Running Head: SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHEIVEMENT
Social Adjustment and Academic Achievement among Chinese University Students
Hanaa Wahba
Long Island University/ Post
EDD 1003
Dr. Joseph Piro
Fall 2012
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SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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Abstract
Adaptation process to a new environment plays an important role in an international university
student’s academic achievement. The purpose of this quantitative study was to investigate
Chinese graduate students’ social and linguistic challenges that they encounter at Hofstra
University. The major sources of their challenges as reported by Chinese graduate students were:
language barriers, social adjustment, and understanding English lectures. The thirty-two
participants were selected from the newly arrived Chinese international students who were
pursuing their graduate degree at Hofstra University. Interviews, writing samples, debates,
discussions, play-role activity and survey were the main data collection methods. Social
adjustment and language deficiency as reported by Chinese graduate students had a negative
impact on their learning process. This study also examined the cultural shock as reported by
them and their coping strategies to alleviate their stress and to improve their academic learning.
The study offered effective teaching strategies to improve their language and academic skills.
Important implications for instruction were discussed to facilitate Chinese graduate students’
pedagogical learning. The results of this study can help Chinese graduate students to adapt to the
American educational environment and to enhance their cross-cultural experiences in America.
Keywords: social adjustment, language barriers, cultural shock, academic achievement
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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Social Adjustment and Academic Achievement
Chinese international students, who are from a different educational system and cultural
environment, experience particular challenges while studying at American universities in the
United States. A quantitative study was adopted to examine newly arrived Chinese graduate
students who were enrolled at Hofstra University in the fall semester. Social adjustment and
language barriers are two main challenges that all the participants experienced while studying in
the United States. This paper also focused on the direct influences of their difficulties on their
academic achievement. It is demonstrated that Chinese international students have encountered
more difficulties in their “cross-cultural adjustment process” than any other international
students (Wang et al., 2012). There were thirty-two participants in all. Interviews, students’
writing samples, debates, discussions, and survey, were the methods of collecting data. This
paper also offered suggestions for Chinese ESL students to improve their academic skills and
adjust to American culture. Practical implications for instruction were discussed.
Theoretical Framework
There is a clear manifestation that there is an overflow of international students in the
United States, with 732,277 enrolled in American universities during the 2010-2011 academic
year (Institute of International Education, 2011).Wang et al. (2012) has demonstrated that
Chinese international students are considered the largest international students group studying in
the United States. Thus, such a fast growing Chinese population in the United States deserves a
special attention to help them adjust better to life in American universities. Yang and Clum
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(1994) argued that the stress and the adjustment process of the international students were mainly
because of the differences of Chinese and the United States cultures. Furthermore, research has
indicated that Chinese students coping experiences in the United States are more stressful than
European and Asian students (Samovar & Porter, 1991).
It is demonstrated that the acculturation style between China and the US is the main
reason of the Chinese students’ social adjustment to American campuses life (Samovar & Porter,
1991). Berry (1997) stress-coping framework focused on the sojourners’ adaptation to the new
cultural life. He believed that the cross-cultural experience is considered an important life event
which is portrayed by stress. Moreover, it is clarified the “differences in the educational system
and social norms” played an important role in Chinese international students’ acculturative stress
(Berry, 1977). Therefore, it is important to find practical implications to help Chinese
international students to overcome their stress and find coping processes to adapt better to the
life at American universities in the United States.
Methodology
As an adjunct instructor in English Language Program at Hofstra University, the
researcher had a great opportunity to choose her students to be her participants in this empirical
study. The participants were pursuing a graduate degree in Buisness School, with a variety of
majors in Human Recourses, Marketing, and Finance. The thirty-two participants were chosen to
participate in this study in the fall semester. The purpose of this study was to investigate the
social and linguistic challenges that participants went through in adapting to the US social life
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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and learning system. My paper also focused on the coping strategies they utilized in their
adaption. The study included various methods for collecting data. Interview was the main data
collection method. A total of five participants were conducted in an interview. Students’ writing
samples were used as a constructive data collection method. Debates, discussions and play-role
activity were other instruments that were used in collecting data; these methods helped ESL
Chinese students to express their thoughts and beliefs. Survey was another good method that
measured the students’ self-ratings. Participants’ names are not given in this study to maintain
confidentiality.
Data Collection
An interview was chosen as an effective method for collecting data. Mill (2001) clarified
that an interview is a tool that is “flexible and likely to promote fruitful reflection by the
participants.” Five Chinese international students were invited to participate in an interview in
this study. The interviewees were master students in business school. Interviews averaged half an
hour in length. All interviews were conducted in English language. The interview questions were
open-ended questions and were focused on the newly-arrived Chinese graduate students’ specific
challenges in the US. The interview questions went as follows: What are your social challenges
that you encounter while studying in the US? What are the specific linguistic challenges that you
face in your academic lectures? What are the academic skills that you use that help in
comprehending academic lectures?
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Chinese international students expressed their social and linguistic challenges in their
writings. In my ELP classes, Chinese graduate students were assigned to write an autobiography
essay. They were encouraged to include their short-term and long-term goals in their writings. In
their writings, the majority of students expressed their stressful feelings while adjusting to social
and academic life in the US.
Opening discussions and debates were considered effective methods that enabled students
to freely express their thoughts and beliefs. As an educator, using debates in ELP classroom help
students strengthen their critical thinking and improve their language skills. For this research
purpose, debate was conducted in the ELP course; the debate topic was “Social and Linguistic
Challenges in the US”. The researcher divided students into groups of two, about six students in
each group. Participants were assigned to discuss the social and linguistic challenges that they
encounter in the US. One group was asked to discuss the positive impact of the challenges on
their academic learning; whereas the other group was assigned to discuss the negative influences
of those challenges on their learning process.
Discussion was used as another effective instrument of my study to investigate the
academic skills that Chinese international students used in order to understand their academic
lectures. Students were divided into groups of two, about six students in each group. One group
was assigned to play a role as professors; however, the other group was assigned to be graduate
students who were experiencing particular challenges in their academic lectures. Students were
asked to discuss with each other the academic skills that they used to help them understand their
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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lectures. On the other hand, professors were assigned to explain the teaching methods that they
use to help ESL graduate students understand the academic lectures.
Based on the participants’ responses in the interviews, debates and discussions, a survey
was created to measure all respondents’ specific replies. A survey was used as an effective
instrument of the study. Thirty-two Chinese graduate students were asked to complete survey
questionnaire that consisted of six questions; most of the items required them to mark their
responses on a five-point Likert scale. A questionnaire was used to measure Chinese
international students’ rates regarding their social and linguistic challenges while studying in the
United States. It also measured the participants’ effective academic skills that they prefer to use
in order to help them understand academic lectures. It is given the answers to questions with 1 to
5 rates; 5 is the highest rate. The questions of the survey read as follows: What is your gender?
What is your age? What are your most social challenges that you encounter at Hofstra
University (food, communicating with native-language speakers and culture shock)? (1= lowest
rate, 5=highest rate)” “Rate from 1 to 5 what are your weakest areas that you encounter in your
classrooms (understanding the lesson, listening, writing, and reading)? Rate from 1 to 5 how are
the following academic skills effective for your lecture comprehension (previewing the lecture,
note-taking, recoding the lesson)? The three graphs allow you to evaluate the Chinese students’
different rates.
Data Analysis
Interview
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The interviewees’ responses were mirrors that reflected their challenges that they faced
away from their home town. For example, one participant stated that it is a challenge for her to
socially interact with Americans. In order to adjust for living in the United States, she said, I like
to hang out with native and non-native speakers in order to strengthen relationship with others.
She added that she liked to explore new places as going to Broadway shows, bars and
restaurants. Moreover, she stated, some professors did not understand that the newly arrived
Chinese students are not familiar with a lot of topics in the US. The participant affirmed that her
lack of knowledge due to the discrepancy between the cultures of the two nations. Thus, she
couldn’t actively participate in the other classroom discussions.
Another participant showed his interest to socially interact with Americans; however, he
couldn’t do that as he said, I don’t know the Americans’ interests or their activities in order to
have start a relationship with them. He clarified that he would like to learn more about American
culture in order to easily adjust to social life in the US. Furthermore, the male participant made it
clear that he faced difficulties in expressing and organizing his thoughts in his academic lectures
due to language deficiency. The third participant seemed unhappy because she is having
difficulty communicating in English with American classmates. She also had a bad social
experience dealing with other people outside campus. For example, she went to an eye doctor
and she couldn’t clearly explain how she feels and he couldn’t understand her; she got an
impression that he was not welcoming her. She showed her interest to improve her social
interaction with others so she decided to participate in various activities in campus as business
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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club, women’s club, and human resources’ club. Outside campus, she went shopping with her
friends. Understanding academic lectures was her main linguistic challenge. In her business
classes, she said, I understand seventy percentages of the lecture because the professors speak so
fast. Previewing the lesson and note-taking are the two academic skills that both participants use
to understand their lectures.
Other female interviewee seemed comfortable living in the US because she had an
experience studying in German before. She stated that she is lucky living outside campus with
five native speakers and four Chinese students. She was well-adjusted to the social life in the US
by going out with native-speaker friends. Moreover, she is interested in actively participating in
social clubs as MBA Student Association. However, according to her linguistic challenges,
speaking English fluently is the most enemy that she is facing in the US, as reported by her. She
preferred working in groups in order to practice the language and to improve her language skills.
She preferred to preview the lessons in order to improve her comprehension of the academic
lectures.
The fifth participant in the interview stated that her major problem is that she is having
Chinese friends only. She understood that her English language barrier has a negative effect on
making friends with native-speakers. She showed her eagerness to learn American culture and to
improve her English speaking. In order to socially adjust in the US, she liked to observe nativespeakers talking to each other in order to get used to the language. In addition, she tried to
participate in different multicultural activities inside campus; however, ninety percentages of
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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students are Chinese students, as reported by her. She refused to participate in any activities
outside the university because she said it is not safe and she doesn’t know where to go. Speaking
English and understanding the class lectures are her major linguistic challenges in the US. She
would like professors to encourage group work with native-speakers in order to adjust to social
and language environment in the United States. Previewing and recording the lessons are her
effective academic skills that she uses to help her understand the academic lectures.
Writing Samples
Chinese students’ writing samples reflected their social and linguistic challenges that they
encounter while pursing their graduate degrees in the United States. For example, in the
autobiography essay, a male student wrote, “Difficulties such as unfamiliar environment, new
study method and language barrier are waiting for me to overcome.” Other female student
expressed in writing her main goals by saying, “My short term goal is to adapt to the new
academic environment and to spend some time participating in various activities.” Moreover,
other student explained her main target by saying, “I want to adapt to American life as soon as
possible; making friends with local people.” As an educator, I noticed that Chinese international
students used writing as an effective method to express their willingness to adapt to American
life. For example, one student wrote, “I should make more effort to live in America. This is the
biggest difficulty for me, as a foreigner student.” Thus, Chinese international graduate students’
writing samples were helped me to measure students’ adaptation to learning and social life in the
US.
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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Debates, Discussions and Play-Role Activity
The use of dialogue as a conversation helps to build a strong connectedness between the
teacher and the student. Freire and Shore (1987), as radical educational theorists believed that
the mutual conversational atmosphere between the teachers and the student will definitely help in
reaching a liberating education. In the debate, I observed each group of students worked
cooperatively in discussing the positive and negative impact of their social and linguistic
challenges on their academic achievement. According to their social challenges, participants
mainly focused on culture shock as it reported by them due to the great culture distinctions
between the two Chinese and the United States cultures. They explained that they had difficulties
in adjusting to the living in the US. Moreover, communicating with native people and trying
different food were considered obstacles in their new social life. Most of the participants showed
their willing to quickly adapt to the living in the US. Reading newspapers and watching TV
programs may help them to improve their English proficiency, as reported by Chinese
international students.
According to their linguistic challenges, the Chinese international students had
experiences difficulties which caused mainly by their language deficiency, as reported by them.
For instance, they had experienced particular challenges in English academic listening and
speaking. Participants explained that professors speak very fast and that didn’t help them to
understand the academic lecture. Other students added that they had problems in comprehending
the terminologies and examples that professors mentioned in the classroom; they explained that
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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they were not familiar with those words. Other participants clarified that they had difficulties in
doing their homework that was mainly because of their lack of understanding their academic
lectures. Chinese ESL Students reported that the teaching and learning system is different from
the US system. According to an empirical study, this difficulty is mainly due to their lack of
awareness of the great differences in teaching and learning between their universities in China
and the US institutions (Juan, 2003). Debates, in both classes went very well as they helped
students to discuss their social and linguistic challenges and either they had positive or negative
impact on their academic achievement.
In the discussion and role-play activity, the researcher observed all students in each group
actively discussed their academic skills that they use to help them understand their academic
lectures. The author also noticed that most of the time they spoke in their home-language. The
researcher encouraged them to discuss the topic in English in order to improve their language
skills. The group of students started by pointing out their linguistic challenges and the methods
that they use that helped them understand their academic lectures. The majority of the
participants in each class used note-taking as an academic skill that helped them comprehend the
lectures. Huang, (2006) explained that Chinese students were taking notes while listening to their
lectures in order to “distinguish more important points from less important ones” (pp. 387).
Other students recorded the lecture and listened to it several times in order to understand the
lecture and be able to do their homework. Other students had difficulty in understanding the
terminologies that the professors used in the classroom; so they decided to preview the textbook
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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before attending the class in order to get a main idea of the lesson. Other students had
experienced challenges working in a group with native-speakers because of their language
deficiency. Few of the students said that they might ask their professors questions if they don’t
understand anything. Other students explained that they needed to develop more vocabulary
words in order to improve their speaking and writing.
Students, who role-played as professors, were actively participated in a discussion with
the other group of students. As professors, they tried to find possible suggestions to help ESL
students understand their lectures. For instance, they threw light on the importance of integrating
technology within teaching; they considered technology as an important tool that facilitate
learning and help ESL Chinese students to understand their academic lectures. For instance,
using faculty blackboards was another effective teaching method that was reported by Chinese
students. Others suggested that professors should create a website about the class. Group work
was another effective teaching technique that helps ESL students to improve their
communication and language skills, as reported by Chinese ESL students. Furthermore, they
suggested that professors should encourage students to ask questions in order to improve their
comprehension skills. It is important to have meetings with ESL students more often, as reported
by Chinese students, in order to have opportunities to ask questions and to improve their English
language proficiency. According to my own perspective, using debates, discussions and play-role
activity in an ESL classroom help to increase class-participation and help ESL students to
improve their language learning.
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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Survey
Of the thirty-two Chinese graduate students, 18 (56%) were female and 14 (44%) were
male. The participants’ ages were range between 22 to 26 years old. Statistical analysis was
summarized in Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3. First, Figure 1 is a summary of Chinese graduate
students’ responses regarding their social challenges while studying at Hofstra University. In the
data analysis of this study, scale points 4 and 5 are highly considered to measure Chinese
students’ highest rates, whereas scale points 1 and 2 stand for lowest rates. In figure 1, according
to Chinese students’ self-ratings, it is indicated that 19 (59.375%) who chose scale points 4 and 5
agreed that communicating with native-language speakers is the most social challenge that they
encounter in the US. The results of the analysis showed that 9 (28.125%) of all the students
agreed that culture shock as their highest rates. Finally, the results showed that 7 (21.875%) of
all the participants considered food as another social difficulty.
[Insert Figure 1 about here]
Figure 2 is intended to cover the students’ linguistic challenges in their academic lectures.
The results showed that 12 of all participants (37.5%) who chose scale points 4 and 5 reported
that understanding the lecture is one of their linguistic challenges. Only 7 (21.875%) didn’t think
that understanding the lecture was their major linguistic challenge. 13 (40.625%) of all the
students considered listening as their linguistic challenge in the classroom. However, there is no
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
15
students chose rate 5 in writing, only 9 (28.125%) chose scale point 4; that means they’re not
considered it as a major linguistic challenge in the academic lectures. The results also showed
that reading has the lowest ratings from other linguistic challenges; about 4 (12.5%) who chose
scale points 4 and 5 thought that reading is their highest linguistic challenge. On the other hand,
18 (56.25%) who chose scale points 1 and 2 didn’t think that reading is their main difficulty that
they experienced in their academic lectures. Huang (2006) indicated that reading comprehension
is emphasized in Chinese students’ schools in their home-town. However, statistical analysis
showed significant number of participants who reported that speaking is considered their major
linguistic challenge; 16 (50%) chose scale points 4 and 5 agreed that speaking is their main
linguistic challenge that they faced in their classes. Only 5 (15.625%) of all participants chose
scale points 1 and 2 didn’t think that speaking had a negative impact on their academic
achievement.
[Insert Figure 2 about here]
Figure 3 reflects the academic skills that students preferred to use to help them
understand the academic lectures. 17 (53.125%) chose scale points 4 and 5 in previewing the
text; and therefore, they agreed that previewing the text before a lecture could help them
understand the lecture. Huang (2006) suggested that previewing the text can help students to
familiarize themselves with the topic of a new lecture. However, 8 (25%) of the participants who
chose scale 1 and 2 didn’t choose previewing as an effective method for lecture comprehension.
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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Note-taking is considered another effective method for lecture comprehension; 14 (43.75%) of
all the participants chose scale points 4 and 5. On the other hand, only 5 (15.625%) who chose
scale point 1 and 2 didn’t think taking notes in class was an effective academic skill for
understanding the academic lectures. Last, results showed that only 6 (18.75%) of all the
participants chose scale 4 and 5 in recording the lesson; on the other hand, 13 (40.625%) who
chose scale points 1 and 2 didn’t think recording the lesson in class was an efficient academic
skill. Consequently, recording the lesson is not an effective academic skill comparing to
previewing the lesson and note-taking.
[Insert Figure 3 about here]
Findings and Discussions
The results of this study were mainly based on Chinese international students’ self-report
data. Results of the interviews indicated that participants’ major social and linguistic challenges
are caused mainly by their lack of language proficiency in classroom discussions and lack of
culture knowledge or understanding. It is demonstrated in previous studies that Chinese students’
speaking and listening “are their weakest areas” even they had achieved very high scores in the
TOEFL before coming to an American University in the US (Huang, 2006). In this study,
Chinese students ranked that their listening skills had the most negative impact on their
understanding of the class lectures. Furthermore, recording lectures is less effective than
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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previewing the lesson, as reported by participants. Thus, in this study, the results suggested that
Chinese international students’ listening and speaking have the most effects on their lecture
comprehension. The majority of the participants and the interviewees manifested that they are
shy by nature, as reported by them; and they were not confident of their English language
proficiency; that resulted in their lack of communication in the academic lectures.
In the study, a person-centered approach was used to get a clear overview of Chinese
international students’ social and linguistic challenges over their first semester in the United
States. The participants highlighted the fact that their language deficiency and cross-cultural
transitions have negative influence on their social life. It is demonstrated in the previous studies
that, “the majority of the Chinese international students did not experience severe levels of
psychological distress during their initial cultural transition in the United States” (Wang et al.
2012). The results also suggested that previewing and reviewing the text before and after class is
the effective academic skill that helps them understand their class lectures. Note-taking and
recording the lecture are another good methods, as reported by Chinese graduate students.
However, three out of five interviewees didn’t consider taking notes as an effective academic
skill; that’s because they had experienced difficulties in English academic listening. Thus, in
order to help Chinese graduate students to adapt to the American social and educational
environment, practical suggestions were discussed. Results of survey showed that
communicating with native-language speakers is considered the most social challenge that
Chinese students experience during their stay in the U.S. Results also showed that Chinese
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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students had better reading and writing than listening and speaking which had a negative impact
on their understanding of the academic lectures. Thus, participants experienced difficulties in
lecture comprehension due to their lack of English language abilities itself. Note-taking and
previewing were considered the most effective academic skills that may enhance Chinese
students’ lecture comprehension.
Implications for Instruction
According to the results of this study and previous studies, the newly-arrived Chinese
international students need social support. Training workshops are suggested for faculty and staff
who are working with the new international students. (Wang, et al., 2012) mentioned that it is
important to “anticipate the different patterns of international students’ acculturative
adjustment”; thus, faculty and staff can use their advisory roles to provide international students
with social support. Participating in multicultural and international programs inside the campus
is suggested to help improving international students’ social interaction with others.
Professors should make their lectures more accessible to Chinese students in order to help
them learn more effectively and lessen their linguistic challenges. Moreover, professors should
understand the students’ weakness and strengths in order to use the instructional techniques that
meet their needs. Professors should use effective teaching strategies that help ESL students
improve their pedagogical learning and enhance their four language skills. For example, opening
discussions in the classroom help ESL students to work cooperatively, develop their vocabulary
and improve their language learning. Questioning is an essential strategy that enable language
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
19
learners to increase their talking time and to dynamically communicate with the teacher and with
their peers. Moreover, it enables them to improve their output as well as understand the teacher’s
input.
Furthermore, using writing scenarios and play-role activities are effective teaching
strategies that help language learners to improve their communication skills and increase their
social interaction. Using visual aids can be used in the classroom to facilitate learning to ESL
students. For instance, using PowerPoint is a useful tool that helps ESL students to understand
the lesson and to follow up with the instructor. Using faculty blackboard is essential because it
can help meet the needs of different learning styles. For example, Chinese students can easily use
faculty blackboard to preview the topic before attending the lecture. They also have the
opportunity to review the instructional material several times.
Effective educators should use various instructional activities which are most efficient,
and which would provide learners with skills that they could use for academic and
communicative purposes. According to my own perspective, teaching in a different setting help
international students to adapt to the social and language environment in the US. For example,
taking Chinese students to university art museum is an effective technique that helps to enhance
communication for English language learners. Such activities positively “change the classroom
atmosphere, generating student curiosity and lowering the affective filter to language learning”
(Berho & Defferding, 2005). Thus, this activity helps language learners to be actively
participating in learning, develop their vocabulary and enjoy learning. In addition, working in
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
20
pairs and small groups is another effective teaching method that enables Chinese international
students to improve their social interaction with each other and improve their four language skills
at all levels. Tweed and Lehman (2002) threw light on Socratic- oriented American professors
who used questioning, discussing, and group work in their classroom. As reported by Chinese
students, group work and student participation positively affected their academic lectures
comprehension.
Conclusion
The results of this study revealed that both social and linguistic challenges were reported
by Chinese international students have negative impact on their academic achievement. Effective
academic skills were discussed by all participants to help them understand academic lectures.
Effective recommendations and suggestions for Chinese international students were discussed in
previous studies to improve their academic skills for lecture comprehension at American
universities. Results of reports of English-only policy and translanguaging in academic lectures
were addressed in a separate paper. Finally, in this study, there were only thirty-two participants
and was conducted only at one American university, which might affect the generalizibility of
the study. It is suggested that this study be replicated to another Chinese international students at
another American university to validate findings from this study. For further research,
implementing and restructuring English-Only policy and translanguaging is discussed by the
researcher in the policy paper. It is suggested that policy-makers should incorporate
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
21
translanguaging in the language policy, to be considered as an essential part of the English policy
in order to improve Chinese international students’ lecture comprehension.
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
22
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Figure 1 -Social Challenges 5 is the Highest Rate
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Figure 2- Linguistic Challenges 5 is the Highest Rate
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Listening
Writng
Reading
Speaking
26
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Figure 3- Academic Skills
5 is the Highest Rate
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Note-Taking
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