RUNNING HEAD- LITERATURE REVIEW
Mary Kate Lavin
Literature Review
Loyola University
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Elementary school students can find the writing process a daunting task. “Writing is a
challenging cognitive process” (Englert, Zhao, Dunsmore, Collings, and Wolbers, 2007, p.1)
specifically for students with Autism (ASD) or Learning Disabilities (LD). When thinking about
the writing process it involves more than the five traditional steps of writing; first you have to
think of what you want to write, then you need to find the words to express yourself, form the
correct letters for the words, put the words into a grammatically correct sentence, write a rough
copy, revise your work, and finally copy your original rough copy with the corrections into a
final copy. These steps may seem easy for an adult and you may not even realize that you are
doing all of these things while writing, but those steps are what can go through a child’s mind.
Writing is a tedious task for students with disabilities. “Learning to write is the most complex
language task that children must undertake” (Zhang, 2000, p. 10).
Many students with ASD or LD do not write lengthy written assignments and seem to be
disengaged throughout the writing process. The goal of my research is to enhance written
output for students with ASD and LD. Students will produce a four to five related sentences in
paragraph form. With the use of assistive technology incorporated with a word processor,
motivation, and peer support during writing class students’ with ASD and LD will attend to the
task at hand and produce lengthier written assignments.
Word Processors
Assistive Technology
At this current day in age, technology seems to be the solution to many problems both in
education and in business. Technology can have a negative impact on kids such as less
communication with peers or adults, technological difficulties, and the ever-changing world of
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technology. However, technology can be a beneficial tool to assist students with the writing
process. There are two sides of using word processors in the classroom. One side is that having
them will allow students to write easier and will motivate them. In study completed by Owston
and Wideman, (1997) they compared a low access technology class to a high access technology
class. They saw a greater increase in written output in the high access classroom due to the fact
that students and teachers were using the technology properly and in a meaningful way. The low
access classroom rarely used the technology that they had in the classroom and did not use it as
teaching tools. (p. 14).
On the other side are believers that just having a word processor will not increase
students’ written output. Initially I believed that using a word processor in writing would be the
solution for getting students with ASD and LD to write, however according to MacArthur,
(1996) “simply having access to word processing has little impact on the revising behaviors of
students with LD” (p. 2). Zhang (2000) reported “ a comparison of handwritten versus word
processed texts showed no difference in quality, quantity, or mechanical errors, although word
processing was significantly slower than handwriting” (p. 2). Van Leeuwen and Gabriel (2007)
also noted that during their study of elementary school students, that they wrote lengthier written
pieces with paper and pencil as compared to a word processor. Even though word processors
may not be the single answer to getting students to write lengthier assignments going more in
depth to what word processors have to offer such as assistive technology may enhance students’
written output.
The assistive technology pieces of word processors have benefited many students with
LD and ASD with producing lengthier written assignments. The type of assistive technology
includes, spelling and grammar checkers, pre-writing programs, word prediction software, and
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picture/word software. There have been at least four research studies that have shown the
effectiveness of using the features of a word processor to engage and enhance students’ with
ASD and LD’s written output.
In a study completed by Bedrosian, Lasker, Speidel, and Politsch, (2003) they used a
grammar map and a story-writing program My Words to assist one student with Autism and one
student with an intellectual disability. Prior to the study the students were asked to jointly write
a narrative story on a desktop computer. Together the students wrote one sentence with
incomplete grammar and the sentence did not make sense. After the intervention, the students
jointly wrote three six sentence stories that had correct grammar and the sentences were
intelligible (p. 318). These students benefited from the story grammar map which was a detailed
outline of what they wanted to write and My Words which allows students to use word
prediction, listen to what they have written, and produce sound effects while writing.
A study that Englert, Zhao, Dunsmore, Collings, and Wolbers (2007) conducted was on
the effect of TELE-Web and the effect on using this program in comparison to the traditional
paper and pencil way of writing. “TELE-Web is technology enhanced learning environments on
the web, is an examples of an Internet based software that offers several structural devices upon
which the students can frame their thoughts, words, and ideas (p. 4). The researchers selected
thirty-five elementary school students, twenty were in the experimental condition, which used
TELE-Web, and fifteen students used paper and pencil to write about a chosen topic. Both
groups were given the same instructions. Each group had some sort of teacher instruction,
completed an outline or web, then wrote about their given topics with some teacher verbal
prompts along the way. The control group made progress by writing seven-sentence paragraph.
The group using TELE-Web improved drastically by writing five six sentence paragraphs.
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TELE-Web allowed students to use a detailed web. It also “offered several scaffolds to prompt
students’ attention” (Englert et al., 2007, p. 8). Students were also able to listen to teacher
prompts throughout their writing. The experimental group was more successful in writing longer
sentences when using assistive technology.
Zhang (2000) completed a study and used, a program Robo-Writer, a computer software,
with five students in fifth grade. They were asked to free write or write about an assigned topic.
While students did make gains on their writing assignments, the researcher did not believe it was
entirely from using assistive technology. He believed that “ it is important to engage students in
verbal rehearsal to facilitate identifying and focusing on a meaningful topic” (p. 8).
It is interesting to note the differences in using computer software such as TELE-Web
and ROBO-Writer. One researcher attributed the success of the students’ writing to the use of
the tool and the other did not. They did both agree that the use of assistive technology will take
the burden off of the student while writing, these tools “ support students’ cognitive processes by
freeing students’ memories for higher-order thinking, or by reminding and prompting students to
apply strategies in the context of problem solving” (Englert, et al., 2007, p. 17).
In the last study by MacArthur, (1996) he examined the use of word processors and the
various components that go beyond word processing. The editing feature on a word processor
can encourage students to write more without worrying about revising. Students can write and
then come back to delete or add in words later. It also will benefit the students because they will
not have to re-copy their work. The grammar and spell checkers can alleviate apprehensions
students may have about spelling or using the correct words in a sentence. Along with spell
checkers are word prediction applications. Students can begin to type a word and then can
choose from a list of words to use. The last thing this researcher noted was the use of planning
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tools and software that is available on computers. Students can make a web easily and find
pictures or words to go along with it. “The capabilities of computers have increased in the past
decade, a variety of exciting tools have been developed that have the potential to enhance writing
of students” (p. 10). If teachers use this technology in an effective way students will show
progress in the area of writing.
Through the research and the various case studies that were conducted, assistive
technology benefits the length of the written output of students with Autism and Learning
Disabilities. When a word processor or paper and pencil were given to the students to perform a
written task students showed a one to two sentence paragraph with incomplete sentences and
incorrect punctuation and capitalization. Teachers need to be aware of the various assistive
technology tools available so that their students can adequately show their knowledge of what is
being asked of them to write.
Motivation
The second way that can enhance students’ with Autism or Learning Disabilities written
output is motivation. Teachers need to be creative in reaching all of its students. Since writing is
a difficult task, it can be a time where some disruptive behaviors occur. Some disruptive
behaviors can include kicking, screaming, hitting, or running away from an assigned area. One
researcher noted that students who are “reluctant to write, often become frustrated while writing”
(Graham, Harris, Larsen, 2001, p. 1). Another researcher stated that if students are uninterested
in a topic, “it may lead to mild to severe disruptive behavior used to avoid or escape the
academic task” (Ochs, Kremer-Sadlik, Solomon, Sirota 2001). Many teachers can agree that
writing can be a cause of frustration for many of its students due to the fact that it is a difficult
cognitive concept. Children who may exhibit disruptive behaviors may not be involved in the
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lesson, it is important to understand that “active participation in academics is important and
children are expected to engage in and proactive these fundamental skills” (L. Koegel, Singh, R.
Koegel, 2010, p. 1). Teachers need to find a way that can peak student’s interests and engage
them in a lesson. By using interesting topics and using positive reinforcers may be a way that
can motivate students to complete assignments.
A research article noted that when students are asked to write, the topic initially needs to
be something that interests them or on a topic that they are familiar with. For example, in the
article by Fu and Shelton (2007) a teacher read children’s literature stories to middle school
students and then they split up into a writer’s workshop. The purpose of writer’s workshop is for
students to “work at their own pace and choose topics based on personal interests” (p. 332).
After the teacher finished reading a story she would ask the students to draw what happened.
The students were familiar with the stories she was reading so they would quickly draw their
responses. After they had a drawing they then created paragraphs that related to the story.
Through this process a student who was not confident in writing realized that “she knew she
could write and began to have a desire for writing” (Zhang, 2007, p. 330). This teacher
motivated her students by reading stories she knew they all had background knowledge with. All
of her students gained the confidence they needed when writing due to motivation.
In a research study that primarily looked at motivational variables in writing and math for
students with Autism, it found that using a chosen reinforcer would benefit the quality of work
the students produced. In this study, four students with Autism participated and all of them
showed some sort of disruptive behavior when an academic task was presented to them. In this
study, choices were given to the students as well as the reinforcer being embedded within the
task. For example, the researcher would say “ ‘ write some sentences about playing outside.
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After you’re done you can play outside’” (L. Koegel et al., 2010, p. 3). Since the students were
writing about their chosen reinforcer and then followed through with it, students showed low
rates of disruptive behavior.
Initially, all four participants showed low interest in the task at
hand however once the reinforcers were in place they seemed highly motivated by completing
assignments. Overall, “incorporating motivational components in academic tasks resulted in
faster completion rates, decreased disruptive behaviors, and improved interest” among all of the
students (L. Koegel et al., 2010, p. 9).
Students’ can come to school and not attend to the task at hand. They can go through the
motions of the daily routines at school. Some of these students show disruptive behavior that
can negatively impact themselves and peers. These students need to be motivated to learn. Two
ways of motivating students are through positive reinforcers as well as completing assignments
that are of interest to the student. Once the student is motivated teachers will see steady progress
in the students’ written output.
Peer Support
The final way that can strengthen students’ writing is peer support. Instead of listening to
the teacher critique a written assignment or lecture students through the writing process, peers
can be a great way to boost children’s confidence throughout the writing. When peers encourage
their classmates or explain something in a different way, students are more inclined to listen to
them rather their teacher.
Peer support can benefit students’ with Autism and Learning Disabilities greatly because
these students often may get frustrated or show certain behaviors because writing assignments
are too hard for them. Once the peers encourage them or help them through a process the
students realize that they can complete the assignment because they have friends that are helping
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them along. In the Fu and Shelton article which focused on writer’s workshop, the teacher
allowed her students to sit anywhere in the classroom as long as they stayed on topic. One
student who repeatedly shut down when presented with a writing assignment sat with a peer and
gradually became a more confident writer. This was because her peer was saying encouraging
statements like “‘ just write the way you talk’” (Fu and Shelton, 2007, p. 328). Throughout the
school year this particular student began to take more risks and would enjoy writing due the fact
that her peers were encouraging her. The teacher believed that “all of her students benefited a
great deal by directly working with other students and by their peer’s influence on their writing”
(Fu and Shelton, 2007, p.333).
In two other research studies both used peer interaction to engage students in writing.
One of the articles by Van Leeuwen and Gabriel (2007) observed an elementary school
classroom where students were learning to write on a word processor. Students would ask each
other how to spell a word or how to use a certain function on the computer. The researcher
explained this situation as the students being “peer coaches” (p. 5). They were helping each
other out and instead of the teacher telling them what to do the peers were coaching each other.
The students that participated in this study all increased the length of their written assignment.
This shows that “allowing greater task related interaction among students when they are writing
with word processors may result in improved writing quality” (Van Leeuwen and Gabriel, 2007,
p. 7). The other article that describes peer interaction is between two students, one student with
Autism and one student with an intellectual disability. These two students would jointly work on
a written assignment. They would communicate together throughout planning, writing, and
revision stages. Both of these students wrote longer paragraphs after the intervention by using
various assistive technology and peer support. (Bedrosian et al., 2003).
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Many teachers view students working with peers to not be beneficial because students
can get off topic and it can get loud in the classroom. If more teachers realized the importance of
peer support in their classroom and the positive affects that it can make in the classroom many
more teachers would be using it.
Conclusion
Writing can be a difficult task for students with Autism and Learning Disabilities. This
can be a time where students do not seem engaged or motivated with any assignment.
It can also be a time where disruptive behavior or frustration can occur. Due to the lack of
interest and behaviors students are not completing written assignments. The use of a word
processor with assistive technology tools, motivation, and peer support can assist both the
students and teachers to provide a more positive experience in the writing process.
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References
Bedrosian, J., Lasker, J., Speidel, K., & Politsch, A. (2003). Enhancing the written narrative
skills of an AAC student with autism: evidence-based research issues. Topics In
Language Disorders, 23(4), 305.
Engler, C., Zhao, Y., Dunsmore, K., Collings, N., & Wolbers, K. (2007). Scaffolidng the writing
of students with disabilities through procedural facilitation: using an internet-based
technology to improve performance. Learning Disability Quarterly, 30 (1), 9-29.
Fu, D., & Shelton, N.R. (2007). Including students with special needs in a writing workshop.
Language Arts, 84 (4), 325-336.
Graham, S., Harris, K.R., & Larsen, L. (2001). Prevention and intervention of writing difficulties
for students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities: Research & Practice, 16
(2), 74-84.
Koegel, L., Singh, A., & Koegel R., (2010). Improving motivation for academics in children
with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40 (9), 1057-1066.
MacArthur, C. (1996). Using technology to enhance the writing processes of students with
learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29 (4), 344-354.
Ochs, E., Kremer-Sadlik, T., Solomon, O., & Sirota, K. (2001). Inclusion as social practice:
views of children with autism. Social Development, 10 (3), 399-419
Owston, R.D., & Wideman, H.H. (1997). Word processors and children’s writing in a high
computer-access setting. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 30 (2), 202.
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Pennington, R.C. (2009). Exploring new waters: writing instruction for students with autism
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VanLeeuwen, C.A., & Gabriel, M.A. (2007). Beginning to write with word processing:
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Zang, Y. (2000). Technology and the writing skills of students with learning disabilities. Journal
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