ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Henna Rafiq
Mingran Yu
Rena Shi
The main function of endocrine glands is to secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Organs
Pituitary gland- (master gland of the body) secretes important hormones and it lies at the base of
the brain and secretes hormones such as the growth hormone.
Thyroid gland- regulates metabolism. It’s hormones regulate the heart beating, muscle and bone
growth.
Parathyroid glands- regulates the calcium levels in the body so muscular and nervous system can
function properly.
Adrenal glands- produces hormones necessary for fluid and sodium levels in the body
Pancreas- secretes insulin and other hormones necessary storing and retrieving sugars and amino
acids
Testicles- secretion of testosterone
Ovaries- these hormones control the maturation
Pineal Gland- The pineal gland is a small endocrine system organ that is situated at the center of
the brain. It secretes melatonin that regulates sleep cycle and hormonal changes during
adolescence.
Hypothalamus- in the brain and connects the endocrine system with the nervous system
Pryce Ancona
Heather Anderson
Jessica Floyd
Mara Gluck
Integumentary System
Functions:
 Protects the body’s internal tissues from damage/injury
 Waterproofs body
 Helps excrete waste through perspiration
 Is a receptor for pain, heat, cold, and pressure (sensory reception)
 Synthesizes Vitamin D
 Protects against invasion of infectious organisms
 Assists in temperature regulation (homeostasis)
Major Organs:
 Skin (Hair and Nails)
The Membranes of the Integumentary System
 Epithelial Membranes- a membrane that includes an epithelial sheet combined with an
underlying layer of connective tissue, protects the body, encompasses the following three
types:
 Serous – Lines and protects ventral body cavities closed to the exterior, found
around organs that move a lot such as the heart and lungs
 Mucus – Lines body cavities that are open to the exterior, such as organs of the
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
 Cutaneous – Protects body from harmful bacteria, skin, exposed to air, dense
fibrous connective tissue
Polly Adhya
Erin Breitenother
Pauline Shih
Reproductive System

Biological function of the reproductive system is to perpetuate the species.

Organs: Essential organs are gonads (testes and ovaries)
o Female:

Ovaries: Role is to produce eggs and estrogen. Ovaries also produce the
female sex cells (ova).

Uterus: Fertilized egg is implanted and houses the fetus or embryo during
development.

Fallopian Tubes: Provides a site for fertilization to occur

Vagina: Provides a passageway for the delivery of an infant and for the
menstrual flow to leave the body. It is where the sperm enters the body
and starts the process of a baby.
o Male:

Testes: Role is to manufacture the male sex cells (sperm) and deliver them
to the female reproductive tract. Testes also produce testosterone.

Seminal Vesicles: Produces a viscous secretion that nourishes the sperm
passing through the tract.


Penis: Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract.
Combination of sperm and egg produce a fertilized egg which is the first cell of a new
individual.
o Uterus provides a nurturing, protective environment in which the embryo, (later
called the fetus) develops until birth.
Puja Parmar
Audrey Cheng
Samantha Stull
9-10-10
Pd. 6 Anatomy
Respiratory System
Function:
To keep the body’s blood supply constantly full of oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide. The
respiratory system also contributes to the keeping the acid base balance of the blood stable.
Major organs:
Conducting Passageways: allow air into the lungs and also purify, humidify, and warm the
incoming air

In the Nasal passages, the air enters the nose and is warmed as it flows through the
mucosa lined nasal cavity which rests on blood rich connective tissues into the pharynx

The Pharynx is a 5 inch muscular passage commonly referred to as the throat is the
passageway for food and air. It deposits the air into the larynx

The Larynx is the voice box which is formed by 8 rigid cartilages and the epiglottis. The
largest cartilage forms the Adams apple. The Larynx passes air to the lower respiratory
passages.

The Trachea is lined with ciliated mucosa. The cilia beat continuously against the
incoming air and propel the mucus, which is loaded with particles/debris, away from
lungs.

The Bronchi are formed by the division of the trachea. The right bronchus is larger in
diameter and is straighter than left so more things get stuck in it. The bronchi connect to
lungs.
The Lungs are the main organ of the respiratory system, occupying most of thoracic cavity.
They contain alveoli (terminal air sacs) which conduct the major gas exchange of oxygen to
carbon dioxide through the blood.
Rachel Kim
Carolyn Kleinberger
Julia Van Steenberg
The Muscular System
Main function:
To provide movement for the body, internally and externally.
Information
 Controlled by the nervous system
Types:
 Two main types:
o Voluntary
o Involuntary (i.e. heart muscles)
 Three types of muscle tissue:
o Cardiac Muscles
 Found in the heart
 Makes up the walls in and around the heart
 Has striations (stripe-like markings)
 Attached to each other, not to the bone
 When they contract, pumps the heart (involuntary muscle)
o Skeletal Muscles
 Also is striated
 Composed of long muscle fibers
 Connected to bones by tendons
 Many contractions are automatic, but we can control it (voluntary muscle)
 Two types:
 Fast twitch (anaerobic exercise)
 Slow twitch (aerobic exercise)
o Smooth Muscles
 Makes up much of internal organs
 Found in the urinary bladder, gallbladder, arteries, and veins.
 Involuntary
Major Muscles and Functions
 Skeletal
o Biceps; triceps – Arm movement
o Quadriceps; peroneus – Leg movement
o Abdominals – Torso movement
 Cardiac
o Heart muscles – Pumps blood in and out of heart
 Smooth
o Diaphragm – Causes the lungs to inflate and deflate; allows breathing
o Other organ muscles
Abbey DeFeo,
Megan Barnes,
& Seung Jung
Period – 6
9/15/10
Circulatory System
Major Functions: Respiration, Nutrition, and Excretion.
 Transports other nutrients to cells
 Transports other wastes from cells
 Transport hormones throughout the body
 Helps stabilize the pH & ionic concentration of the body fluids
 Contains white-blood cells that fight infection
 Helps maintain body temperature by transporting heat
Major Organs: Heart, Brain, Lungs, and Blood Vessels
 Heart – Pumps blood all throughout the body.
 Brain – Tells the heart when to pump and how fast. Also, controls your heart rate during
exercise.
 Lungs – Brings in the oxygen, and blood goes through the lungs to pick up the oxygen
and bring it throughout the rest of the body as the heart pumps.
 Blood Vessels – Provide the conduits within which blood circulates to all the body
tissues.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Major Function: The body must be able to respond to irritants or stimuli coming from outside
the body (such as light, sound, or changes in temperature) and from inside the body (such as
decreases in oxygen or stretching of tissue).
Major Organs:
Brain- Interprets the incoming sensory information and issues instructions based on past
experiences by activating the appropriate body muscles or glands.
Spinal Cord- Is a continuation of the brain stem. Provides a two-way conduction pathway to
and from the brain, and it is a major reflex center.
Nerves- Bundle of neuron processes (axons) outside the Central Nervous System. The nerves
send sensory information from the brain to the sensory receptors.
Sensory Receptors- Detect changes and sends messages (via electronic signals called nerve
impulses) to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) so that it is constantly informed
about what is going on.
Breaking It Down
*Because of the complexity of the Nervous System, its anatomical structures are usually
considered in terms of two principal divisions: the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
CNS


PNS




Brain
Spinal Cord
Cranial Nerves
Spinal Nerves
Ganglia (Collections of neuron cell bodies outside the CNS)
Sensory Receptors (skin, skeletal muscles, joints, etc.)
o These structures serve as communication lines as they carry impulses.
 Sensory receptors to CNS
 CNS to appropriate glands or muscles
PNS
Sensory Portion
Motor Portion
Somatic
Division (The
Voluntary
System)
Autonomic
Nervous System
(ANS/Involuntary
Nervous System)
Controls
skeletal
muscles
Controls smooth
and cardiac
muscles and
glands
Skeletal System

Major Functions:
o Support: Bones form the internal framework that supports and anchors all soft
organs. Ex) Bones of legs support body trunk when we stand.
o Protection: Bones protect soft body organs.
Ex) The fused bones of the skull provide a snug enclosure for the brain.
o Movement: Skeletal muscles use the bones as levers move the body and its parts.
As a result, we can walk, run, throw a ball, and breathe.
o Storage: Fat is stored in the internal cavities. Bone itself serves as a storehouse
for minerals, the most important being calcium and phosphorous, although others
are also stored.
o Blood cell formation: Blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs within the
marrow cavities of certain bones.

Major Bone Tissues:
o Compact bone provides support to the body and protects the organs. It also
provides levers for movement and store minerals.
o Spongy bone has high surface area that allows room for blood vessels and
marrow.

Major Bone:
o Long Bones have a shaft with heads at both ends. All the bones of the limbs,
except the wrist and ankle bones are long bones.
o Short Bones are generally cubed-shaped, and contain mostly spongy bone. The
bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones.
o Flat Bones are generally thin, flattened, and usually curved, with two thin layers
of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them. Most bones
of the skull, the ribs, and the sternum (breastbone) are flat bones.
o Irregular Bones are the bones that do not fit one of the preceding categories. The
vertebrae, which take up the spinal column, and the hip bones fall into this group.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Overall Function:
Mechanical and Chemical breakdown of food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the
blood stream
Plays a role in the immune system by destroying pathogens that enter through the mouth
Organs:
Mouth- mechanical digestion with the movement of teeth. Also plays a slight chemical role in
the breakdown of complex carbohydrates (salivary amylase)
Esophagus- transports food to the stomach through peristalsis
Stomach – mechanical digestion of food through stomach contraction, and chemical digestion
through stomach acid and enzymes
Small Intestine – primarily chemical digestion of all macromolecules. Villi on the surface of
intestine increase surface area for the absorption of macromolecules to the bloodstream.
Large Intestine- chemical digestion where residual water is absorbed. Bacteria consume the
some of the remaining food molecules and provide nutrients
Pancreas – secretes enzymes into the small intestines, and secretes hormones into the blood
stream to assist the digestive process
Gallbladder- stores, concentrates and secretes bile into the small intestine to neutralize
hydrochloric acid coming in from the stomach. Bile also serves as an emulsifier to break up lipid
globules.
Liver- produces bile and other biochemicals
Rectum – stores processed food until excretion
The Urinary System
By: Aleshba, Mariel, and Sana
Urinary system- a system of the body that disposes the nitrogen-containing waste from the blood
and flushes them from the body in urine.
-regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood
-also called the excretory system
Kidneys:
- The kidneys are bean-shaped organs
about the size of your fists.
- The kidneys remove urea from the blood
through tiny filtering units.
Ureters:
-From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin
tubes called ureters to the bladder.
-The ureters are about 8 to 10 inches long.
Small amounts of urine are emptied into the
bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15
seconds.
Bladder:
- Sores urine until you are ready to go to
-
the bathroom to empty it.
It swells into a round shape when it is full and gets smaller when empty.
The bladder is a hollow muscular organ shaped like a balloon.
It sits in your pelvis and is held in place by ligaments attached to other organs and the
pelvic bones.
If the urinary system is healthy, the bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (2 cups) of urine
comfortably for 2 to 5 hours.
Urethra:
-The tube that allows urine to pass outside the body.
-When you feel you need to urinate, the brain signals your bladder muscles to relax causing urine
to exit the body through the urethra.
http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yoururinary/#1
Kahsa Teum
Stacey Yu
Taylor Wallace
Pd 6
Immune System
 Identifies and kills foreign bodies
 Defends body against bacteria, microbodies, viruses, toxins and parasites.
 Made up of cells, tissues and organs
 White blood cells – seek out and destroy disease causing organisms
 Red blood cells –deliver oxygen to the body tissues via the blood flow through
the
circulatory system




 Leukocytes
 Phagocytes – cells that chew up invading organisms
 Lymphocytes - cells that recognize previous invaders and help body fight
against
them
 Made in the bone marrow
 B cells – seek out foreign bodies
 T cells – kills foreign bodies
Skin is the outer first line of defense
Mucus lines all openings of the body
Tears and mucus contain the enzyme lysozome that breaks down the cell wall of many
bateria
Saliva is an anti-bacterial
Parts of the immune system
-thymus- produces T-cells
-spleen- synthesizes anti-bodies
-lymphatic system- sends a liquid called “lymph” through the body. Lymph picks up
bacteria and brings them to lymph nodes to be destroyed
-antibodies-gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily fluids
of
vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and
neutralize foreign
objects
-complement system-is a biochemical cascade that helps, or “complements”, the ability
of
antibodies to clear pathogens from an organism.
-hormones- known as lymphokines.-suppresses the immune system during timesof stress
-skin-first line of defense against germs entering the body