International Toxic Waste Trade: Mobile Phones
Growth, Flow and Solutions of International Electronic Waste Trade
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Department of Engineering and Science
Solid and Hazardous Waste Prevention and Air Control Engineering
MANE-6960 (Spring 2014)
Author: Sean Paquette
Research Project
Mid-term research project will be on solid waste, due week (8) of spring semester 2014.
Research Statement
Discuss the growth, flow and solutions of international toxic electronic waste trade: Used Mobile Phones
Abstract
More than half the world’s population uses mobile phones today, connecting with friends and family,
searching the internet and conducting business. Electronic waste is a rapidly growing problem in the
world. As total population continues to grow and countries develop the mobile industry strives to
improve their environmental future outlook and reduce greenhouse gases. In this paper, the growth,
flow patterns and potential solutions of international toxic waste trade are studied.
Key Terms
Electronic Toxic Waste; Cell Phone; International Waste Trade; Environment; Basel Convention
Chapter 1: Introduction
There are more than 3.56 billion1 mobile phone subscribers in the world today and by year 2018
the total number of mobile phone subscribers is expected to exceed 4.0 billion2. A subscriber is an
individual who has an open and active account with a mobile phone service company. A mobile phone
is an, electronic telecommunications device which “connects to wireless communications networks
through radio wave and satellite transmissions.”3 Mobile phones are also known as cellular phones or
cell phones. Today, cell phones provide voice communications, multimedia service, short message
service, and internet service. Currently, the mobile industry contributes 1.4%4 to the global gross
domestic product (GDP) and is estimated to contribute 2.3%5 ($1.1trillion) by year 2017. In this paper,
the growth, flow and potential solutions of international toxic waste trade are studied. The mobile
communication industry is used as a sample study, while the methods and principles of international
toxic waste trade can be applied to all products, industries and countries participating in toxic trade
today.
1
GSM Association (GSMA); ATkearney; The Mobile Economy 2013; Dated 2013; Viewed March 16, 2014
GSM Association (GSMA); ATkearney; The Mobile Economy 2013; Dated 2013; Viewed March 16, 2014
3
Mobile phone; Web Encyclopedia; Viewed March 16, 2014
4
GSM Association (GSMA); ATkearney; The Mobile Economy 2013; Dated 2013; Viewed March 18, 2014
5
GSM Association (GSMA); ATkearney; The Mobile Economy 2013; Dated 2013; Viewed March 19, 2014
2
International toxic waste trade is the trans-boundary movement of liquids, gases and solids that
are dangerous to human health and the environment. Furthermore, under Section 261.2 subtitle C of
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), hazardous solid waste “is any discarded material
that is not excluded under Section 261.4(a) or that is not excluded by a variance granted under Section
260.30 and 260.31 or that is not excluded by a non-waste determination under Section 260.30 and
260.34.”6 For example, batteries, cleaning products, paints, pharmaceuticals, electronics and cosmetics
are considered hazardous solid waste.
This paper is organized as follows: Chapter 2 provides a detailed timeline of international toxic
waste trade. Chapter 3 articulates toxic trade methods and procedures, followed by prospective
solutions for solid international toxic waste trade in chapter 4. Chapter 5 condenses the results.
Chapter 2: Growth of International Toxic Waste Trade: Mobile Phones
Toxic waste trade also known as, “toxic colonialism, was a phase originally coined by Jim Puckett
of Greenpeace, describing the dumping of international wastes of the West on territories if the Third
World.”7 Early developing nations produced tremendous amounts solid waste, striving for economic
growth through industrialization. According to an article released in Volume 35, Issue 2 of the William &
Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review, “the worldwide generation of hazardous waste in year 1945
was estimated to be five million metric tons.”8 Since 1945, hazardous waste generation increased
exponentially sparking a major international concern. In 1981, the United Nations Environment
Programme’s (UNEP) first Montevideo Programme on Environmental Law addressed the management
of international hazardous waste. Established in 1972, the UNEP is the “voice for the environment
within the United Nations system. UNEP acts as a catalyst, advocate, educator and facilitator to
promote the wise use and sustainable development of the global environment.”9 Following the UNEP’s
introduction of hazardous waste into the international environmental agenda there was a public
discovery of imported toxic waste deposits in Africa and other developing countries, which led to the
Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal
(Basel Convention).
On March 22, 1989,10 during the Conference of Plenipotentiaries, the Basel Convention on the
Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal was approved. The Basel
Convention was accepted into force on May 5, 1992.11 Initiated by the Swiss government, the
Conference of the Plenipotentiaries was a Global Convention discussing the Control of Trans-boundary
Movement of Hazardous Waste. The primary objective of the Basel Convention is:
“To protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of
hazardous wastes, its scope of application covers a wide range of wastes
defined as ‘hazardous wastes’ based on their origin and/or composition (article
1 and annex II). The provisions of the Basel Convention center around the
following principle aims:
6
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act; Code of Federal Regulations; Title 40, Protection of the Environment
Laura A. Pratt; Decreasing Dirty Dumping? A Reevaluation of Toxic Waste Colonialism and the Global
Management of Trans-boundary Hazardous Waste; 35 Wm & Mary Envtl. L. &Pol’y Rev. 581 (2011)
8
Laura A. Pratt. Decreasing Dirty Dumping? A Reevaluation of Toxic Waste Colonialism and the Global
Management of Trans-boundary Hazardous Waste; 35 Wm & Mary Envtl. L. &Pol’y Rev. 581 (2011)
9
United Nations Environment Programme Webpage; Homepage; Viewed March 18, 2014
10
Basel Convention Webpage; 2011; Viewed March 18,2014
11
Basel Convention Webpage; 2011; Viewed March 18,2014
7
(1) The reduction of hazardous waste generation and the promotion of
environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place
of disposal.
(2) The restriction of trans-boundary movements of hazardous waste except where
it is perceived to be in accordance with the principles of environmentally sound
management.
(3) A regulatory system applying to cases where trans-boundary movements are
permissible.”12
Today, the Basel Convention continues to develop and adopted new amendments attempting to
address all toxic waste concerns in the world. An amendment example, since 1992 is the Ban
Amendment. The Ban Amendment, “provides for the prohibition of exports of all hazardous wastes
covered by the Convention that are intended for final disposal, reuse, recycling and recovery from
countries listed in annex VII to the Convention (Parties and other States which are members of the
OECD, EC, Liechtenstein) to all other countries.”13
Presently, the world produces 1.3 billion tonnes14 of hazardous waste every year. According to
the World Bank, by 2025 hazardous solid waste is expected to reach 2.2 billion tonnes15 per year. Figure
(1) below identifies the major countries generating the most hazardous waste in 2009, the countries
generating the most hazardous waste are the United States, Russia and China.
Figure 1: Hazardous Waste Generation16
12
United Nations Environment Programme; Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes And Their Disposal; Protocol On Liability and Compensation For Damage Resulting From TransBoundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and Their Disposals; January 2011
13
United Nations Environment Programme; Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes And Their Disposal; Protocol On Liability and Compensation For Damage Resulting From TransBoundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and Their Disposals; January 2011
14
15
16
The World Bank; What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management; 2013
The World Bank; What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management; 2013
United Nations; Waste Management; Viewed March 19, 2014
Hazardous electronic waste (e-waste) is globally increasing three to five percent per year.
Presently, it is estimated 45 million tonnes of electronic waste is generated every year. E-waste is any
consumer or business electronic equipment at the end of its useful life. E-waste characteristically
contains heavy metals harmful to the environment such as cadmium, lead, copper and chromium. Cell
phones, televisions, batteries, scanners and circuit boards are a few examples of hazardous solid ewaste. Figure (2) below is a graph illustrating the composition of e-waste equipment. The majority of
the e-waste composition is refrigerators, washing machines, dryers, air-conditioners, vacuum cleaners
and coffee machines.
Figure 2: Composition of E-waste17
As electronic waste continues to increase, United States along with other developed countries are
exploring different disposal options for e-waste such as resale, reuse and refurbishing of electronic
equipment.
Chapter 3: Flow of International Toxic Waste Trade: Mobile Phones
In a recent study conducted by The New York Times, more than 150 million18 cell phones are
discarded per year in the United States alone. On average, Americans replaces their cellphone every 22
months for a more current model. The unwanted cellphones are packaged and shipped by barge, often
illegally to developing countries such as China, India, Ghana and Nigeria for recycling. It’s estimated
more than 80 percent19 of all e-waste generated is shipped to developing countries. Due to the
strengthening of environmental laws and procedures in the United States, it is less expensive to export
electronic waste to developing countries. Figures (3) below is a 2011 global export map of e-waste.
Additionally, Figure (4) is a map of the assumed routes of e-waste dumping.
17
United Nations; Waste Management; Viewed March 19, 2014
Leyla Acaroglu; Where Do Old Cellphones Go to Die?; The New York Times; May 4, 2013
19
Karin Lundgren; International Labor Office, Geneva; The global impact of e-waste, Addressing the challenge;
2012
18
Figure 3: Export of E-Waste20
Figure 4: Assumed Routes of E-waste Dumping21
The United States produces the most e-waste in the world, shipping a majority of unwanted
cellphones and e-waste to Brazil, Nigeria, Singapore, Thailand and China. Currently China is the largest
dumping ground for electronic waste, by 2020, the dumping of mobile phones is estimated to increase
by 700%.22 Furthermore, in India mobile phone dumping is projected to increase 1800%23 by 2020.
Importers in developed countries purchase shipping containers by weight, not by the value of
electronics inside the container. According to the Environmental Health Perspectives, “it costs an
average of $5,000 to ship a 40-foot container full of used electronics from the United States to Africa.”24
Once in Africa, Olayemi Adesany, a Basel Action Network coordinator (BAN) states, “a functional
Pentium III computer can sell for about $130 on Nigerian markets, while a working 27-inch TV might sell
20
Karin Lundgren; International Labour Office, Geneva; The global impact of e-waste, Addressing the challenge;
2012
21
Karin Lundgren; International Labour Office, Geneva; The global impact of e-waste, Addressing the challenge;
2012
22
Sophie Vos; Electronic Waste Disposal; Duke University, Nicholas School of The Environment; November 15,
2012
23
Sophie Vos; Electronic Waste Disposal; Duke University, Nicholas School of The Environment; November 15,
2012
24
Charles W. Schmidt; Environmental Health Perspectives (ehp); Unfair Trade e-Waste in Africa; Apr 2006; 114(4):
A232-A235
for $50.”25 Additionally, many scarp mobile phone components are sold to supply the emerging
reassembly industry. As a result, many corporations in developed countries avoid expensive recycling
fees and strict regulations through the shipping and selling of e-waste to developing countries.
Importers then purchase the shipping containers, sell the components worth value creating a significant
profit margin and dump the remaining majority of the container as unusable waste.
Chapter 4: Solutions for International Toxic Waste Trade: Mobile Phones
Cellphones contain heavy metals, poly vinyl chloride (PVC), bromine, and hazardous flame
retardants creating an extremely complex and challenging recycling process. If cellphones are not
properly recycled, they end up in landfills and incinerators releasing heavy metals and hazardous flame
retardants into the community’s ground water and surrounding atmosphere or being illegally dissolved
and disassembled in developing countries. For example, a company located in Indiana, United States
dumped electronic equipment at a local landfill, which led to a polychlorinated biphenyls contamination
of 41,748 tons of soil. In the United States 18 states have banned the disposal of electronics in landfills.
Although, the generation and exportation of mobile phones continues to grow, several efforts to
reduce e-waste dumping in developing countries are being investigated. One solution to help reduce
international toxic waste trade is requiring more companies to establish “buy-back” and recycling
programs, similar to Best Buy and Staples. For example, the European Union “provides a model for
industrial regulation that would shift the burden of safe product disposal back to the manufacturers that
produce electronic goods.”26 The European Union model requires electronic sellers to accept any of
their products brought in by the customers for recycling, free of charge. The goal established by the
European Union is to recycle 85%27 of the e-waste by 2019. Most major corporations have social,
environmental and ethical responsibilities to their shareholders and surrounding communities.
Therefore, selling your mobile phone back to a corporation can help reduce crude recycling in
developing countries.
Another potential solution to help reduce toxic waste trade and crude recycling is to modify the
Basel Convention, clarifying the definitions regarding waste. “The lack of distinction between ‘waste’
and ‘products’ in the convention and its vague criteria for ‘hazardous’ allowed the continued export of
hazardous waste under the label of commodities or raw materials, despite the fact that these wastes
still present environmental and health risks to developing countries”28 United States is one of the few
developed countries which has not rectified the Basel Convention. If the Basel Convention is modify it
may help form a stronger global goal among the developed countries to reduce e-waste with more
specific definitions and tasks to track.
Chapter 3: Conclusion
International toxic waste trade is a major threat to both humans and the environment. Over the
next decade, the production and sales of mobile phones will continue to climb worldwide, as a result so
will illegal dumping of e-waste and the crude recycling. In the future, developed countries need to
continue increasing their environmental awareness and strive to reduce e-waste without eliminating
valuable secondary raw materials for developing countries that properly manage and recycle the
imported electronics.
25
Charles W. Schmidt; Environmental Health Perspectives (ehp); Unfair Trade e-Waste in Africa; Apr 2006; 114(4):
A232-A235
26
27
28
Leyla Acaroglu; Where Do Old Cellphones Go to Die?; The New York Times; May 4, 2013
Leyla Acaroglu; Where Do Old Cellphones Go to Die?; The New York Times; May 4, 2013
Laura A. Pratt. Decreasing Dirty Dumping? A Reevaluation of Toxic Waste Colonialism and the Global
Management of Trans-boundary Hazardous Waste; 35 Wm & Mary Envtl. L. &Pol’y Rev. 581 (2011)
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