Key Vocabulary for Earth Science by SOL Number
ES02: The Nature of Science
Analysis
Constant
Control
Control Group
Experiment
Experimental Group
Graphing Relationships: Direct (Positive), Indirect (Negative, Inverse), No Relationship
Graphs: Bar, Circle, Histogram, Line, Scatter-Plot
Hypothesis
Independent versus Dependent Variable
Inference
Law
Metric System
Observation
Scientific Method
Theory
ES01: Maps and Remote Sensing
Basic Mapping Skills:
Arctic/Antarctic Circles
Equator
International Date Line
Latitude
Longitude
Map Key
Map Legend
Map Projections: Mercator, Conic, Gnomonic
Map Scale: Verbal, Fractional, Graphical
Map Types: Bathymetric, Geologic, Hydrologic, Physical, Political, Thematic, Topographic
North/South Pole
Polaris (North Star)
Prime Meridian
Time Zone
Tropics of Cancer/Capricorn
Topographic Maps:
Contour interval
Contour Line
Hachure
Index Contour
Slope/Gradient
Topographic Map
Topographic Profile
Remote Sensing:
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Frequency
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Remote Sensing
Satellite Imagery
Sonar
Wavelength
Layers of Earth: Crust, Upper Mantle, Lower Mantle, Outer Core, Inner Core
ES04: Minerals
Crystal
Crystal System: Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, Triclinic, Hexagonal
Gemstone
Mineral
Minerals (Common): Feldspar, Quartz, Pyrite, Mica, Halite, Gypsum
Mineral Composition: Carbonate, Halide, Hydroxide, Native Element, Oxide,
Silicate, Sulfate, Sulfide
Mineral Properties: Cleavage, Color, Fracture, Hardness, Luster, Streak
Unique Properties: Chemical Reactivity, Double Internal Refraction, Fluorescence,
Magnetism, Odor, Phosphorescence
Ore
Mineral Ores: Bauxite (Al), Sphalerite (Zn), Hematite (Fe), Magnetite (Fe), Galena (Pb)
Silica Tetrahedron
ES05 Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Bowen’s Reaction Series: Continuous and Discontinuous Reaction Series
Continuous Series Minerals: Plagioclase Feldspars: Calcium- and Sodium-Feldspars
Discontinuous Series Minerals: Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Biotite Mica
High Silica Minerals: Orthoclase Feldspars: Potassium- and Aluminum-Feldspars,
Muscovite Mica, Quartz
Extrusive (volcanic) Igneous Rocks
Intrusive (plutonic) Igneous Rocks
Fractional Crystallization
Partial Melting
Igneous Rocks (Common Representatives):
Felsic
Intermediate Mafic
Ultra-Mafic
Intrusive: Granite
Diorite
Gabbro,
Peridotite/Dunite
Extrusive: Rhyolite
Andesite
Basalt
Glassy:
Obsidian
Obsidian
Scoria
Pumice
Pumice
Igneous Rock Composition: Felsic, Intermediate, Mafic, Ultra-Mafic
Igneous Rock Textures: very-coarse grained (Pegmatitic), coarse-grained (Phaneritic),
Fine-grained (Aphanitic), dual-grained (Porphyritic), glassy (Amorphous)
Magma Composition: Rhyolitic, Andesitic, Basaltic
Phenocryst
Vesicular
Sedimentary Rocks
Clast Size: Gravels (Boulders, Cobbles, Pebbles, Granules) > Sands > Silts > Clays
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Conglomerate/Breccia, Sandstone, Siltstone/Mudstone,
Claystone/Shale
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Limestone (CaCO3), Rock Gypsum (CaSO4), Rock Salt (NaCl)
Organic Sedimentary Rocks: Limestone (Chalk, Coquina, Fossiliferous), Coal
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks: Weathering, Erosion, Deposition, Burial,
Lithification (compaction and cementation)
Sedimentary Rock Features: Bedding, Cross-Bedding, Graded Bedding, Fossils,
Ripple-Marks, Sorting
Metamorphic Rocks
Factors Affecting Metamorphism: Temperature and Pressure
Metamorphism
Metamorphic Grade: Low, Medium, High
Metamorphism Types: Regional (pressure due to Tectonic activity),
Contact/Thermal (high temperature due to magmatic intrusions),
Hydrothermal (loss or addition of minerals to native rocks due the
activity of very hot water)
Metamorphic Rock Types: Foliated, Banded, Non-Foliated
Metamorphic Rocks (common with parent rock): f=foliated, n=non-foliate, b=banded
Parent
Metamorphic Product(s)
Shale
Slate (f) -> Phyllite (f) -> Schist (f) -> Gneiss (b)
Limestone
Marble (n)
Sandstone
Quartzite (n)
Granite
Granitic Schist (f) -> Granitic Gneiss (b)
Porphyroblast
ES06: Natural Resources
Renewable Resource
Non-Renewable Resource
Fossil Fuels: Coal, Natural Gas, Petroleum
Advantages: high energy density, relatively cheap (currently)
Disadvantage: environmental damage during extraction,
pollution released when burned,
release CO2, a greenhouse gas, when burned
Alternative Energy Resources (Advantages and Disadvantages)
Solar Power
Wind Power
Hydroelectric
Biomass
Geothermal
Nuclear Power
Conservation
Reduce
Recycle
Reuse
Virginia’s Natural Resources: Coal, Natural Gas, Aggregate, other construction material, etc.
ES07: Plate Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanoes
Plate Tectonics:
Continental Drift Hypothesis
Proposed by: Alfred Wegener
Main Idea:
Approximately 200 million years ago all of Earth’s continents were part
of a super-continent called Pangaea. Over the intervening 200 my
period, Pangaea, broke apart and the continents drifted to their present
locations by plowing their way through the bedrock of the seafloor.
Supported by: Complementary continental outlines;
Fossils of identical terrestrial plant and animal species can be found on
now widely separated continents;
Stratigraphy and structural geology of the continental rocks and
mountain systems;
Paleoclimatic Data -Evidence of major climate shifts over time
Problems:
No plausible mechanism for the drifting of continents could be found
Seafloor Spreading
Proposed by:
Main Idea:
Harry Hess, et al
New oceanic crust is produced at mid-ocean ridges by the extrusion of
basaltic magma. The warmer, less dense, newly formed crust forces the
older denser crust up and outwards away from the MOR. When the
older, denser crust encounters younger, less dense, oceanic crust, or the
much less dense continental crust, it is force beneath the less dense
crust in a process known as subduction. The subduction zone can be
marked at the surface by the presence of a deep-sea trench. The
subducted plate is then partially melted and recycled by the heat of the
earth’s interior.
Supported by: The presence of the Mid-Ocean Ridge system;
Symmetrical pattern of magnetic reversals about the MOR;
Continental crust is ~20 times older than the oldest oceanic crust;
The presence of deep-sea trenches at active continental margins;
Seafloor sediment increases in depth as you move away from the MOR;
The age of ocean crust increases as you move away from the MOR
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Proposed by: Plate Tectonic Theory is a synthesis of the Continental Drift Hypothesis
and the mechanism of Seafloor Spreading.
Main Idea:
The Earth’s lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is broken into twelve
major and several minor plates. The lithospheric plates “float” and
move independently on a semi-molten part of the lower mantle called
the asthenosphere.
Mechanisms: Convection currents in the asthenosphere
Ridge Push
Slab Pull
Plate Boundary Interactions
Convergent:
Oceanic-Oceanic, Continental-Continental, Oceanic-Continental
Divergent:
Oceanic, Continental
Transform
Plate Boundary Features( w/associated boundary type): c= continental o= oceanic
Folded Mountains (c-c convergent) ex. Himalaya Mountains
Rift Zones (divergent)
Mid-Ocean Ridge (oceanic divergent) ex. Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise
Rift Valley (continental divergent) ex. Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa
Subduction Zone/Trench (c-o and o-o convergent) ex. Peru-Chile, Aleutian, Marianas
Volcanic Island Arc (o-o convergent) ex. Japanese, Aleutian, Philippine, Sumatran
Volcanic Mountain Range (c-o convergent) ex. Cascade and Andes Mountains
Earthquakes (all boundary types)
Additional Terms:
Asthenosphere
Convection Cells: Divergent/Convergent
Convection Current
Isochron
Lithosphere
Magnetometer
Paleomagnetism
Semi-molten
Earthquakes:
Forces within the Earth:
Stress: Compression, Tension, Shear
Strain: Elastic and Ductile Deformation
Results: Fracturing (Joints/Faults) and Folding (Anticline/Synclines/etc.)
Fault Type: Normal
Cause:
Tension – Thinning of the crust
Movement:
HW moves down relative to the FW
Feature:
Rift Valleys and Fault Block Mountains
Associated:
Divergent Boundaries
Fault Type: Reverse
Cause:
Compression – Thickening of the crust
Movement:
HW moves up relative to the FW
Feature:
Over-thrust Mountains
Associated:
Convergent Boundaries
Fault Type: Strike-Slip
Cause:
Shear
Movement:
Horizontal
Feature:
Large Scale Faults (ex. San Andreas Fault)
Associated:
Transform Boundaries
Locating an Earthquake Epicenter: Triangulation
Epicenter
Focus: may be deep, intermediate, or shallow in depth
Seismometer/Seismograph
Seismogram
Difference in Arrival Time (aka: lag-time, S-P interval, Tarrival)
S-P Travel-Time Plot
Epicentral Distance
Measuring Earthquakes:
Earthquake Magnitude = objective measurement of seismic energy released
during a seismic event compared to background;
measured on the Richter Scale: Based on powers of 32
Earthquake Intensity = Subjective determination of the amount of damage,
death, and destruction caused by a seismic event;
measured on the Modified Mercalli Scale (12 steps
represented by a roman numeral
Earthquake Hazards: Amplification, Liquifaction, Pancaking, Tsunami
Regions of High Seismic Activity: Circum-Pacific Belt and the Mediterranean-Asian Belt
Additional Terms:
Fault Plane
Fault Scarp
Foot Wall
Hanging Wall
Mohorovicic-Discontinuity (aka the “Moho”)
P-Wave Shadow Zone
Volcanoes:
Formation and Characteristics of Magma:
Magma
Magma Types: Rhyolitic, Andesitic, Basaltic
Magmatic Intrusions aka Plutons: Batholith, Dike, Laccolith, Sill, Stock
Lava
Volcanic Features:
Caldera
Cone
Crater
Fumarole
Vent
Volcano Type: Shield, Composite/Stratovolcano, Cinder-Cone, Fissure, Caldera (“super-”)
Volcanic Products:
Lava Flows
Gases
Tephra: Dust, Ash, Lapilli, Bombs, and Blocks
Volcanic Hazards:
Pyroclastic Flows
Lahars
Location of Volcanism:
Convergent Boundary Volcanism
Divergent Boundary Volcanism
Hot-Spot Volcanism
Additional Terms:
Atoll
Guyot
Magma Chamber
Pillow Basalts
Ring of Fire
Seamount
Volcanic Island Chain ex. Hawaiian Islands and the Emperor Seamounts
ES07a, 8a: Weathering, Erosion, Deposition, Mass Movement, Soils
Weathering
Types of Weathering:
Mechanical (Physical)
Abrasion (leads to rounding of sediments)
Frost Action
Root Pry
Exfoliation
Chemical
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
Acid Corrosion
Formation of Carbonic Acid
Reaction of Carbonic Acid with Calcite
Formation of Acid Rain
Erosion/Transportation
Agents of Erosion:
Running Water: See ES 8, Surface Water for details
Wind:
Saltation
Erosional Features: Ventifacts
Depositional Features: Dunes (ex. Barchan, Parabolic, Transverse, Longitudinal)
Wind Breaks
“The Dust Bowl”
Glaciers:
Formation of Glacial ice
Types of Glaciers: Alpine (aka Valley), Piedmont,
Continental (Ice sheets and caps)
Erosional Features: U-shaped Valleys, Lateral and Medial Moraine, Crevasse,
Arete, Horn, Cirque, Col
Depositional Features: Ground, End, and Terminal Moraine, Kettle, Kettle Lake,
Esker, Drumlin
Gravity: Cause of mass movements including glaciers
Competence: The largest sized sediment an agent can carry; determined by the kinetic energy
of the agent. For Wind and Water primarily determined by velocity, for glaciers
primarily determined by mass
Deposition: Occurs when the competence of an agent drops below the size of a particle the agent is
currently carrying.
Mass Movement:
Types of Mass Movement:
Creep
Flow: (includes mud-, debris-, and earth-)
Slip (includes slide and slump)
Fall
Avalanche
Soil:
Humus
A-Horizon/Topsoil
B-Horizon/Subsoil
C-Horizon/Partially Weathered Bedrock
D-Horizon/Parent Rock/Bedrock
Residual Soil
Soil Texture: determined using the percent of sand silt and clay
Soli Texture Diagram
Transported Soil
ES08b-f: Surface and Groundwater
Surface Water
Water (Hydrologic) Cycle: Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation,
Run-off, Infiltration, Transpiration
Drainage Basin/Watershed
Major Watersheds of Virginia: James, Rappahannock, York, Chowan, Roanoke/Staunton,
Clinch, Holsten, Shenandoah/Potomac
Drainage Patterns: Dendritic, Radial, Rectangular, Trellis, Braided
Stages of Stream Development: Young, Mature, Old
Types of Stream Erosion:
Down-Cutting
Lateral Cutting (Erosion)
Head-ward Erosion
Stream Piracy
Characteristics of Streams:
Alluvial Fan
Competence
Cut-Bank
Delta
Discharge
Meanders
Oxbow
Oxbow Lake
Point Bar Bank
Stream Head
Stream Load: Bed, Solution, Suspended
Stream Mouth
Stream Profile
Groundwater
Aquifers:
Aquiclude
Artesian Well
Confined Aquifer
Permeability
Porosity
Recharge
Recharge Zone
Unconfined Aquifer
Water Table
Zone of Aeration
Zone of Saturation
Karst Topography:
Dissolution of Limestone by Carbonic Acid
Caves/Caverns
Sinkhole
Sinking Streams
Spring
Dripstone Formations: Stalactites, Stalagmites, Dripstone Column
Wells:
Drawdown
Cone of Depression
Saltwater Infiltration
Human Influences on Streams and Aquifers
Agricultural Runoff
Storm water drainage
Increase in sediment load
Sewage
Industrial waste
ES09: The Rock Record and Geologic History
Geologic Timescale Divisions
Eon (Time):
Cryptozoic (Hidden Time) Represents 88% of geologic history
Phanerozoic (Visible Time) Represents 12% of geologic history
Era:
Hadean- Period immediately following the formation of the Earth
Archean-Permanent atmosphere forms as well as oceans; bacterial organisms appear
Proterozoic- First multicellular organisms appear, most organisms possess only
soft body parts, all ore marine in nature
Paleozoic- First fish, amphibians, insects, reptiles, and mammals appear, Pangaea forms
near the end of the Paleozoic triggering the Permian extinction (90% of all
species go extict)
Mesozoic – “The Age of Dinosaurs”; birds appear near the end of the era; non-flowering
plants are replaced by flowering plants; Dinosaurs go extinct 65 million
years ago after an asteroid strikes the Earth
Cenozoic – “The age of Mammals”; mammals radiate and occupy the niches left by the
extinction of the dinosaurs; modern humans appear approximately 200,000
years ago
Period: A divison of eras
Epoch: A division of periods
Relative Dating
Principles of Geology:
Uniformitarianism
Original Horizontality
Superposition
Cross-cutting Relationships
Inclusions
Correlation
Faunal Succession
Unconformities:
Disconformity
Non-Conformity
Angular Unconformity
Fossils:
Types of Fossils:
Per-mineralized: dinosaur bones, petrified wood
Actual Remains: Chemically preserved (i.e. Bog Bodies)
Frozen/Freeze-Dried Remains (i.e. mammoths frozen in
permafrost/ice, Andean mummies)
Fossils of Presence/Trace Fossils: footprints, animal borrows,
coprolites, gastroliths
Casts
Molds
Absolute Dating
Carbon-14
Daughter Isotope
Half-life
Parent Isotope
Radioactive Decay
Radioisotope
ES7a: Physiographic Provinces of Virginia
Coastal Plain
Geology: unconsolidated sediments overlying crystalline basement rock; formed as the Blue
Ridge and Appalachian Mountains weathered, eroded, and sediment was deposited
along the coastline.
Topography: Nearly flat and very close to sea-level
Important Natural Resources: Aggregate for Construction (mainly sands and gravels)
Piedmont
Geology: Underlain by igneous and metamorphic rocks; the igneous rocks are the roots of a
volcanic island arc formed at a subduction zone prior to the continental collision that
formed the Appalachian Mountains
Topography: Rolling hills that gradually increase in elevation as they approach the Blue Ridge;
separated from the Coastal Plain by a steep drop-off characterized by rapids and
waterfalls known as the Fall Line.
Important Natural Resources: Aggregate
Blue Ridge
Geology: Composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks; the oldest rocks in the state
Topography: A high ridge of distinct peaks; run along a NE-SW axis; Very narrow north of
Roanoke, but become a broad upland to the south.
Important Natural Resources:
Ridge and Valley
Geology: Comprises an extensive series of sedimentary rocks that were extensively folded and
reverse faulted during the late Paleozoic era when Africa and North America collided.
Topography: Has many long parallel ridges and valleys and extensive areas of karst topography.
Important Natural Resources: Crushed limestone and aggregate
Appalachian Plateau:
Geology: Mostly horizontal sedimentary beds that are slightly tilted towards the west
Topography: Highly irregular terrain due to the uniform weathering of the sedimentary beds and
the formation of extensive dendritic drainage.
Important Natural Resources: coal and natural gas
ES10: Oceanography
Chemical and Physical Properties of the Oceans:
Bodies of Water: Oceans and Seas
Currents:
Cause: Wind and Density Differences (due to differences in salinity and temperature)
Types: Surface, Thermohaline, and Turbidity Currents
Oceanography
Oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, Antarctic
Ocean Water Characteristics: Temperature, Salinity, Density
Sea-Level
Tides: Causes: Gravitational pull of the sun and moon
Lunar and Centrifugal Bulge
High and Low Tides
Ebb, Flow, and Slack Tides
Tidal Range
Extremes: Spring and Neap Tides
Thermocline
Waves: Breaker, Crest, Refraction, Surf, Trough, Wave Height, Wavelength
The Marine Environment:
Coastal Features:
Erosional Landforms: Bay, Beach, Headland aka Promontory, Notch,
Sea Cave, Sea Cliff, Sea Stack
Depositional Features: Barrier Islands, Bay-Mouth Bar, Lagoon,
Spit, Tombolo
Protective (man-made) Structures: Breakwater, Groin, Jetty, Sea Wall
Coastal Currents: Longshore Current and Drift, Rip Currents
Types of Coastlines:
Emergent Coastlines
Causes: Drop in sea-level (eustatic drop), tectonic or isostatic
uplift of coastal crust
Features: Wave-cut Platforms, Marine Terraces, Straightened Coastlines
Submergent Coastlines:
Causes: Rise in sea-level (eustatic rise), tectonic or isostatic
subsidence of coastal crust
Features: Drowned River Mouths, Estuaries, Irregular Coastlines
Seafloor Features:
Continental Margin: Continental Shelf, Continental Slope, Continental Rise
Ocean Basin Features: Abyssal Plain, Hydrothermal Vents, Mid-Ocean Ridge
Seamounts, Trenches
Marine Sediments: Muds and Oozes
ES11, 12: The Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate
The Atmosphere:
Development of the Atmosphere:
Degassing
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Layers of the Atmosphere
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere:
Ionosphere
Exosphere
Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Factors Affecting Insolation:
Heat Capacity (esp. Land versus Water)
Color (light versus dark)
The Spherical Shape of the Earth
Axial Inclination and Latitude
Greenhouse Gas Concentrations (i.e. methane, water vapor, carbon dioxide)
Earth’s Radiation Balance:
Moisture in the Atmosphere:
Evaporation versus Condensation
Humidity (Absolute, Maximum, Relative)
Dew Point
Cloud Formation:
Condensation
Condensation Nuclei
Lifted Condensation Level
Lapse Rate
Latent Heat
Cloud Types:
High (made of ice crystals) -prefix =CirroEx. cirrus, cirrocumulus, stratocumulus
Mid-level (prefix = alto-)
Ex. altocumulus, altostratus
Low-level (prefix N/A)
Ex. cumulus, stratus
Other Prefixes and Suffixes:
Strato-/-stratus = Layered
Nimbo-/-nimbus = Precipitation
Cumulo-/-cumulus = Fluffy or heaped
ex. stratocumulus
ex. nimbostratus
ex. Cumulonimbus
Types of Precipitation:
Rain
Freezing Rain
Sleet
Snow
Hail
Meteorology:
Weather versus Climate
Air Masses:
Continental versus Marine
Polar versus Tropical
Air Mass Modification
Coriolis Effect
Local Winds:
Sea Breeze
Land Breeze
Santa Anna Winds
Chinook
Global Winds:
Polar Easterlies
Prevailing Westerlies
Trade Winds
Jet Streams
Global Pressure Belts
Tropical Low (the Doldrums)
Sub-Tropical High (the Horse Latitudes)
Sub-Polar Low
Polar High
Formation of High and Low Pressure Centers
Movement of Air around Low and High Pressure Centers: Cyclonic, Anti-Cyclonic
Frontal Boundaries and Weather:
Cold Front
Warm Front
Stationary Front
Occluded Front
Weather Data and Maps
Instrumentation:
Barometer
Hygrometer/Sling Psychrometer
Anemometer
Thermometer
Doppler Radar
Ceilometer
Radiosonde
Weather Satellites
Maps:
Station Model
Isopleth ex. isobars, isotherms
Storm Systems and Severe Weather Events
Thunderstorms:
Air Mass Thunderstorms
Mountain Thunderstorm (Orographic Uplift and Rain Shadows)
Sea-Breeze Thunderstorms
Frontal Thunderstorms: Cold Front versus Warm Front
Stages of Development:
Cumulus
Mature
Dissipation
Updraft versus Downdraft
Lightning
Downbursts: Macro- and MicroHail
Tornadoes:
Super-cell Thunderstorms
Mesocyclone
Funnel Cloud
Tornado Alley
Fujita Scale
Hurricanes/Cyclones/Typhoons:
ITCZ
Stages of Development:
Tropical Disturbance
Tropical Depression
Tropical Storm
Hurricane
Eye
Eye Wall
Spiral Rain Bands
Storm Surge
Saffir-Simpson Scale
Other Severe Weather Events
Flood
Heat Wave
Drought
Cold Wave
Blizzard
Heat Index
Wind Chill Factor
Climate:
Climatology
Normals
Climate Zones:
Polar
Temperate
Tropical
Orographic Uplift/Rain Shadow Effect
Koeppen Classification System
Microclimate
Heat Island
Ice Ages
El Nino
Seasons
Maunder Minimum
Precession
Greenhouse Gases
ES03, 13: The Solar System and Cosmology
Motions of the Sun, Earth, and Moon
Basic Astronomical Terms:
Aphelion
Apogee
Axial Inclination (Tilt)
Axis
Orbit
Orbital Eccentricity
Planet
Perigee
Perihelion
Period of Revolution
Period of Rotation
Revolution
Rotation
Satellite
Eclipses:
Solar: Total, Annular, Partial
Lunar: Total Partial
Seasons: Summer, Autumn, Winter, Spring
Starting Points: Solstices: Summer and Winter
Equinox: Vernal and Autumnal
Lunar Phases: New, Waxing Crescent, First Quarter, Waxing Gibbous, Full,
Waning Gibbous, Third Quarter, Waning Crescent
Tides: See terms in ES10
The Solar System
Historical Models of the Solar System:
Geocentric: Ptolemaic and Epicyclical
Heliocentric: Copernican
Important Contributions made by:
Nicolaus Copernicus – Developed the first heliocentric model
Tycho Brahe – Developed instruments that could measure the positions of stars,
planets, etc. very accurately. He recorded vast amounts of data on the
position of the moon, stars, planets, and sun over a thirty year period.
Johannes Kepler – Developed the three laws of planetary motion using the data
of T. Brahe
Galileo Galilei – First person to use a telescope to extensively observe and map celestial
objects. His discovery of the Galilean Satellites of Jupiter proved that
objects can orbit other celestial bodies besides Earth.
Isaac Newton – Developed the Law of Universal Gravitation and applied it to Kepler’s
Laws of Planetary Motion
Inner (Terrestrial) Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
Outer (Gas Giant) Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Other Objects in the Solar System:
Ice Dwarf Planets (Kuiper Belt Objects) ex. Pluto
Asteroids:
Types: Metallic, Stony, Mixed
Located: Primarily in the Asteroid Belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
Comets:
Types: Short Period, Long Period
Composition: Rock, Dust, Ices (Frozen Gases)
Located: Long-Period comets originate in the Oort Cloud
Short Period comets originate in the Kuiper Belt
Structure: Nucleus, Coma, Tail
Additional Solar System Terms:
Astronomical Unit
Ellipse
Foci
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Orbital Velocity
Retrograde Motion
Retrograde Revolution
Retrograde Rotation
Characteristics of Earth’s Moon:
Features: Highlands, Impact Craters, Mare (-ia), Ray, Regolith, Rille
Composition: Similar to Earth’s Mantle but iron and water poor
Synchronous Rotation: Period of Sidereal Revolution and Rotation are equal
We always see the same side of the moon from Earth
Mechanisms of Formation: Four proposed over the last 60 years
Captured Satellite: The moon formed elsewhere in the solar system but was
captured by Earth’s gravity when its orbit came too close to
that of Earth.
Rotational Formation: During a very Early molten stage of the earth’s formation,
the fast rotation of the Early earth caused molten
material to be lost from the Earth. Some of this material
remained in orbit and accreted over a period of several
hundred thousand years
Simultaneous Formation: The Earth and the moon accreted at the same time
Impact Theory: The moon was formed as a result of the impact of a mars-sized
planetoid with the Earth shortly after its formation. The debris
created by the impact accreted and formed the moon.
Stars
Formation: Solar Nebula and Accretion Theory:
Accretion
Accretion Disk
Nebula(-ae)
Proto-Solar Disk
Solar System
Hydrostatic Equilibrium: the balance between thermal pressure and gravity which
determines the volume/size of a star
The Sun
General Characteristics:
Energy Source: Fusion of Hydrogen to form Helium in the core
Color: Yellow
Spectral Class: G2
Age: approximately 4.6 billion years old (middle aged for a star of its mass)
Structure:
Core
Solar Envelope:
Radiative Layer
Convective Layer
Photosphere
Solar Atmosphere: Chromosphere
Corona
Surface Features: Coronal Holes, Granulation, Prominences, Solar Flares,
Spicules, Sunspots,
Classifying and Characterizing Stars
Constellations: used to easily locate stars
44 Ancient (Primarily in the Northern Hemisphere)
44 Modern (Primarily in the Southern Hemisphere)
Asterisms: Recognizable parts of much larger constellations
ex. Big Dipper (part of Ursa Major), Little Dipper(part of Ursa Minor),
Northern Cross (part of Cygnus)
Apparent Magnitude
Absolute Magnitude
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram:
Stellar Temperature/Spectral Class versus Absolute Magnitude/Luminosity
Regions on the HR diagram:
Main Sequence
Giant
Supergiant
Red Dwarf
White Dwarf
Life-Cycle of Stars
Stars of less than 8 solar masses:
Red Giant->White Dwarf and Planetary Nebula->Black Dwarf
Stars of between 8 and 20 solar masses
Supergiant -> Supernova -> Neutron Star/Pulsar
Stars of greater than 20 solar masses
Supergiant -> Supernova -> Blackhole
Cosmology
The Big Bang Theory
Doppler Shift: Red, Blue
Cosmic Background Radiation
Hubble Constant
Space Exploration
Lunar Exploration:
Mercury Program
Gemini Program
Apollo Program
Probes and Landers:
Mariner
Voyager I/II
Viking I/II
Galileo
Magellan
Cassini/Huygens
Pathfinder/Sojourner
Telescopes: Hubble, Chandra/X-ray, Keppler
Orbital Stations: Mir, Skylab, ISS
Space Shuttle Program