %) were Orthodox, 89 (20.9 %) were Protestants, 7 (1.6 %) were
Catholic Christians, 102 (24 %) were Muslim, 12(2.8%) have no religion and
“Waqifeta” believers were 2(0.5 %). The marital status of students shows that
301 (70.8 %) were singles, 122 (28.7 %) were married and 2 (0.5 %) were
divorced. 157 (36.9 %) of family of students chew khat & 268 (63.1 %) were not
chewers.
59
Table 1: Socio demographic characteristics of Rift Valley University College
students, July, 2013.
Variable
Percent
Number
Sex
Male
204
Female
221
Age group
18-29
353
>30
72
Level of Education
Degree Students 277
TVET Students 148
Religion
Orthodox
213
Muslim
102
Protestant
89
Catholic
7
Others
14
Ethnicity
Oromo
255
Amhara
128
Others
42
Marital status
Single
301
Married
122
Divorced
2
Family History (chew khat)
Yes
157
No
268
48
52
83.1
16.9
65.2
34.8
50.1
24
20.9
1.6
3.3
60
30.1
9.9
70.8
28.7
0.5
36.9
63.
Substance use behavior
The study revealed that 157 (36.9 %) of the students chewed khat at least once in
their lifetime and 57 (13.4 %) reported that they were current khat chewers (in
the last 30 days). The prevalence among males 110 (25.9 %) was higher
compared to females 47 (11.0%). The respondents were further asked their
chewing pattern. The response indicated that about 84(19.8 %) chew khat
occasionally (2-3 times per week) and 6 (1.4 %) of them claimed chewing khat
always (everyday).
Concerning alcohol drinking habits, 179 (42.1 %) reported that they drank
alcohol at least once in their lifetime while 80 (18.8 %) said that they drank
60
alcohol in the last thirty days. Among alcohol users, the majority 133 (31.3 %)
were using alcoholic drinks occasionally. (See Tables 2 and 3)
Thirty eight, (8.9 %) of the respondents used cigarette at least once in their life
time. The current prevalence of cigarette smoking was 15 (3.5 %) and almost all
of the smokers were occasional smokers. Furthermore, 12 (2.8 %) of the study
participants used illicit substances like hashish at least once in their lifetime
(Table 2 & 3).
Table 2: Proportion of students who ever used substances (khat, alcohol,
cigarette and illicit substances) in Rift Valley University College, Adama,
July, 2013
Type of substance
Khat
Alcohol
Cigarette
Illicit substance
Number (n=425)
157
179
38
12
Per cent
36.9
42.1
8.9
2.8
Table 3: Prevalence of current substance use (in the last 30 days) among
Rift Valley University College students, Adama, July, 2013
Type of substance
Per cent
Khat
Alcohol
Cigarette
Illicit substance
Number (n=425)
57
80
15
12
13.4
18.8
3.5
2.8
Reasons for substance use
Different reasons were mentioned by students for the use of drugs. The reasons
mentioned for khat ever use were: To increase work or academic performance 69
(44.2 %), due to peer pressure 31 (19.9%), both to increase work or academic
performance and` to get personal pleasure 20 (12.8%), both to get relief from
tension & academic dissatisfaction 25 (16 %) and other reasons 11 (7.1%).
61
Among 179 students who reported taking alcohol, 48 (29.8 %) used alcohol to
get relief from tension, 34 (21.1 %) both to get personal pleasure and due to peer
influence, 28 (17.4 %) due to religious practice, 27 (16.7 %) to increase work or
academic performance and other reasons 24 (14.9 %).
Reasons for cigarette smoking were: to stay awoke 10 (29.4 %), to get relief
from tension 7 (20.6 %), both peer influence & to get acceptance from others 8
(23.5 %), to get personal pleasure 5 (14.7 %) and other reasons 4 (11.8 %)
(Table 4 & 5).
Table 4: Reasons for Substances/drug abuse among Rift Valley University
College students, Adama,July, 2013.
Reasons
number
er cent
Reasons for Smoking cigarette
To stay awoke
10
To get relief from tension 7
Both peer influence &
to get acceptance from others 8
To get personal pleasure 5
Others
4
Reasons for drinking Alcohol
To get relief from tension
48
Both to get personal pleasure &
due to peer influence
34
29.4
20.6
23.5
14.7
11.8
29.8
21.1
Due to religious practice 28
To increase work or academic
performance
27
Other reasons
24
Reasons for khat chewing
To increase concentration for study 69
due to peer pressure
31
Both to increase concentration for study
& to get personal pleasure 20
Both to get relief from tension & academic dissatisfaction 25
Other reasons
11
7.1
62
17.4
16.7
14.9
44.2
19.9
12.8
16
Table 5: Lifetime and current use of substances by sex among Rift Valley
University College students, Adama, July, 2013
Sex
Substance
Ever chew khat
Yes
110 (53.9)
No
94 (46.1)
Currently chewing khat
Yes
40 (19.6)
No
164 (80.4)
Ever drunk alcohol
Yes
102 (50.0)
No
102 (50.0)
Currently drinking alcohol
Yes
47 (23.0)
No
157 (77.0)
Ever smoke cigarettes
Yes
34 (16.7)
No
170 (83.3)
Currently smoking cigarettes
Yes
13 (6.4)
No
191 (93.6)
Ever use illicit drug
Yes
12 (5.9)
No
192 (94.1)
Male, n (%)
Female, n (%) Total, n (%)
47 (21.3)
174 (78.7)
157 (36.9)
268 (63.1)
17 (7.7)
204 (92.3)
57 (13.4)
368 (86.6)
77 (34.8)
144 (65.2)
179 (42.1)
246 (57.9)
33 (14.9)
188 (85.1)
80 (18.8)
345 (81.2)
4 (1.8)
217 (98.2)
38 (8.9)
387 (91.1)
2 (0.9)
219 (99.1)
15 (3.5)
410 (96.4)
0 (0)
221 (100)
12 (2.8)
413 (97.2)
It was noted that the use of khat and cigarette smoking was reported to be higher
among male than female students. Lifetime & past-month cigarette smoking
shows statistically significant difference (p=0.022). A greater number of males
than females reported lifetime and past-month use of alcohol, showing no
statistically significant difference (p = 0.062 and p = 0.072, respectively).
63
Table 6 Lifetime and current use of substances by religion among Rift Valley
University College students, Adama, July, 2013
Religion
Variable
Orthodox
Muslim
Protestant
Catholic
Others
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
Ever chew khat
Yes
34 (47.9) 19 (26.8) 13 (18.3) 1 (1.4)
4 (5.6)
No
62 (50.8) 28 (23.0) 28 (23.0) 2 (1.6)
2 (1.6)
Currently chewing khat
Yes
12 (44.4) 10 (37.0) 1 (3.7)
No
85 (50.9) 37 (22.2) 40 (24.0) 3 (1.8)
0 (0.0)
4 (14.8)
2 (1.2)
Yes
55 (68.8) 4 (5.0)
15 (18.8) 1 (0.9)
4 (5.1)
No
42 (36.8) 43 (37.7) 26 (22.8) 3 (1.5)
2 (1.8)
Ever drunk alcohol
Currently drinking alcohol
Yes
30 (81.1) 1 (2.7)
1 (2.7)
1 (2.7)
No
67 (42.7) 46 (29.3) 40 (25.5) 2 (2.3)
4 (10.8)
2 (1.3)
Ever smoke cigarettes
Yes
6 (33.3) 5 (27.8) 5 (27.8) 1 (5.6)
1 (5.6)
No
91 (51.7) 42 (23.9) 36 (20.5) 2 (1.1)
5 (2.9)
Currently smoking cigarettes
Yes
34(57.1) 2 (28.6) 0 (0.0)
1 (14.3)
0 (0.0)
No
90 (50.3) 42 (23.5) 40 (22.3) 2 (1.1)
5 (2.8)
Yes
2 (33.3) 1 (16.7) 1 (16.7) 1 (16.7)
1 (16.7)
No
94 (50.3) 46 (24.6) 40 (21.4) 2 (1.1)
5 (2.6)
Ever use illicit drug
64
n (%)
Discussion
This study clearly indicates that substance use is becoming a concern among
RVUC students. The overall prevalence of "ever used drug", the most commonly
used drugs in descending order are: alcohol (42.1 %), khat (36.9 %), cigarette
(8.9 %) and other illicit substances (2.8 %). This is lower than a similar study on
four Kenyan universities which was 69.8% (Atwoli L et al., 2011).
In this study the current prevalence of khat chewing was found to be 13.4 %,
which is comparable with study done among university students in North West
Ethiopia, 17.5% (Kebede D et al., 2005) and Jazan district of Saudi Arabia
(Ageely H, 2009). It is significantly comparable to the 18% current khat chewing
report from four college students in northwest Ethiopia (Kebede Y, 2002), but
lower than the study done among Haromaya University student which was 20.3
% (Andualem D, 2011). In this study males are more consumer than females
there is stastical significant association between khat chewing and sex (Χ²=15.02
and p<0.02) and the consumers are increasing it may be due to increases in
number of khat houses in the surroundings of colleges, the easily availability of
khat, its low cost as well as its effect in increasing concentration during study
encourage students to consume khat.
About 18.8 % of the participants reported alcohol drinking and 13.4 % used khat
in the past thirty days; while lifetime cigarette smoking was reported by 8.9 % of
the students & 3.5 % current users. In our study, alcohol drinking was found to
be in line with a study done among undergraduate medical students of Addis
Ababa University, which was 22 % (Wakgari D and Aklilu A, 2011).
Our reported rate of alcohol consumption among students was lower than that
reported by other studies in a similar study population. In the USA, a study
among a cohort of medical students found that 78% of them reported drinking
alcohol in the past month and 34% engaged in excessive drinking (Frank E et al.,
2008). A study in Sweden showed that more than 90% of university students
65
consumed alcohol during the preceding three months and 39% of males and 20%
of females involved in heavy episodic drinking at least once a week (Andersson
A et al., 2009).
There have been several studies on cigarette smoking among young adults in
developed countries, but such studies are scantly in developing countries. In
northwest Ethiopia, lifetime and current use of cigarette smoking was reported
by 13% and 8% of college students, respectively (Kebede Y, 2002). In a study of
in-school rural Zambian adolescents, the prevalence of lifetime cigarette
smoking was reported to be 27% (Siziya S et al., 2007), much higher than our
findings. Another study conducted among 18-23 year-old college students in
India found 14% prevalence of cigarette smoking (Athavale AV et al., 1997).
It is apparent from the lifetime prevalence data that very few students had tried
illicit drugs. This might be due to students didn’t get these illicit drugs easily,
and the possession and use of these drugs results in penalty under the law of the
country.
The reasons given by the study participants for chewing khat were to increase
academic (work) performance, to get personal pleasure, to stay awake and due to
peer pressure. This is in line with other research done in Jimma, Gondar and
Butajira (Kebede Y, 2002).
This finding, unlike other studies, shows that being a Muslim was not strongly
and positively associated with khat use, but it was inversely related with lifetime
& current use of alcohol. In contrast, belonging to Orthodox Christianity was
strongly and positively associated with alcohol use. In São Paulo, a study
indicated that practicing a religion among university students was found as a
protective factor of psychoactive substance use (Silva L et al., 2006).
Based on the findings of the present study, the followings are hereby
recommended: (1) the college should inform their students about the academic, health
66
and socioeconomic impacts associated with substance use. However, there is a need
for further qualitative and quantitative studies to further investigate the effect of
substance use on academic achievement and health, particularly among students
before a conclusive statement could be made on substance use; (2) Intervention
activities to bring about behavioural changes among the students on the danger of use of
Khat, alcohol and other drugs are recommended.
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69
4. ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION OF GRADUATING
STUDENTS: CASE STUDY ON RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE, ADAMA MAIN CAMPUS
Wubitu Elias Gemedu
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to assess the entrepreneurial intention of
graduating students of Rift Valley University College Adama main campus and
to recommend important solutions for the problems observed in the area of
entrepreneurship of graduating students. A large number of students are
graduating from both public and private universities each year. However most of
them are facing a difficulty of finding a job as a result they become unemployed
and dependent on their families.
The study was descriptive research which uses qualitative data. Focus group
discussion and Semi structured interview were used as data collection tool.
From the focus group discussion conducted with the graduating students of the
University College it was found that the students have intention of being an
employee of a recognized organization and paid higher salary. There are also
students who only want to have a job in any organization even if the salary is
minimum. It is found that the students have a need to have their own business
however they fear the risk associated with the business. The challenges of
graduate entrepreneurs found to be lack of capital, cultural impact, fear of loss
and lack of support from the concerned body.
From the finding of the study we can conclude that the students want to have
their own business but they lack confidence and dedication to continue. Even if
they believe that they will be richer if they have their own business they did not
want go through because of their fear of the risk associated with the business.
However they become interested on entrepreneurship after they take the course
entrepreneurship and small business management. This shows that if the
university college engaged in different campaign of awareness creation and
training it will be possible to create students who have the intention to become
an entrepreneur. Since the problem observed is lack of awareness on the side of
the students as well as the society, the university college should facilitate
symposiums and experience sharing programs for graduating students.
70
1. Introduction
1.1. Background of the study
The word entrepreneurship and entrepreneur is sometimes used interchangeably,
however there is a difference between the two terms. Entrepreneurship is the
process of starting a new venture, whereas an entrepreneur is a person who starts
a new venture. Therefore entrepreneurship is a process and an entrepreneur is a
person who is in charge of that process. In theoretical world there is no universal
definition of the words entrepreneurship and entrepreneur since these are the
theories that are controversial in nature. An entrepreneurship as a subject had
explain what an entrepreneur is, but still there is no universal definition for both
of them. According to Gary(1993), over 200 years of the study of
entrepreneurship have provided many definitions of the word “entrepreneur.”
However, no theory of entrepreneurship has been developed that would explain
or predict when an entrepreneur, by any of the definitions, might appear or
engage in entrepreneurship. Besides entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs have
different meaning in developing and developed countries. In case of advanced or
developed countries entrepreneur is who innovates or creates new business
venture, but in the case of developing countries anybody who starts a business is
an entrepreneur, i.e. in developing economies self employed individuals are
entrepreneurs. Since this study is conducted in one the developing countries of
the world, Ethiopia, it will use the definition of an entrepreneur who starts
his/her own business but should not be necessarily for the first time, generally
self employed individual.
Entrepreneurship is the current issue of the globe since it is becoming influential
in the nations’ economy. As George et al (2008) points out entrepreneurs are
essential for economic development. The developed countries of the world had
used the entrepreneurial skill of their society for their development.
71
Entrepreneurs are capable of employing themselves and creating employment
opportunities for the others. Engaging in entrepreneurship practice is important
for both the society and the entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs can self actualize by
being an entrepreneur since they are their own boss which make them possess
mental satisfaction. Beside it can be useful for the society by creating
employment, by utilizing resource and by improving the life of the society.
Therefore, improving the culture of entrepreneurship is very important for the
country to grow.
Entrepreneurs have some traits or characteristics that make them different from
other ordinary individuals. These includes spending less, taking initiative, being
highly competitive, exploiting change, dealing with uncertainties, seeking
opportunities, motivation and positive attitude, risk taking, flexibility and taking
responsibility. In addition Dawit et al (2005) added good health, self confidence,
and locus of control, independence and need for achievement, sense of urgency,
comprehensive awareness, realism, conceptual ability, interpersonal relationship,
emotional stability, optimism, courage and tolerance of ambiguity as an
entrepreneur characteristic. As they have pointed out these characteristics are not
possessed by all entrepreneurs and they are not a precondition to become an
entrepreneur, however these characteristics are possessed by most of the
entrepreneurs. Beside these characteristics are learnable even though this may
require dedication and effort. Being an entrepreneur is not easy one time process
rather it will be realized overtime by careful and dedicated individuals.
Having entrepreneurial intention is not necessarily meant being an entrepreneur
but it is the first step to be an entrepreneur. As Diemo et al (2011)
entrepreneurial intent is the first critical step in the process of becoming an
entrepreneur. Entrepreneurial intention can be influenced by the environment in
which the person belongs. As Gary(1993) states it can be supportive and may
72
provide obstacles to the entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurial talent is also one of
influential factor to have entrepreneurial intention. It can be the first step to build
entrepreneurial intention. Even if the entrepreneurial intention can be influenced
by the environment and the talent of the individual, the entrepreneurs need
resources to pursue. As George et al (2008) states an entrepreneur uses economic
and human resources to implement their ideas. Since the study concerns on
graduating students, it is known that they may take the course entrepreneurship
and small business management. According to the literature this course can
influence the students’ intention to become an entrepreneur.
1.2.Statement of the Problem
In Ethiopia there are public universities as well as private colleges and university
colleges. There are many students that are graduating from these institutions
each year. However, it is known that the employment sector is too tight to accept
the whole graduating students. That is why the young population of the country
is suffering from being unemployed. It is advisable to start entrepreneurial
venture for these youngsters rather than sitting and waiting for an employment.
Beside, entrepreneurship will also play a critical role in improving the economy
of the country. As George et al (2008) says it is essential for economic
development. Therefore entrepreneurship practice should be developed among
the society specially graduating students. However the gap that is observed is the
problem of how to make graduating students entrepreneur. As Diemo et al
(2011) indicates entrepreneurial intent is the first critical step in the process of
becoming an entrepreneur. Having in mind this point from the literature, the
researcher believes that the graduating students become an entrepreneur if they
have the intention to be an entrepreneur. The graduating students of Rift Valley
University College Adama main campus will become a valuable asset for
73
themselves, their family and their country if they have the intention to become
an entrepreneur then actually become an entrepreneur. The University College
should be able to create an entrepreneur to participate in the development of
country’s economy. This may be possible if it can develop the student’s
intention to become an entrepreneur and to show its students the way to solve the
problems of becoming an entrepreneur. This will be possible if the university
college become aware of the intention of the students after their graduation and
the challenges that the students may face if they have planned to engage in
entrepreneurial activities. Since there is no a study conducted on this area the
university college lacks information on the intention of its students on
entrepreneurship and the
problem that makes the students fear of
entrepreneurship. This study will fill this gap by assessing the entrepreneur
intention of graduating students of the University College and the problem that
the students claim to be hindrance of being an entrepreneur.
1.3.Significance of the study
The study had the following importance in the academics and practical world:
 The study conducted in this area is rarely available; therefore the
study can be used as a reference material for academicians and
other researchers on the area. The study would be a stepping
stone for other researchers who have a plan to conduct a study on
the area.
 The study would provide recommendations based on the findings
or the results obtained. The recommendations that are forwarded
by the study would be used by Rift Valley University College to
be able to create graduate entrepreneurs.
74
1.4.Objectives of the study
1.4.1.
General Objective
The general objective of the study is to assess the entrepreneurial intention of
graduating students of Rift Valley University College Adama main campus.
1.4.2.
Specific Objectives
The followings are the specific objectives of the study:
 To identify the students intention of employment after graduation
 To identify the students intention to become an entrepreneur after
graduation
 To identify factors that can shape the entrepreneurial intention of
graduating students of Rift Valley University College Adama main
campus.
 To identify the challenges that the graduating students claim as
obstacles of being an entrepreneur.
 To identify the ways that the institutions should go through in order to
create graduate entrepreneurs.
1.5.Research Questions
 What is the employment intention of the students of Rift Valley
University College after their graduation?
 Do the graduating students of Rift Valley University College have the
intention to become an entrepreneur?
 What are the factors that contribute to the intention of the students to
become an entrepreneur?
 What are the challenges that the students claim to be the obstacles of
being an entrepreneur?
 What are the ways that the institutions should follow in order to build
entrepreneurial intention among the graduating students?
75
1.6.Limitation or Scope of the Study
The study will be conducted on the area of entrepreneurial intention of
graduating students of Rift Valley University College Adama main campus.
Given the narrow employment opportunities in Ethiopia, graduating students of
both private and public universities should possess entrepreneurial intention.
This will make the students capable of running their own business rather than
sitting and waiting for employment. Rift Valley University College Adama main
campus is selected for the study. The recommendations of the study can be used
by other campuses of the university college and other private universities which
have the same characteristics with Rift Valley University College Adama main
campus.
1.7. Methodology
1.7.1. Research Design
This study would assess the entrepreneurial intention of graduating students of
Rift Valley University College Adama main Campus. Therefore it is case study
research type which takes Rift Valley University College Adama main campus
as a case for the study. It has qualitative research design that describes the aim of
graduating students of the University College regarding employment after
graduation and being entrepreneur after graduation. Since it is descriptive
research type it will use qualitative data as an input for the research.
76
1.7.2. Data Collection Method
The data that was used for the study was of primary in nature. The data was
collected from the graduating students of Rift Valley University College and
instructors of the course entrepreneurship and small business management in the
University College. Semi structured interviews and focus group discussions were
used as data collection tool. Focus group discussions were conducted with the
graduating students of Rift Valley University College from graduating
departments. Semi structured interview was conducted with instructor’s of the
course Entrepreneurship and small business management of the university
college.
1.7.3. Method of Sampling
The data was collected from graduating students of Rift Valley University
College Adama main campus and entrepreneurship and small business
management instructors of Rift Valley University College Adama main campus.
In the campus there are three faculty namely, Faculty of Business and Social
Science, Faculty Technology and Faculty of Health. In the Faculty of Business
and Social Science there are four departments Business Management, Sociology,
Accounting and Law. Faculty of Technology has departments of Information
system and construction management. Faculty of Health has nursing, health
officer, medical Lab and pharmacy. The sample was taken only from the
departments who will graduate its students in 2013 academic year. The stratified
sampling technique was used to group the population in to different strata based
on the department they are in. From the strata the sample was selected using
simple random sampling.
77
1.7.4. Method of Data Analysis and presentation
The data that was collected through semi structured interview and focus group
discussions. Four instructors of the course Entrepreneurship and small business
management were selected for interviews. Focus group discussions were
conducted with randomly selected from TVET and first degree graduating
students of Rift Valley University College Adama main campus. The first two
focus group discussion was conducted with TVET and first degree graduating
students of Faculty of Business and Social Science. The third focus group
discussion was conducted with TVET graduating students of the Faculty of
Technology. Finally, the last two focus group discussion was conducted with
TVET and first degree graduating students of Faculty of Health. The data
collected from both the interview and focus group discussion is summarized and
narrated by the researcher. The data collected from the all interviews was
summarized and narrated. In addition, the data from the focus group discussion
was analyzed separately in the case of TVET and first degree graduating
students of Rift Valley University College Adama main campus.
2. Data Analysis
2.1.Analysis of Interview
Semi
structured
interview
was
conducted
with
the
instructors
of
Entrepreneurship and small business management of Rift Valley University
College Adama main campus. The interview was held for the objective of
assessing the students’ intention of being an entrepreneur and the problems
associated with entrepreneurial intention of graduating students.
The interview has six questions however the researcher adds some questions
based on the answers provided by the instructor. Hence the questions were
flexible enough for the researcher to ask related questions, in fact this is the
78
reason why semi structure interview questions was used to collect data from the
instructors. The data collected by the interview questions was summarized and
analyzed as follows:
1.
How long do you teach the course Entrepreneurship and small business
management in Rift Valley University College and other institutions?
The instructors have one year up to five years experience in teaching the course
entrepreneurship and small business management in different higher education
institutions including Rift Valley University College. Therefore they have
experience which makes them capable of evaluating their students with regard to
their entrepreneurial intention.
2.
Do you think graduating students have to engage in entrepreneurship as
their future carrier? Why?
The students have to engage in entrepreneurial activities after their graduation.
There are no private and public enterprises that can accommodate the graduates
from different higher education institutions. Therefore, unemployment might be
major reason for temptation of self employment. Since there is unemployment
problem in the country the student forced to start their own business and also the
government gives higher support to them to be an entrepreneur.
The instructors think that the course Entrepreneurship and small business
management impress the students to consider entrepreneurship as mostly
preferred future carrier so as to change themselves, their family and the country
as the whole. In addition the students realized that job opportunities are
becoming lower than ever before in the labor market.
3.
What did you do to develop the intention of the students to be an
entrepreneur?
The instructors had told the students the importance of entrepreneurship and the
benefit of being an entrepreneur. From the four instructors three of them had
79
facilitated the students to receive an experience from successful entrepreneurs by
inviting an entrepreneur in the class.
The main objective of the course by itself is to create intentions/desires so as to
make graduates create their own jobs after their graduation. In order to achieve
this objective the instructors have used different strategies:

Providing
a
beautiful
and
action
oriented
concepts
of
entrepreneurship.

Showing that how much is our country is a land of opportunities for
those who want to become an entrepreneur.

By directing them to involve and actively participate in micro and
small enterprise to benefit themselves and other citizens.

Aware them concerning the role and policy of government to
encourage micro and small enterprise to the people through facilitating
several things to develop entrepreneurial culture in the communities
including financial support.

Giving assignment of business idea generation and business plan
preparation

Group discussion and case study on successful entrepreneurs in
Ethiopia and in other countries.
4.
Do you make the students conduct a business plan as a partial requirement
of the course? Have you seen an intention to be an entrepreneur in their
business plan?
One of the instructors had answered this question as it is difficult to determine
the intention from the business plan prepared. But three of them said that they
know the entrepreneurial intention of their students by seeing the students’
business plan conducted for partial fulfillment of the requirement for the course
entrepreneurship and small business management. The business plan was
visionary in that we can say that the students see entrepreneurship as an
80
alternative for their future carrier. In fact the instructors see the students’ deep
intention to be an entrepreneur from their dedication to prepare the business
plan.
Some of the instructors had realized that students have the intention to be an
entrepreneur rather than being the employee of the company. They have said that
the students understand being an entrepreneur is better than being the employee
of a company.
5.
What are the challenges that the students may face for being an
entrepreneur?
The instructors had explained the factors that they think can be challenges faced
by the graduating students to be an entrepreneur. The following are the factors:
 Absence of entrepreneurship enrichment centre
 Cultural impact, resistance from their families and peers
 Lack of commitment on the side of the students
 Fear of uncertainty or risk
 Lack of seed(beginning) capital, i.e. financial problem (inaccessibility
of credit)
 Lack of appropriate condition, lack of suitable environment for them to
start a business
 Absence and lack of knowledge on how to identify business
opportunities
 Lack of training regarding entrepreneurship and other business related
concept.
 Despite their eagerness to become entrepreneur, they don’t have enough
knowledge to act up on their intention.
6.
What do you think that the University College should do to develop the
intention of graduating students to be an entrepreneur and to create self
employed citizen?
81
The instructors had said a lot of things that the university college should to
produce self employed citizen. Their idea about the matter is summarized as
follows:
 The institution should change its curriculum. Especially, the course
entrepreneurship should be practical oriented than theoretical oriented.
And the institutions should arrange different symposium and workshops
on Entrepreneurship, Invite successful entrepreneurs to they share
experience and success history to the students.
 The university college should organize the students in micro and small
business enterprise by coordinating with the concerned body.
 The University college must link the students with saving and credit
society to overcome their financial problem
 Providing training on entrepreneurship for students
 Dealing with governmental body to develop entrepreneurial carrier
 Discussing
with
financial
institutions,
government
and
nongovernmental organizations (NGO) to enhance entrepreneurial
culture in the community.
 Eventually, the university college not only gives emphasis to graduating
trainees (students) but also must consider academic staff and
administrating staff to make them entrepreneur.

2.2.Analysis of Focus Group Discussion
Focus group discussions were conducted with graduating students of Rift Valley
University College Adama main Campus.
82
Table 2.1: Graduating students of RVUC Adama main campus
S.N
1
Faculties/Departments
Degree
TVET
Total
Department of Business Management
176
29
205
Department of Accounting
318
200
518
Department of Sociology and Social
148
-
148
-
24
24
-
54
54
-
71
71
-
43
43
-
21
21
87
87
111
186
84
84
724
1,441
Faculty of Business and Social
Science
Anthropology
Department of Secretary
2
Faculty of Technology
Department
of
Construction
management
Department of surveying
Department
of
information
technology
Department of Soil and Water
3
Faculty of Health
Department of Nursing
Department of Pharmacy
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Department of Laboratory
Total
717
Source: Registrar offices of RVUC Adama main campus
Based on the data received from the registrar of the university college, Rift
Valley University College Adama main campus has 1,441 graduate students for
the academic year of 2013. From this 717 are first degree graduates and 724 are
TVET graduates. For the purpose of the students five consecutive focus group
83
discussions was conducted with this graduating students. The participants of
focus group discussion were six up to nine in number. The number of focus
group participants was not more than nine so as to give the participants equal
chance to discuss in the discussion.
Table 2.2. The number of focus group discussion participants
S.N
Faculty
Total
of
1
Number
Number of focus
graduating
group discussion
students
participant
TVET
253
8
Degree
642
9
189
7
TVET
282
8
Degree
75
6
Total
1,441
38
Faculty of Business and Social
Science
2
Faculty of Technology
TVET
3
Faculty of Health
Source: Registrar offices of RVUC Adama main campus
On the focus group discussion the students have said a lot about their plan after
their graduation. The followings are the points that are raised by the students
about their intention after graduation and the challenges associated with it. Since
the students of TVET and Degree students are separated when gathering a data,
the data will be analyzed separately as follows:
84
2.2.1. Focus group discussion with TVET Students
1.
What is your plan or intention after graduation? Where do you find
yourself in 5 years?
The students agree that graduates should create a job for themselves rather than
sitting and waiting for employment. Most of them however want to be the
employee of an organization till they get an experience and finance to create
their own jobs. There are also students that are actually considering organizing
themselves in groups and forming micro enterprise without being an employee
of the organization in any level.
The students were asked where they get themselves within five years. Half of the
participants of the focus group discussion have said that they want to upgrade
their education level and they have planned to be first degree graduates after five
years from now. The other half of the participants have said that they want to be
owners of small business and work to help themselves, their family and the
society as a whole.
2.
Do
you
think
that
graduating
students
should
engage
in
entrepreneurship as their future carrier? What is the importance of
being an entrepreneur?
All graduating students that participate the focus group discussion all agrees that
students should consider entrepreneurship as their future carrier after their
graduation. They have mentioned the following as the benefits possessed from
entrepreneurship and by being an entrepreneur:
85
 Entrepreneurship will create employment opportunity for others
 It create wealth for an entrepreneur rather depending on monthly
salary
 The entrepreneur may use his/her maximum effort for his own/ her
own company. Using maximum resources will best utilize human
resource in the country.
3.
Have you ever think about being an entrepreneur?
All of the participants of focus group discussion think about being an
entrepreneur sometime. However, they fear uncertainty or risk associated with
the business. Some of the students see being the employee of the organization as
wasting time for minimum satisfaction. In contrast there are students who want
to be the employee of a company before they become an entrepreneur so as to
take experience from the existing organizations and proceed to create their own
organization.
4.
What do you do to be an entrepreneur?
Continuing the third question which asks the students if they are thinking to be
an entrepreneur sometime, the fourth question was asked to know whether they
do anything or not to realize their dream of being an entrepreneur. Students
claim skill and experience is needed on the part of the students to be an
entrepreneur. Therefore, they are building these two to be an entrepreneur.
Some of the students had planned to go through entrepreneurship after their
graduation not now. As they have said they had agreed with their peers to
coordinate a group for a business after their graduation. They have planned to
generate profitable idea, to study the feasibility of the business idea, to conduct a
business plan and raise capital from source of funds by taking experience from
86
other entrepreneurs. However, these students fear that they may not get the
required capital for the business.
5.
What do you think is the challenges to be an entrepreneur?
The students were also asked what are the challenges that they think or face to
be an entrepreneur. In the discussion the students have share their experience
regarding the subject area. They have said that there is bureaucracy in
government office which demotivate them and make them give up. The
followings are the challenges of an entrepreneur mentioned by the students:
 Shortage of capital
 Lack of strategic location for business
 Fear of loss or uncertainty
 Market unavailability, absence of customer and promotional problems
to advertise the product
 Lack of support from the concerned bodies and frauds (From the
students experience)
 Shortage of inputs materials
6.
What is the effect of the course Entrepreneurship and small business in
your intention to be an entrepreneur?
The students had taken the course entrepreneurship and small business
management in their study. The sixth discussion question was asked to know if
there is any effect the course has on students’ entrepreneurial intention and
potential. TVET graduating students of Rift Valley University Adama main
campus had explained the effect of entrepreneurship and small business
management course as follows:
87
 The students has explained that the course had thought them saving.
 The course had thought them to have planned carrier beside they have
said that they become capable of advising other how to plan and save.
 The course had motivated them to work hard and to pursue in any
opportunity they may found.
 The students has said that the course had create a desire of being an
entrepreneur rather than waiting around for employment.
 After all the students said that they are capable of doing business plan,
therefore it will be simple for them to engage in entrepreneurship
activity.
7.
What do you think does the university college should do to develop
entrepreneurial intention of graduating students and to create
entrepreneurs or self employed citizen?
Finally the students were asked what they are expecting from the University
college regarding the entrepreneurial intention of graduating students. The
summary of the discussion on question number seven is analyzed as follows:
 Practical attachment for the students in order to make them aware of the
real working environment and relate it with the theory they are learning.
 Creating awareness for the students regarding Entrepreneurship
 The University College should have linkage with organization so that
the students will get an experience and even be hired in the
organizations
 To provide the resource that entrepreneur student needed by
cooperating with the concerned body.
 Counseling and advising service for the students who have business
idea
88
 To allow student to work in the school compound, for example services
like tea house and copy machine
 The teaching learning process should not be only based on theoretical
aspect of the subject. The students have said that they want to see what
they have learned practically. For example the students of Construction
management department want to see the theory they have learned
practically.
 Starting from the beginning the students should be capable of making
business, entrepreneurship course and entrepreneurial training should
be given from the beginning not at the last year.
 The university college should coordinate innovators and creators, give
them an opportunity to use their talent.

2.2.2. Focus group discussion with degree students
Same discussion questions were presented for focus group discussion conducted
with the first degree graduating students of Rift Valley University College
Adama main campus. The information received from the discussion is analyzed
as follows:
1.
What is your plan or intention after graduation? Where do you find
yourself in 5 years?
The discussion was conducted with graduating students of first degree from
different departments. As in the case of TVET students the first question was
about the students’ employment intention after their graduation and their plan in
5 years.
89
The students who are the employee of the organization had planned to do their
job in the higher position that the organization will give to them after their
graduation. From the participants of the discussion there are students who want
to be masters holders in five years by upgrading their education.
The students who want to be the employee of an organization takes the lions
share. They want to be an employee of an organization that pays the higher
salary such as NGOs (Nongovernmental organizations). Even some of them
want to be the employee of any organization in respective of its salary level.
Students, who has a family that have their own business, wants to takeover and
work in their family’s business. Even if they are small in number there are
students who want to be an owner of small business within five years. These
students want to work individually so as to avoid the risk of working in group.
The intention to become an entrepreneur exists in all discussion participants
mind, however because of their fear of risks they want to be hired in an
organization.
2.
Do
you
think
that
graduating
students
should
engage
in
entrepreneurship as their future carrier? What is the importance of
being an entrepreneur?
All participants of focus group discussion had agreed that being an entrepreneur
is more beneficial than being the employee of public or private companies. They
have mentioned the following as the importance of entrepreneurship and being
an entrepreneur.
 Entrepreneurship will reduce the problem of an unemployment
 Entrepreneurs help themselves, their family and their country
90
 If they become successful, entrepreneurs are richer than the employee
of any company.
 People use their maximum effort in their own business
3.
Have you ever think about being an entrepreneur?
All participants are thinking about being an entrepreneur sometime. However
they fear risks associated with owning a business. Therefore after their
graduation their first choice is to be hired by an existing organization. Given its
risk the students had said that they consider entrepreneurship if they have no
opportunities to be hired in the organizations.
4. What do you do to be an entrepreneur?
The following have done by students who want to be an entrepreneur:
 Some of the students had said that they are coordinating themselves to
form a group that will engage in a business after their graduation.
 Students coordinate some experience sharing programs to take
experience from the existing entrepreneurs.
 Even some students are scanning their environment to engage in
entrepreneurship after their graduation. They are scanning their
environment to know whether they get a place for their business, about
fund providers of the country and availability of market.
5.
What do you think is the challenges to be an entrepreneur?
The students have the intention to be an entrepreneur after their graduation
however they fear the following obstacles to proceed:
 Market unavailability during the first phase of their business.
 Lack of commitment on the part of graduating students
91
 Peer
and
family
pressure,
College
graduate
engaging
in
entrepreneurship activity is seen as a failure in the family and the
society as a whole.
 Difficulty of criteria to be an entrepreneur as micro enterprise so it is
difficult to penetrate given the existence of bureaucracy for starting
micro enterprise.
 Lack of comfortable place for starting a business
 Shortage of capital, Difficulty in fund raising
6.
What is the effect of the course Entrepreneurship and small business in
your intention to be an entrepreneur?
The participants of focus group discussion of graduating students was asked if
there is any effect on their intention of being an entrepreneur by one of the
course they take in the university college. This course is entrepreneurship and
small business management the students had explained its effect as follows:
 The course make them aware of the subject
 They know what is needed to be an entrepreneur
 The course had thought them how to write a business plan and give them the
ability to write business plan
 It teaches some ideas how to implement business plan
 It teaches the students on the area of budgeting, source of fund and market
analysis
 The course teaches the challenges and risk associated with being an
entrepreneur. This makes the students to carefully scan their environment
with respect to their business idea. The course had make them form micro
enterprise by coordinating themselves in groups to distribute the risk. In
92
addition, the course had kept the idea of using adaptation rather than
creating new technology.

After they take the course they consider entrepreneurship as possible
opportunity for their future carrier.
Even though the students know
entrepreneurship from media and other sources the course had strengthen
their thinking on entrepreneurship and an entrepreneur.
7.
What do you think does the university college should do to develop
entrepreneurial intention of graduating students and to create
entrepreneurs or self employed citizen?
Finally the participants of focus group discussion were asked if they are
expecting anything from the University College that can build the graduating
students’ entrepreneurial intention. The content of the discussion was analyzed
as follows:
 The students expect the university college to facilitate advising service and
fund raising service for the students who are planning to be an entrepreneur
after their graduation.
 Intermediate between the students and the government by creating an
agreement with the government.
 Focus on training the instructor of the course entrepreneurship and small
business management. The course should be practical not only theoretical.
 The University College should have an entrepreneurial centre that the
students will use to create new things.
 Since the students are facing pressure from the society, it will be good for
the university college to create awareness on the part of the society.
93
 Since the students had a problem of location to implement their business
idea, the university college is expected to supply a place where the students
can implement their business idea.
3. Conclusion and Recommendation
3.1. Summary and Conclusion
Based on the information gained from the graduating students and instructors the
followings are concluded:
 The instructors of the course entrepreneurship and small management
and graduating students of Rift Valley University College believe that
the students should engage in entrepreneurial activities after their
graduation. Given the fact that there is unemployment problem in the
country the students should consider to be self employed by creating
employment opportunity for themselves and for others. After all, the
benefit gained by being an entrepreneur is greater than the benefit
gained by being an employee of an organization.
 The instructor’s of the course entrepreneurship and small business
management in Rift Valley University College had thought the course
for one up to five years in different academic institutions. From their
experience the instructor’s had done many things to develop their
students’ intention to be an entrepreneur. Many of the course delivery
method they had used is theoretical in nature except for the instructors
who had invite an entrepreneur to share experience for the students. We
can conclude that even though it is not enough the instructors had strive
to create entrepreneurs from the students of Rift Valley University
College Adama main campus.
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 As a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the course
Entrepreneurship and small business management the students had done
business plan. Since their assignments were checked by the course
instructors, the instructors were asked if they realize the students’
intention of being an entrepreneur from their business plan. One of the
instructors the researcher had interviewed said that it is difficult to say
something about the students’ intention to be an entrepreneur by simply
seeing the business plan they have conducted. However three of them
had said that they know the students have the intention to be an
entrepreneur in that they have prepared the business plan well which
shows that they are dedicated and they are visionary to implement the
plan. Therefore we can conclude that the focus that the students give in
preparing the business can show how they want to engage in
entrepreneurial activities.
 Even though the students have the intention to become an entrepreneur
there are challenges that the students fear to engage in entrepreneurship.
Absence of seed capital, cultural impact and fear of risk or uncertainties
are among the major challenges that are mentioned by the instructors.
 The graduating students of Rift Valley University College had the
intention to become an entrepreneur after their graduation. However
some of them had the intention to become an employee of an existing
organization before they create an organization of their own.
 Although students have the intention to become an entrepreneur there
are challenges that the students fear to continue in implementing their
business idea. However there are students who have tried to start micro
enterprise while they are learning. Shortage of capital, fear of loss and
lack of support from the concerned bodies are among the challenges
that the students had faced in implementing their business idea. In
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general, the challenges that are mentioned by the students and
instructors are lack of capital, fear of uncertainties or risk, cultural
impact and lack of support from the concerned body.
 The course Entrepreneurship and small business management had made
the students aware of entrepreneurship concepts and had developed the
intention of the students to become an entrepreneur. This supports a
literature which states that entrepreneurship and small business
management course minimizes the cost of being an entrepreneur.
 The course entrepreneurship and small business management was taken
by the students at the last year of their study and it only lasts in class
room. It can be concluded that the course delivery is theoretical in the
University College.
3.2. Recommendation
Based on the conclusions made, the following recommendations were
forwarded:
 The University College should change its curriculum to incorporate
more of the practical aspect of the courses delivered.
 The University College should facilitate practical attachments for the
students so as to make them get an experience from the working
organization.
 The course entrepreneurship and small business management should be
given on the first year of the students study. Different training and
experience sharing should be conducted since then so as to make
students capable of being an entrepreneur after their graduation.
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 The University College should facilitate for the students to have
beginning capital by negotiating with micro finance institutions and
other financial institutions.
 The university college should give an advising service for the students
who wants to be an entrepreneur.
 The university college should prepare training program on the area of
entrepreneurship for the students.
 The university college should prepare symposium of awareness
creation in the area of entrepreneurship for the society and other
concerned bodies.
 The university college should invite successful entrepreneurs to share
experience for the students.
 The university college should organize its students in micro and small
enterprise, as well as communicate with the concerned bodies by being
an intermediate.
Implication for future researchers
This study was conducted on the area of entrepreneurial intention of graduating
students of Rift Valley University Adama main campus. The data was collected
from graduating students of Rift Valley University College and the instructors of
the course Entrepreneurship and small business management of the campus and
conclusions are made accordingly. It studies the challenges of entrepreneurial
practice on the side of graduating students of the campus. The recommendations
were forwarded for the university college so as to make it a producer of
entrepreneurs. As it is observed from the discussion conducted with the
graduating students who had tried to be an entrepreneur they faced a problem in
legalizing their business venture. Therefore the future researchers are
97
recommended to study the government policies on the area of entrepreneurship
and their implementation.
Reference
Dawit Arega and Dawit Ayalew (2005), Entrepreneurship: A challenging
Expedition to Success, New Abyssinia College.
Diemo
Urbig,
Utz
Weitzel,
Stephanie
Rosenkranz
and
Arjen
van
Witteloostuijn(2011), Exploiting opportunities at all cost? Entrepreneurial intent
and externalities, Journal of Economic Psychology 33 379–393
Gary E. Willard(1993), Towards A Theory Of Entrepreneurship, University Of
Illinois At Urbana-Champaign
George Manu, Robert Nelson, John Thiongo and Klaus Haftendorn(2008), “Why
Entrepreneurship?”, International Training Centre of the ILO, International
Labour Office, Geneva
98
5.
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL CLUBS IN IMPROVEMENT OF
HIGHER EDUCATION QUALITY
Wubetu Mesele
Abstract
The central purpose of social clubs is to provide benefits to members, including
access to social and recreational facilities .When such benefits are funded by
members, exemption of tax has been justified by the members will be in the same
position as if they had paid for the benefits directly. The practical effect of the
exemption is to allow individuals to join together to provide themselves with
recreational or social opportunities on a mutual basis without further tax
consequences.
The research presented in this report has been undertaken to clarify what is
meant by social clubs and integrated provision with higher education quality
and to advance knowledge a little further about how to achieve about its benefits
and about how it is experienced on the ground by students. The research
undertaken assessed social clubs role in improving higher education quality.
A major purpose for the existence of social clubs in higher education is to assist
those institutions that are developing their higher education infrastructures especially those that intend to encourage, support, and enhance enrolment of
students so that they are able to be successful in their life work and careers and
meet the needs of society. An effective student participation in social clubs
operation is essential to meeting those goals.
The study focuses on primary (Interview and questioners) and secondary sources
(reviewed documents and printed literature were used).
The study found out that, the existence of social clubs may not properly function
and students were not participated.
This study recommends that there should be that university college education
must place students at the center of its focus within a lifelong learning
perspective so that they are fully integrated into the global knowledge society of
the twenty-first century. Students must be considered as equal and fundamental
partners and stakeholders in their own education with the right to organize
themselves as they see fit within the context of their educational institutions,
systems, and communities.
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1. Introduction
The wellbeing of higher education students is partly underpinned by their
ongoing social and personal development recent evidence suggests that in
addition to family background and circumstances, personal and social skills
developed in higher education students are a key factor in the determination of
overall life chances. Such skills can be attained through participation in
constructive, structured activity and have been linked to a range of positive
outcomes for young people.
The school environment is one context where young people may attain noncognitive skills to aid in their social and personal development; however,
research suggests that a number of out-of-school contexts, such as social clubs,
can provide more universal access to activities and opportunities for students to
develop. A recent evaluation of the effectiveness of after-school programs
designed to develop personal and social skills among young people in the United
States found that such program succeed in improving feelings and attitudes,
aspects of behaviour and performance in school.
A review of research on out-of-school contexts, also from the United States,
highlighted features of Extra-curricular activities that promote positive
development. Such contexts offer: physical and psychological safety, structure
appropriate to the age and characteristics of the population, opportunities to
develop supportive relationships with peers and trusted adults, a sense of
belonging, positive social norms, opportunities for learning and developing a
wide range of skills, and the mixing of experiences across the family, school and
wider community. It is thought that program offering the above increase
educational achievement and attainment reduce problem behaviors’ and increase
psycho-social skills.
The central purpose of social clubs is to provide benefits to members, including
access to social and recreational facilities such as club houses, golf courses, and
swimming pools. When such benefits are funded by members, exemption has
been justified by Congress on the theory that the members will be in the same
position as if they had paid for the benefits directly. The practical effect of the
exemption is to allow individuals to join together to provide themselves with
recreational or social opportunities on a mutual basis without further tax
consequences. The individual member is in substantially the same position as if
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he or she had spent his or her after-tax income on pleasure or recreation without
the intervening organization.
2. Statement of the problem
The more traditional and most of the not-so-traditional methods of
delivering higher education academic degrees are primarily comprised of
the classroom instructional model or approach. In addition, there is
increasing evidence that higher education must also address the basic
personal needs of students by providing a comprehensive set of out-ofclassroom student services and program commonly referred to as student
affairs and services. These efforts should be designed to enable and
empower students to focus more intensely on their studies and their personal
growth and maturation, both cognitively and emotionally. They should also
result in enhanced student learning outcomes. Another important rationale
for these efforts is economic, because investments in students and student
affairs and services provide a healthy return to national economies as the
investments help to assure students’ success in higher education and their
subsequent contributions to the national welfare.
3. Objectives of study
General objectives
The overall objectives of the research study focus on role of social clubs in
improvement of higher education quality
Specific objectives
4.
Identify major types of social clubs in higher education
5.
Measure the performance of social clubs in higher education
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6.
Identify role of social clubs in improving higher education quality
4. Methodology
4.1 Sample selection
To provide answers to the questions outlined information was collected from
Different Department of regular students Adama Science and Technology
University and Rift valley University college Adama campus and social clubs
adopting a structured and integrated question of provision for case-study
analysis.
4.2 Sample Design
The case study approach allowed for observation of the many interactions and
relationships that occur in the social club environment and provided more indepth information than would be gained through only using structured surveys.
Using this approach, a number of sources of data were triangulated to illustrate
the many dimensions of a social club and created an opportunity for the
gathering of unanticipated information.
4.3 Data Collection Techniques
Data collection instruments were designed to gather information in two main
areas:
For this, information was collected from the five clubs through observations;
discussions with clubs management, including focus groups or interviews with
students; interviews with members; self-completion questionnaires for students
and a review of club documentation on their policies, aims and objectives, and
plans and activities.
5. Results of the study
5.1 Identify major types of social clubs in higher education
There are different types of social clubs/student organization are establish in
higher education. Each of them is their own function /role/ for improving higher
education quality. Some of the core social clubs are listed below.
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Table 1 indicate types of social clubs and major activities in higher
education
Types social clubs
Major Activities
Gender
Mainstreaming Organizing campus events/activities promoting
Clubs
women’s rights and issues.
Guidance and Counselling Engaging in brief individual psychotherapy, crisis
Clubs
intervention and other activities.
Sports/Recreation/Intramu Coordinating recreational programming, facilities, and
rals Clubs
equipment.
Developmental Learning Providing a service to individuals seeking assistance
Centres Clubs
with academic tasks.
Community/Service
Designing service-learning opportunities to match
Learning Clubs
academic programs through cooperative efforts with
the faculty.
Multicultural/Ethnic
Assessing multicultural student needs and developing
Minority Social Clubs
key support systems.
New Student Programs Providing information about the physical layout of the
and Services (Orientation) campus including the location of key offices and
Clubs
functions.
Natural
Resource
Conservation Clubs
Create awareness of society in natural resource
conservation.
In my finding, from the listed main social clubs gender mainstreaming,
Guidance and counselling clubs, Sports/Recreation/Intramurals club, New
Student Programs and Services (Orientation) clubs and Multicultural/Ethnic
Minority social club are the most common and perform their duties and
responsibility.
5.2 How to Measure the performance of social clubs
The performance of those social clubs are depend on the numbers of students,
active participation of members and the commitment of each and every clubs
coordinators and higher institution management support.
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Table 2. Numbers of students participating in social clubs
Types of Social clubs
Female
Male
Gender Mainstreaming Clubs
25
Guidance and Counselling Clubs
22
30
Sports/Recreation/Intramurals
80
130
Clubs
Multicultural/Ethnic
Minority 105
142
Social Clubs
New Student Programs and 57
70
Services (Orientation) Clubs
Total
25
52
210
245
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From the above data, the participation of male students is higher in all types of
social clubs except in gender mainstreaming club. Also in my observation I
recognized that there is a problem in commitment of clubs management and luck
of support from institution.
In general the performances of social clubs are hinder by the following factors:
Luck of mutual understanding between the members.
No guiding principle
Considering social clubs are separate entity
In formal meeting
Less support of higher education management
Neglect issues of volunteerism
5.3 Identify role of social clubs in improving higher education quality
Types of social clubs in higher education and their role in quality education
1. gender mainstreaming clubs
These are important elements in the mainstreaming of gender in education,
which will be guided by overall national goals, objectives and priorities, but
should specifically seek to:
 make explicit the importance of gender along with race/ethnicity and
social class/caste as a factor for consideration in the process of
education;
 ensure gender equity in access both generally, and in relation to studies
which lead to better careers and job opportunities;
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


overcome structural barriers, whether they be legal, economic, political,
or cultural which may influence the access and/or participation of either
sex in educational offerings;
increase the awareness of the active role which women can and do play
in development; and
Increase the participation of women in decision-making in the
management and implementation of education.
Table 3 indicate role of gender mainstreaming clubs in education
quality
Academic Years
Role of Gender Mainstreaming
Clubs
Numbers of women students retained in
higher education
Women student participation in attending
tutorial class.
2010
2011
2012
56%
61.4%
68%
69%
74.8%
81%
3
Women sexual harassed, sexual violence,
19%
13.7%
11%
4
Graduate profile of women students
39%
52%
60%
1
2
From the above data ; Numbers of women students retained in higher education,
Women student participation in attending tutorial class and Graduate profile of
women students are progressively increase from year to year. And also Women
sexual harassment, sexual violence rate are decline due to gender mainstreaming
clubs support.
2. Guidance and counselling clubs
Guidance and counselling are two sides of the same coin. The goal in both cases
is to give an opportunity for an individual to see a variety of available options
and thereafter, assist the person in making a wise choice. Guidance is the process
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that is put in place at a time a choice is to be made. Counselling on the other
hand
i) Helps with considering all sides of a potential choice even before the choice is
made;
ii) Takes place when a choice has been made and there is a need to modify,
reinforce or abandon such a choice.
Consider a new student in a university who is to register for courses in a
program. The course list has two categories - compulsory and elective courses.
The compulsory courses are mandatory. The elective courses offer some choice.
Your effort at assisting the learner to select suitable elective courses provides an
example of guidance service. Assume after registration and some way into the
program, the learner has problems with some courses. Perhaps the learner is
unable to cope with the rigor of work or is having some problems with a course
lecturer.
Table 4. Need and Focus of Guidance and Counselling in Higher
Education
Need
Focus of Guidance and Counselling
To improve the internal Academic guidance for;
efficiency of the system
less able students thus reducing repetition, dropout and
wastage
- average students to sustain stability, and improve;
- Able students to enhance progress from one level
(class) to the other.
To reduce/eliminate anti- Advice on social and academic clubs to join
social activities on campus
- counseling and dialogue on matters that can generate
friction and students' unrest
Counselling on emotional problems
To enhance career and job - job and career advising
prospects of learners
- Relationship between course of study and world of
work.
The internal efficiency of the higher institution is the success rate in the use of
available human and material resources for the pursuit of organizational goals.
Some of the prominent indicators of internal efficiency are the success rates in
the transition of students from one level to another, repetition rate, dropout rate
and graduate output.
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There are several factors which can positively influence internal efficiency. One
of these is guidance and counselling. If repetition and dropout are indicators,
guidance and counselling, therefore, have booster roles to play. Through proper
guidance and counselling, students who would have otherwise dropped out are
retained and have success stories to tell. Guidance and counselling are needed to
reduce and possibly eliminate anti-social activities on our campuses. If the
tempo of dialogue and counselling is increased, there is little doubt that the
tempo of crises in our campuses will drop.
Table 5.
Indicator of internal efficiency
Academic year
1
2
3
4
Indicator of internal efficiency
2010
2011
2012
Success rate
Repetition rate
Dropout rate
Graduate out put
12%
32.3%
21%
47.64%
19.4%
326%
17%
54.4%
27.59%
21.51%
13%
67%
3. Multicultural/Ethnic Minority social clubs
Role /functions
• To provide activities/policies that promote access to developmental, social,
academic, and recreational, higher education programs for qualified persons.
• To provide opportunities for multicultural students to develop the necessary
skills for inclusion into the main culture.
• To develop learning opportunities for the university community to appreciate
its multi-ethnicity and diversity.
• To foster and develop a climate that encourages and promotes the inclusion of
all cultures into a unified, multi-dimensional society.
In my finding the existent of multicultural social clubs are reduced the conflict
among different ethnics groups, share of cultures of different ethnics and create
good national consciences’ among students.
4. Sports/Recreation/Intramurals club
Purpose/functions
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• To develop sports, recreation, and intramural programs based on a student
centered philosophy emphasizing the overall quality of life.
• To conduct sporting and recreation programs that foster academic success by
being respectful of individual differences and promoting excellence.
• To provide participation in a variety of recreational sports activities which
satisfy the diverse needs of students, faculty, and staff, and where appropriate,
guests, alumni and public participants.
• To coordinate the use of campus recreation facilities in cooperation with other
user units, such as athletics, physical education, and student activities.
• To provide extracurricular education opportunities through participation in
recreational sports and the provision of relevant leadership positions.
• To contribute positively to institutional public relations by providing
significant and high-quality recreational sports programming and serving as an
information resource for the community.
• To cooperate with academic units, focusing on the development of a
recreational sports curriculum and accompanying laboratory experiences.
• To promote learning and development in students by encouraging outcomes
such as physical fitness and skill development, satisfying and productive use of
leisure time, appreciation of diversity, achievement of personal
recreation/conditioning goals, and physical maturity.
6. Conclusion and recommendation
6.1 Conclusion
The findings from this research suggest that the role of social clubs has a
positive role to play in contributing to the achievement of the quality education.
Research suggests that participation in structured out-of-class activities is
associated with positive outcomes for students. The information resulting from
this study suggests that the social clubs of provision could lead to similar
outcomes for improving higher education.
Active learning invites students to bring their life experiences into the learning
process, reflect on their own and others' perspectives as they expand their
viewpoints, and apply new understandings to their own lives. Good social clubs
practice provides students with opportunities for experimentation through
programs focused on engaging students in various learning experiences. These
opportunities include experiential learning such as student government;
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collective decision making on educational issues; field-based learning such as
internships; peer instruction; and structured group experiences.
Social clubs practice provides opportunities for students, faculty, staff, and
student affairs educators to demonstrate the values that define a learning
community. Effective learning communities are committed to justice, honesty,
equality, civility, freedom, dignity, and responsible citizenship. Such
communities challenge students to develop meaningful values for a life of
learning. Standards espoused by student affairs divisions should reflect the
values that bind the campus community to its educational mission.
Student learning is enhanced when expectations for student performance inside
and outside the classroom are high, appropriate to students' abilities and
aspirations, and consistent with the institution's mission and philosophy.
Expectations should address the wide range of student behaviours associated
with academic achievement, intellectual and psychosocial development, and
individual and community responsibility. Social clubs practice divisions
systematically describe desired levels of performance to students as well as to
practitioners and regularly assess whether their performances are consistent with
institutional expectations.
6.2 Recommendation
The following recommendations focus on higher education institutions as the
main actors for fostering social clubs in the higher education quality. They are
complemented with recommendations relevant to governments, quality
assurance agencies and other external partners and which are derived from
institutional experiences and the literature on social clubs.
Higher education institutions
 The institutional leadership should embrace its overall responsibility
and balance top-down management with delegating specific decisions
to staff and students, as appropriate, in order to ensure a wide
ownership of change processes within the university community.
 Higher education Top management should give full support for social
clubs.
 Create cooperative frame work agreement among social clubs.
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 Promote the role of social clubs in different social media.
 Integrate social clubs function and role in the education curriculum.
 Top management provides office facilities, technical and financial
support.
 Social clubs management should perform duties and responsibilities
according to rule and regulations.
 Student council facilitates the awareness creation programs for different
stakeholders.
 Social clubs address to alleviate social (community) problems.
 Develop experience sharing mechanism with different social groups.
 Higher official must continuously follow up performance and activities
of social clubs.
 Harmonize social clubs activities in all student service (student affairs).
 Striving towards education quality of individual talents and
experiences among students and staff, providing common for a
researchers from different disciplines and offering diverse learning
experiences will likely result in conditions favorable to the quality of
the higher education. Structured exchanges between the arts and other
disciplines can be particularly fruitful.
 It is recommended that HEIs explore the concept of a learning
organization for their management and governance structures. As
important as these structural elements are, they must be complemented
with ethical and cultural concerns in order to create an institutional
milieu favourable to quality.

Governments
 Legal frameworks, funding mechanisms and policy priorities on the
local/regional, national levels may exert considerable influence on
social clubs within the higher education sector. Governments need to
be aware of their role in advancing the quality agenda and the
responsibilities this entails. Higher education institutions must be
provided with the financial and academic autonomy necessary for
acting on the recommendations outlined in this report. Governments
should provide the necessary frameworks and support to enable HEIs
to base their activities on their values and missions.
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Quality assurance agencies
 Quality assurance agencies should be aware of the potentially
detrimental effects of external quality mechanisms. QA agencies are
invited to explore jointly with higher education institutions how social
clubs may strengthen external quality. The ultimate objective would be
the development of social clubs which foster the quality agenda. This
means placing enhancement and an institution’s capacity to change at
the heart of the evaluation process.
External partners
 Higher education and other sectors of society have long existed in
separate spheres. Consequently, there is a mutual lack of knowledge.
Awareness on both sides of this shortcoming is the first step towards
appropriately addressing this constraint and overcoming it. External
partners are invited to cooperate with higher education institutions on
matters of common interest, leading to mutual benefits and in keeping
with academic values and missions.
Reference
 Bers, T. H., & Smith, K. E. (1991). Persistence of community college
students: The influence of student intent and academic and social
integration. Research in Higher Education, 32, 539–556.

Bean, J., & Metzner, B. (1985). A conceptual model of non-traditional
undergraduate student attrition. Review of Educational Research, 55,
485–540.

Astin, A. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for
higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25, 297–308.

Berger, J. B., & Milem, J. F. (1999). The role of student involvement
and perceptions of integration in a causal model of student persistence.
Research in Higher Education, 39, 103–119.
111
ASSESSMENT OF GAPS BETWEEN COMPETENCIES REQUIRED &
COMPETENCIES ACQUIRED AMONG GRADUATE OF
ACCOUNTING STUDENT
*Mekonnen Soboksa
Abstract
This study was conducted on the assessment of the gap between competencies
acquired by accounting students at collage up on their graduation and the
market demand (competencies required) for accountancy profession. As a
standard, Accountants’ competency skills are capabilities which include
knowledge, professional values, ethics and attitudes to perform accounting and
other tasks required from accountants. These skills can be acquired from the
total effect of the accounting program, specific courses, practical experience and
continuing professional education. The necessary skills/competencies must be
required by professional accountants can be categorized under five groupings,
namely i) technical and functional skills, ii) intellectual skills, iii) personal
skills, iv) interpersonal and communication skills, and v) organizational and
business management skills. But this study mainly assessed the competencies gap on
technical and functional skills, interpersonal and communication skills, and
organizational and business management skills of under graduate accounting students
from private colleges with relation to the current demand of different industries in
Ethiopia for accountancy profession. The result of collected data from 80 sample students
by questionnaire, and focus group discussion indicated that more than 70% of graduate
class students didn’t acquired the necessary full competencies related to technical and
functional skills; and around 80% of graduate class students didn’t acquired the
necessary interpersonal and communication skills, and organizational and business
management skills /competencies to perform full accountancy works as per the required
standard and the demand of the market because of different factors. The assessment
uncovered the following major factors which affect professional competencies of
accounting students at collage such as: limitation of the contents of courses, teaching
and evolution methods, lack of practical activities, lack students’ self motivation, group
and individual study to acquire basic professional knowledge rather than simple/rough
reading for completion of the courses, and lack linkage between educational institutions
and other industries to develop necessary skill.
____________________________________________________________________
112
*Lecturer , (MSc – In Accounting & Finance) , Rift Valley University collage, Department of Accounting Adama
Campus
1. Introduction
Accountant competency skills are capabilities which include knowledge,
professional values, ethics and attitudes to perform accounting and other tasks
required from accountants. These skills are acquired from the total effect of the
accounting program, specific courses, practical experience and continuing
professional education.
IAESB (2010) listed skills required by professional accountants under five
groupings, namely i) intellectual skills, ii) technical and functional skills, iii)
personal skills, iv) interpersonal and communication skills, and v) organizational
and business management skills.
The Higher Education Academy (1998) defined intellectual skills as the ability
to analyze, think critically, evaluate and synthesis information. Accountants need
intellectual skills to make decisions, exercise good judgments and solve
problems. These skills are derived from a combination of knowledge.
Technical and functional skills are skills specific to accountancy as well as
general skills. These skills include skills in numeracy, decision and risk analysis,
measurement, recording, reporting and knowledge in legislation and regulatory
requirements.
Personal skills are skills relate to ability, attitude, capability that an individual
accountant has. These skills can be developed to improve personality and
individual learning.
Interpersonal skills are skills that enable an accountant to work with others for
the benefit of the organization. With these skills, an accountant can influence,
113
motivate, resolve conflict and delegate tasks to his/her team members to achieve
the goals of the organization. In order to achieve that, the accountant must have
good communication skills. Communication skills are skills that enable an
accountant to convey, discuss, listen and defend his/her view, orally and in
writing and in either formal or informal settings.
Organizational and business management skills are important in managing a
business organization in which an accountant is a key member of the
management team. It is important for the accountant to understand all aspects of
organization including its behaviour. The organizational and business management
skills include long-term planning, project management, management of people
and resources, decision making, leadership and professional judgment.
1.1.Statement of the problem
Accounting educators around the world from developed countries to developing countries
are pressured by the industries and the professions to generate graduates with
accountancy skills that satisfy for their changing needs. There are many studies
questioning the effectiveness of accounting education at colleges that prepares
the students for professional accountancy work. (Albrecht & Sack, 2000; Bui &
Porter 2010)
Professional accountancy competency can be determined by accountants’ skills
and capabilities which include: knowledge, professional values, ethics and
attitudes to perform accounting and other tasks required from accountants.
These skills can be acquired from the total effect of the accounting program,
specific courses, practical experience and continuing professional education.
The skills required by professional accountants can be categorized under the
following: i) intellectual skills, ii) technical and functional skills, iii) personal
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skills, iv) interpersonal and communication skills, and v) organizational and
business management skills.
This paper assessed the accountancy skills/competency gap of accounting students
studying at Rift Valley University Collage and other private Collages in Adama city with
the current and future accountancy demand by different industries in our country. The
study investigated the issue (the competency gap) by using a survey method on technical
and functional skills, interpersonal and communication skills, and organizational and
business management skills of accounting students with relation to the demand of
different industries.
1.3. Research questions
1.
Whether the graduating class accounting students acquired the
necessary technical and functional competencies?
2.
Did the graduating class accounting students acquired adequate
competency in interpersonal and organizational communication skills?
3.
Is there any gap between competency acquired in accounting education
at colleges and competency required by industries related to
professional accountancy works?
4.
What factors affect the competencies of students and accounting
education at colleges?
1.4. Objective of the Research
1.4.1.
General objective the study
The main objective of the study is to investigate the gap between competencies
acquired by accounting students in accounting education at colleges and
competency required by industries related to professional accountancy works at
places and professional accountancy competencies standards.
1.4.2.
Specific objectives of the study
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1. To assess and identify areas of technical and functional competencies of
graduating class accounting students acquired at collage.
2. To assess the level of interpersonal and organizational communication
skill/ competency of graduating class accounting students at collage.
3. To identify the gap between competencies required by business industries
and competencies acquired by accounting students at collages.
4. To identify factors that may affect the competency level of students for
professional accountancy works.
1.5.
Scope and limitation of the study
The study mainly focused on the evaluation of the competencies of graduating
class accounting students in 2005 E.C from Rift Valley University collage with
relation to current demand of business industries and accountancy competencies
standards. On the other hand the limitation of the study is the difficulties to
determine the overall competencies issues by such type of single /one time
survey because of different factors.
1.6.
Research methods and methodology
The researcher selected 80 graduating class students from total population around 320
degree program accounting department under graduating class students in 2005 E.C from
RVUC, by simple random sampling method.
The study mainly used primary data that collected by interview, questionnaire
and focus group discussion. Additionally, the research used some knowledge
tests and students academic profile review for cross checking of sample
respondents competencies/ preparation with required professional competencies
in accountancy.
116
The analysis of the data was conducted by tabulation of data, table, percentage
and other statistical tools that supported by description of variables and
explanation of meaning of the data interpretation.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Competencies standards for accountancy profession
According to IAESB (2010), competencies required by professional
accountants under five groupings, namely i) intellectual skills, ii) technical and
functional skills, iii) personal skills, iv) interpersonal and communication
skills, and v) organizational and business management skills.
According to Dr Ion Andone, (2007) International Educational competency,
the Capabilities and Competences of accounting students can be depending on:
Professional knowledge -that covers
all the accounting and business sub-disciplines that
include accounting, finance and related knowledge: financial accounting and
reporting; management accounting and control; taxation; business and
commercial law; audit and assurance; finance and financial management; and
professional values.
Professional skills- that include intellectual skills technical and functional
skills, Personal skills, Interpersonal and communication skills, Organisational
and business management skills, a good general education helps candidates
become broad minded individuals who think and communicate effectively and
who have the basis for conducting inquiry, carrying out logical thinking and
undertaking critical analysis
Professional values, ethics and attitudes that include framework for
exercising professional judgement and for acting in an ethical manner that is in
the best interest of society and profession.
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3, Discussion and result of the study
The collected data analysis designed to evaluate the competencies acquired by
accounting students at collage with regard to the competencies required for
professional accountancy standard set by IAESB and other related qualification
standards. The presentation, discussion and analysis of the data categorized
under the following selected areas of competencies on technical and functional
skills, interpersonal and communication skills, and organizational and business
management skills graduating class of accounting students.
Area of competencies for accountancy profession
The researcher selected areas of competencies for professional accountancy
works based on accounting courses classification and objectives of major
accounting courses. Such as: Financial Accounting, Auditing, Tax Accounting,
Cost and Management Accounting and others.
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Table- 3.1. Selected area of competencies and response of sample students
Response and No of
respondent in %
have
have
have
full
partial
no
compet compete compet
ence
nce
ence
31.50
40.75
27.75
30.00
40.00
30.00
34.50
37.50
28.00
Selected Areas of competencies
Total
%
Maintaining of Purchase transactions
100
Maintaining of Sales transactions
100
Maintaining of Adjusting entries
100
Maintaining of Government and NFP
organ accounting transactions
20.00
45.00
35.00 100
Preparation of financial statements
26.30
43.7
30.00 100
Preparation of Bank reconciliation
11.20
53.80
35.00 100
Preparation of payroll sheet
31.25
43.75
25.00 100
Knowledge and application Financial
reporting standar
18.75
31.25
50.00 100
Maintaining and Providing of Cost and
management information
17.75
36.00
46.25 100
Knowledge and Application of Audit rules
In Ethiopia
12.50
38.75
48.75 100
Knowledge and Application of tax rules in
Ethiopia
11.25
32.00
56.75 100
Organizational and business management
21.25
32.00
46.75
skill
100
Knowledge about professional ethics
21.25
18.75
60.00 100
Leader ship skill in work places
21.25
26.75
52.00 100
Factors which affect the competencies accounting students at collage
As per the response sample respondents, the major factors which affect the
professional competencies of accounting students collage are identified as
follow:
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Table- 3.2. Major factors which affect the competencies of accounting students
Factors identified
No of respondent
In %
Limitation of the contents of courses
32
40
Teaching and evolution methods
35
43.75
Lack of practical activities
45
56.25
Lack of students’ self motivation
36
45
Lack of group and individual study
38
47.75
Primary data
The above table indicated that, the major factors which affect the competencies
of accounting are: lack of practical activities, limitation of the contents of
courses, gaps teaching and evolution methods, lack students’ self-motivation,
group and individual study to acquire basic professional knowledge rather than
simple/rough reading for completion of the courses, and lack linkage between
educational institutions and other industries to develop necessary skills during
their study at collage.
Conclusion
The collected data from 80 sample students by questionnaire, and focus
group discussion
indicated that, around 30% graduating class students
acquired the necessary full competencies related to technical and functional
skills; 42% of graduating class students acquired partial competencies that
need additional trainings, some technical assistance to
improve their
technical and functional skills; 28 % of graduating class students didn’t
acquired the necessary full competencies related to technical and functional
skills (they are not competent).
120
Around 20% of
graduating class students acquired the necessary
interpersonal and communication skills, and organizational and business
management skill; 45% acquired some partial knowledge but, 35% didn’t
acquired necessary knowledge related to interpersonal and communication
skills, and organizational and business management skill
Additionally, the assessment uncovered the following major factors which
affect professional competencies of accounting students at collage such as:
limitation of the contents of courses, teaching and evolution methods, lack of
practical activities, lack students’ self motivation, group and individual study
to acquire basic professional knowledge rather than simple/rough reading for
completion of the courses, and lack linkage between educational institutions
and other industries to develop necessary skill.
Recommendation
Based on the major findings of this study, the researcher provided the following
possible recommendations to improve professional competencies of accounting
students and the quality of accounting education at college to achieve higher
level of professional standards.
Thus, the researcher would like to recommend the university collages,
instructors, curriculum developers, students and other all stakeholders to
undertake the following actions:

The university collage, the department of accounting, and the
instructors should have to improve of adjust the contents of accounting
course to practical accountancy demand in Ethiopia and necessary
standards.
121

The instructors should have to change teaching and learning process to
active/ student centered teaching method that mainly focused on the
practical part of the education.

The collage should have to arrange practical attachment works related
accounting education with industries to improve the practical
competencies and knowledge of the students.

The instructors should have to prepare check list of competencies of all
accounting courses per topics of the courses for knowledge test purpose
in addition to the formal evaluations /exam given for grade purpose.
Reference
Albrecht, S. W. & Sack, R. J. (2000). Accounting education: Charting
the course through a perilous future, accounting education services,
International Journal of Business

Bui, B. & Porter, B. (2010). The expectation-performance gap in
accounting education: an exploratory study. Accounting Education: an
international journal.

Dr. Mohammed Naim Chaker, (2011) What Accountancy Skills Are
Acquired at College? International Journal of Business and Social Science
Vol. 2 No.

IAESB (International Accounting Education Standard Board) (2010),
Accounting Education skill, international journal, Vol. 1 No

Higher Education Academy (1998) International Journal Vol. No

Dr Ion Andone, (2007), The International Educational competency
Journal Vol. 1
122
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8.
GUIDE TO AUTHORS
THE ETHIOPIAN JOURNAL OF QUALITY AND RELEVANT HIGHER
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
You are cordially invited to submit articles for publication in the journal.
Manuscripts may be submitted both electronically and in hardcopy using the
following addresses:
POSTAL ADDRESS:
Editor-in-Chief, the Ethiopian Journal of Quality and
Relevant Higher Education and Training, Rift Valley University
College
P. O. Box 1715 Adama, Ethiopia
E-MAIL: rpo.rvuc@gmail.com
For details of manuscript submission, please refer the ‘Guide to Authors’
below:
1. SCOPE OF THE JOURNAL
The Ethiopian Journal of Quality and Relevant Higher Education and
Training (EJQRHET) is a multi-disciplinary and peer-reviewed journal
published annually by the Research and Post Graduate Office of the Rift Valley
University College. It covers a wide range of research topics focusing chiefly on
the quality and relevance of the Ethiopian higher education. The research aims to
enhance the quality and relevance of the education of professionals in business,
technology, health sciences and social sciences and humanities. It also creates
forms which link education and economic development, University and
enterprise partnership, education as a means of technology and knowledge
interchange, education and quality of life, education and environment, education
and sustainable development and education for cultural enhancement.
EJQRHET also publishes research articles, review articles, short
communications and book reviews. EJQRHET aims to expand knowledge in
basic and applied educational research outputs and development, by providing
access for educational research publications to a broad national and international
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readership including researchers, practitioners, and students interested in
enhancing the quality and relevance of higher education and learning. Articles
are peer-reviewed by at least two referees. Reviewers will remain confidential.
The Editor may reject, before submission to referees, those manuscripts that do
not conform the Guide to Authors‟, or that do not fall within the scope and
purpose of EJQRHET.
2. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Upon submission of a manuscript, the author is required to state that the paper
has not been submitted for publication by any other journal or will not be
submitted to any other journal. Manuscript submission implies that the author or
authors agree to assign copyright to EJQRHET. Manuscripts should be written
in English, with spelling according to recent editions of the Advanced Learner‟s
Dictionary of Current English (OUP). The font size for the text is 12 Times New
Roman.

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Research articles should report original research. They should not
exceed 6000 words in length, including title, abstract and references; 34 tables and 5-6 figures are permitted.
Review articles cover recent advances in and area in which an author
has been actively engaged. Maximum permissible length is 6000 words,
including title, abstract and bibliography.
Short communications contain news of interest to researchers,
including progress reports on ongoing research, records of observations,
short comments, correction and reinterpretation of articles previously
published in EJQRHET, etc. maximum permissible length is 1500
words, including title, abstract and references; they may contain not
more than two figures and/or two tables.
Book reviews: A critical evaluation of recently published books in all
areas of science and development will be published under this column.
The maximum permissible length of a book review is 1500 words,
including any references.
3. STRUCTURE OF MANUSCRIPTS
Any manuscript intended for submission to EJQRHET should have the
following basic structure:
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
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Title: the title of the paper, the name (s) and affiliated institutions. Full
postal and email address of the corresponding author should be
indicated clearly.
Abstract: The abstract must contain (a) the author’s or authors‟
name(s), (b) the full title of the manuscript, (c) an abstract of not more
than 250 words indicating the major aims and findings of the paper.
Keywords: 3-6 keywords below the abstract arranged in alphabetical
order and separated by commas.
Introduction: A brief background of the subject, statement of the
problem and the aims of the paper.
Materials and methods: Describe the materials and sites used in the
study, the procedures, methods or tools used in data collection and
analysis.
Results: Describe the results obtained, cross-referencing between text,
tables and figures. When applicable, describe the statistical significance
of the results.
Discussion: Give interpretations and implications of the results
obtained. Compare your findings with related previous studies, the
results and discussion sections can be presented together or separately.
Conclusions: Describe the contribution of the study to knowledge, and
indicate future research needs (if any). The conclusion can also be
included in the discussion.
References: All literature referred to in the text should be cited as
exemplified below.
Acknowledgements: (if required). These should be kept brief.
4. METHODS OF SUBMISSION
4.1. Electronic submission
 Manuscripts should be prepared by means of Microsoft Word or an
equivalent word-processing program. They should preferably be
submitted electronically by sending an email and as an attachment.
Electronic files containing manuscripts should be named according to
the following convention: Authorname-Brief-title.doc e.g. BloggsPodocarps-in-Adama-Ethiopia.doc, where Brief-title is the first 4-5
words of the manuscripts title.
Diagrams should be lettered in a sans-serif font (Arial or Helvetica-at least 12point), for final reduction to single-column (6.9 cm) or double-column (14.3 cm)
width. Single-column figures are preferred. Diagrams should be submitted as
uncompressed TIFF (.tif) files or as .jpg files. Diagrams created in the default
126
mode of Microsoft Excel (frame, coloured background, etc.) are not acceptable
for publication in EJQRHET.
 Photographs should be submitted as high-resolution (at least 600 dpi)
grayscale .jpg or uncompressed .tif files, indicating the desired final
size („1-col‟,‟2-col‟ or „landscape‟). Always send them as separate
files, using the same filename convention as above AuthornameFigNoxx.tif
 Clear, glossy black and white photographs (100x70 mm) may also be
submitted. They should be clearly numbered on the back in soft pencil.
 Tables should be prepared in MS Word‟s Table Editor. Tables created
in Microsoft Excel are not generally acceptable for publication in
EJQRHET. Use Arabic (1, 2, 3 …), not Roman (I, II, III …), numerals
for tables. Footnotes in tables should be indicated by superscript
numerals beginning with „1‟ in each table. Descriptive material not
designated as a footnote may be placed under a table as a Note.
Footnotes should be avoided. Wherever possible, incorporate such
material in the text, within parentheses.
4.2. Submission in paper form
Manuscripts may also be submitted on A4 paper, subject to the same limits
regarding number of words, tables and figures as above. Separate the manuscript
into three sections: (1) text section, with figure and table texts at the end; (2)
figure section (one figure per page, for reduction to 6-9-cm and 14.3-cm column
width); and (3) table section (one table per page). Type the text at double linespacing on one side of the paper only, with top, left and bottom margins set at
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reviewers‟ and editors‟ comments. Number all pages in sequence, including
figures and tables. Tables, figures and illustrations should be submitted each on a
separate page.
5. REFERENCES (We follow APA Style Guide)
Reference List
References cited in the text of a research paper must appear in a Reference List
or bibliography. This list provides the information necessary to identify and
retrieve each source. Examples:
5.1.Journal article, one author, accessed online
127
Ku, G. (2008). Learning to de-escalate: The effects of regret in escalation of
commitment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105(2),
221-232. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.08.002 Journal article, two authors,
accessed online Sanchez, D., & King-Toler, E. (2007). Addressing disparities
consultation and outreach strategies for university settings. Consulting
Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 59(4), 286-295. doi: 10.1037/10659293.59.4.286
Journal article, more than two authors, accessed online
Van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. (2008). Leadership, followership, and
evolution: Some lessons from the past. American Psychologist, 63(3), 182-196.
doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.3.182
Article from an Internet-only journal
Hirtle, P. B. (2008, July-August). Copyright renewal, copyright restoration, and
the difficulty of determining copyright status. D-Lib Magazine, 14(7/8).
doi:10.1045/july2008-hirtle
Journal article from a subscription database (no DOI)
Colvin, G. (2008, July 21). Information worth billions. Fortune, 158(2), 73-79.
Retrieved from Business Source Complete, EBSCO. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com
5.2.Magazine article, in print
Kluger, J. (2008, January 28). Why we love. Time, 171(4), 54-60.
5.3.Newspaper article, no author, in print
+As prices surge, Thailand pitches OPEC-style rice cartel. (2008, May 5). The
Wall Street Journal, p. A9.
5.4.Newspaper article, multiple authors, discontinuous pages, in print
Delaney, K. J., Karnitschnig, M., & Guth, R. A. (2008, May 5). Microsoft ends
pursuit of Yahoo, reassesses its online options. The Wall Street Journal, pp. A1,
A12.
5.5.Books
No Author or editor, in print Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (11th ed.).
(2003). Springfield, MA: Merriam- Webster.
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One author, in print
Kidder, T. (1981). The soul of a new machine. Boston: Little, Brown &
Company.
Two authors, in print
Frank, R. H., & Bernanke, B. (2007). Principles of macro-economics (3rd ed.).
Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Corporate author, author as publisher, accessed online
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2000). Tasmanian year book 2000 (No. 1301.6).
Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: Author. Retrieved from
http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/CA2568710006989...
$File/13016_2000.pdf
Edited book
Gibbs, J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (2001). Children of colour: Psychological
interventions with culturally diverse youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
5.6.Dissertations
Dissertation, accessed online
Young, R. F. (2007). Crossing boundaries in urban ecology: Pathways to
sustainable cities (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations
& Theses database. (UMI No. 327681)
5.7.Essays or chapters in edited books
One author
Labajo, J. (2003). Body and voice: The construction of gender in flamenco. In T.
Magrini (Ed.), Music and gender: perspectives from the Mediterranean (pp. 6786). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Two editors
Hammond, K. R., & Adelman, L. (1986). Science, values, and human judgment.
In H. R. Arkes & K. R. Hammond (Eds.), Judgement and decision making: An
interdisciplinary reader (pp. 127-143). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5.8.Encyclopedia set or dictionary
Sadie, S., & Tyrrell, J. (Eds.). (2002). The new Grove dictionary of music and
musicians (2nd ed., Vols. 1-29). New York: Grove.
129
Article from an online encyclopedia
Containerization. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 6, 2008,
from http://search.eb.com
Encyclopedia article
Kinni, T. B. (2004). Disney, Walt (1901-1966): Founder of the Walt Disney
Company. In Encyclopaedia of Leadership (Vol. 1, pp. 345-349). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
5.9. Government report, accessed online
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2005). Medicaid drug price
comparisons: Average manufacturer price to published prices (OIG publication
No. OEI-05-05- 00240). Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from
http://www.oig.hhs.gov/oei/reports/oei-05-05-00240.pdf
Government reports, GPO publisher, accessed online
Congressional Budget Office. (2008). Effects of gasoline prices on driving
behavior and vehicle markets: A CBO study (CBO Publication No. 2883).
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from
http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/88xx/doc8893/01-14-GasolinePrices.pdf
Technical and/or research reports, accessed online
Deming, D., & Dynarski, S. (2008). The lengthening of childhood (NBER
Working Paper 14124). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic
Research. Retrieved July 21, 2008, from http://www.nber.org/papers/w14124
5.11. Document available on university program or department site
Victor, N. M. (2008). Gazprom: Gas giant under strain. Retrieved from Stanford
University, Program on Energy and Sustainable Development Web site:
http://pesd.stanford.edu/publications/gazprom_gas_giant_under_strain/
5.12. Television broadcast
Anderson, R., & Morgan, C. (Producers). (2008, June 20). 60 Minutes
[Television broadcast]. Washington, DC: CBS News.
Television show from a series
Whedon, J. (Director/Writer). (1999, December 14). Hush [Television series
episode]. In Whedon, J., Berman, G., Gallin, S., Kuzui, F., & Kuzui, K.
(Executive Producers), Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Burbank, CA: Warner Bros..
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5.13. Blog entry
Arrington, M. (2008, August 5). The viral video guy gets $1 million in funding.
Message posted to http://www.techcrunch.com
5.14
Professional Web site
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2008). Biofuels. Retrieved May 6,
2008, from http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_biofuels.html
Entire Web site
When citing an entire Web site (and not a specific document on that site), no
Reference List entry is required if the address for the site is cited in the text of
your paper.
Witchcraft in Europe and America is a site that presents the full text of many
essential works in the literature of witchcraft and demonology
(http://www.witchcraft.psmedia.com/).
PROOF CORRECTION
Page proofs will be sent to the author, shortly before publication, as an Adobe
Acrobat portable document format (PDF) file. This is essentially the final form
in which the paper will appear. Minor alterations may be made, to conform to
scientific, technical, stylistic or grammatical standards.
Changes to the content are not permitted.
Although proofs are checked before they are sent to the author(s), it is the
responsibility of the author(s) to review page proofs carefully, and to check for
correctness of citations, formulae, omissions from the text, etc. Author(s) should
return their corrections within seven (7) working days from the date on which
the proofs were sent to them. Failure to do so will cause the paper to be printed
as in the page proofs.
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