UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Open Agenda
LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY-GENERAL
Dear Participants,
I would like to welcome you all to EuroAsia Model United Nations Training and Development
Conference 2013. My name is Fatma Betül Bodur and I am a junior at Ankara University Faculty
of Law.
Organized under the auspices of Model United Nations Association of Turkey, as a method to
fulfil its mission to familiarize MUN-related activities country-wide; EuroAsia MUN 2013
continues the tradition of eight years to host a wide range of delegates from beginners to be
introduced to MUN for the first time; to those who are experienced in MUN, seeking a unique
opportunity to develop in the field. This year, nine committees will be simulated in EuroAsia
MUN; each chosen delicately to appeal to its participants from different levels and areas of
academic studies and interest.
United Nations Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization will not have a predetermined agenda item. The delegates will have the discretion to determine their respective
Councils’ discussion subjects. This study guide, prepared jointly for both UNSC and NATO,
presents a comprehensive overlook to certain international peace and security related issues that
occupy agenda and the academic structure of the Committees have been prepared by the
respected Under-Secretaries-General Ms. Arzum Koca, Mr. Tunca Bozkurt, Ms. Nezahat Yeşim
Yargıcı and Ms. Hazal Aynalı. Prepared by their talent, hard-work and wisdom; the study guide
serves as a perfect first step to comprehend the agenda of utmost importance in global scale.
I advise the participants to read the study guide thoroughly. You may also check further readings
and key documents which are found on our website. As a whole, the documents presented by the
Academic Team will provide you the awareness which is required so as to follow the discussions
within the Committee and fully enjoy Model United Nations.
Should you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me via bodur@muntr.org.
Regards,
Fatma Betül Bodur
Secretary-General of EuroAsia MUN 2013
EuroAsia MUN 2013
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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LETTERS FROM THE UNDER-SECRETARIES -GENERAL
Dear Participants,
I have the utmost pleasure of welcoming you to EuroAsia Model United Nations Training and
Development Conference 2013 and serving as on the Under-Secretary Generals for North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Together with fellow USGs Ms. Hazal Aynali, Mr.
Tunca Bozkurt and Ms. Arzum Koca, we have prepared a comprehensive study guide which
entails the recent events that occurred in the Middle East and Mediterranean region. However,
since both NATO and United Nations Security Council are committees apt for experienced
delegates further research must be done in order to keep up with the intense debating.
NATO, although commonly simulated in Model UN conferences, is a separate body with its own
procedure, founding treaty and fundamental values –all for one and one for all-. The Alliance has
as its primary objective, collective self-defence. An attack on one member will be considered an
attack of all. In addition, in the past two decades the Alliance has been executing operations in
order to maintain peace in regions such as Libya and Kosovo. As consequence its significance in
the international arena grows day by day.
In my humble opinion Model United Nations is a student activity that gives you perspective and
practice as one examines the World’s many problems, try and solve them through negotiation
and cooperation whilst staying in line with diplomatic courtesies. Therefore I whole-heartedly
encourage you to participate to the debate and if you can, lead it and shape it!
My Best Regards,
Nezahat Yesim Yargici
Under-Secretary-General of NATO and UNESCAP
EuroAsia MUN 2013
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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Honourable Participants,
Welcome to the EuroAsia Model United Nations Training and Development Conference 2013.
My name is Arzum Koca, I am the responsible under secretary general for SOCHUM Committee
and Security Council. I would like to start my letter with thanking the other Under-SecretariesGeneral responsible for NATO and Security Council; Mr. Tunca Bozkurt, Ms. Hazal Aynalı and
Ms. Nezahat Yargıcı who deserves the highest amount of appreciation. As the Secretariat of this
conference we worked really hard for NATO and SC delegates to live one of their best
experiences in their MUN life.
Parallel to our high amount of efforts for you and bearing in mind that the Security Council has
the most extensive competencies among the main bodies of the United Nations, we expect the
delegates of this committee to have the confidence to promote world peace with the help of
organizations such as NATO. I am sure that all of you have what it takes to respond to the
urgent crisis and to act for the maintenance of peace and security.
I am sincerely sure that the following days will pass both hard and at the same time amazing for
you. Enjoy every moment and do not hesitate to participate in the debates to change the course of
the world.
Kind regards,
Arzum KOCA
Under-Secretary-General responsible for UNSC and SOCHUM
EuroAsia MUN 2013
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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Dear Delegates,
It is my utmost pleasure to welcome you all to the EuroAsia Model United Nations 2013
Training and Development Conference.
I am Hazal Çisem Aynalı, the Under-Secretary General responsible for the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization committee. I am currently a senior student at Ankara University Faculty of Law. I
have been participating in Model United Nations related conferences for three years now. This is
going to be my third EuroAsia MUN conference and my first experience as a member of the
Academic Team.
EuroAsia MUN Training and Development Conference always has a special place for those who
are participating in MUN related conferences for the very first time. The first experience of being
a delegate, acting like a diplomat, improving public speaking and lobbying skills will never be
forgotten. Therefore, I am quite certain that it will be a beneficial and memorable experience for
all of us.
This year NATO and UNSC have an Open Agenda. Therefore, the committees will discuss the
ongoing disputes in Middle East and North Africa along with the updates given. As a whole, the
study guide provides you with a great academic content so as to handle the debates during the
Conference.
With great pleasure, I wish you all a satisfying and successful conference.
Hazal Çisem AYNALI
Under-Secretary- General Responsible for NATO and SPECPOL
EuroAsia MUN 2013
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Respective delegates,
It is an extreme honour to welcome you to EuroAsia Model United Nations Training and
Development Conference 2013 as the Under Secretary-General responsible for the United
Nations General Assembly First Committee and the United Nations Security Council. My name
is Tunca Bozkurt and I am a freshman in the Economics department of Boğaziçi University. I
have been involved in the Model United Nations since mid-2010 and have occupied different
positions in many conferences, mostly as a part of the academic team.
As the previous sessions of EuroAsia MUN, this year’s committees have been designed
exclusively for newcomers of the Model UN and for the ones who would like to further develop
their skills. In this light, this year, the United Nations Security Council will be simulated as a
crisis committee. The committee will be supplied with updates and will work to solve the crisis
situations. Furthermore, UNSC will work simultaneously with NATO, which will build an
interactivity between these two committees.
The following guide is a projection of today’s global disputes. Hopefully, with the help of this
guide and further research, the topic will be a good opportunity for the delegates to get prepared
for the conference.
Should you have any questions, please feel free to contact me.
Sincerely,
Tunca BOZKURT
Under-Secretary-General Responsible for UNSC and DISEC
EuroAsia MUN 2013
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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A.
UNITED
NATIONS
SECURITY
ratified by the five permanent members of
the Security Council (China, France, the
COUNCIL
establishing
Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the
international organizations (many of which
United States) and by a majority of other
are
signatories.3
Although
States
now
United
started
Nations
specialized
agencies) on specific matters that would
Primary purposes of the United Nations
ensure the cooperation between them in
were
1865,
that
international peace and security; and, to this
instruments for settling crises peacefully,
end, taking effective collective measures for
preventing wars and codifying rules of
the prevention and removal of threats to the
warfare were signed and issued at the
peace and the suppression of acts of
International Peace Conference in 1899.1
aggression or other breaches of the peace,
The forerunner organization of United
and bringing about means of adjustment or
Nations, the League of Nations, was
settlement of international disputes which
conceived during the First World War "to
may lead to a breach of the peace.4 Other
promote international cooperation and to
purposes can be listed as development of
achieve peace and security", however it
friendly relations among nations and to take
terminated itself because of its failure to
other appropriate measures to strengthen
prevent Second World War.2
universal
first
multilateral
treaties
offered
to
peace;
be
maintenance
achievement
of
of
international cooperation in the solution of
When World War II showed the need for an
effective
international
organization
to
arbitrate disputes, representatives of 50
countries
met
at
the
United
Nations
Conference on International Organization to
draw up the United Nations Charter and
after many deliberations The United Nations
(UN) officially came into existence on 24
international economic, social and other
humanitarian problems; and affordance of a
centre for harmonizing the actions of nations
in the achievement of these common ends.
Thus, a general assembly, a security council
and an international court of justice were
also offered to be established to serve in
accordance with these purposes.5
October 1945, when the Charter had been
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which are People’s Republic of China,
I. Structure of the Security Council
France, Russian Federation, the United
a. Members of the Security Council
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
At its establishment in 1945, the Security
Council was consisting of eleven memberstates
including
the
five
permanent
members; but later on, linked to the
enlargement of the United Nations, the nonpermanent members number was increased
to ten, and accordingly number needed of in
favour votes for adopting a resolution
changed to nine in 1963.6 Those ten non-
Ireland and the United States of America.8
Also a member-state of the UN may
participate, without a vote; in the Council’s
discussions when that country’s interests are
affected; thus even a non-member state may
be invited by the Council to take part in the
debate without a vote, if they are parties to
the dispute that is being considered by the
Council.9
permanent members are elected by the
General Assembly for two year terms (five
b. Voting: the Veto Rights
each year); thus the election should be done
In the voting system, it is seen that there is a
accordingly to the pattern which was
distinction between voting on the procedural
decided
and non-procedural (substantive) matters.
at
the
eighteenth
session
in
resolution 1991 A (XVIII) as:
Article 27 of the UN Charter, is the clause
a. Five from African and Asian States;
that gives the permanent five their veto
power by stating that while decisions on
b. One from Eastern European States;
procedural matters will be made by an
c. Two from Latin American States;
affirmative vote of at least nine out of fifteen
d. Two from Western European and
current members, decisions on substantive
matters are made by affirmative votes of
other States.7
Today the Security Council welcomes the
representatives of
Azerbaijan,
Argentina,
Guatemala,
Australia,
Luxemburg,
Morocco, Pakistan, Republic of Korea,
Rwanda and Togo as the non-permanent
states with the five permanent members
EuroAsia MUN 2013
nine members, “including the concurring
votes of the permanent members”.10 In order
for a resolution to fail other than the usages
of the veto power by one of the permanent
five, seven countries have to vote against the
resolution, abstain or be absent from the
Council at the time of voting.11
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II. Competence and Responsibilities of
human agencies can make it, war shall be
the Security Council
made impossible in the future. It is
Until the Cold War came to define global
inevitable that thinking men, although
politics, the Council formed its role as
inspired by the same high motives, shall
preventing a third world war but after, the
differ as to the means to secure permanent
Council moved to tackle prevention of
peace and equity between nations.” 16
into
-Old Colony Trust Company
international disputes.12 Accordingly, as
The system laid down in Chapter VII goes
stated in the article 24 of the UN charter,
as follows: the Council, shall first decide
Member States have the responsibility to
whether a particular situation calls for action
maintain international peace and security
(Article 39), if such a situation has arisen, it
and the Security Council will be the body to
may either make recommendations (Article
carry out this mission by acting on their
39), take provisional measures (Article40),
behalf.13 The Council's other responsibilities
or decide on enforcement issues not
include recommending the admission of new
involving the use of force (Article 41), in
members and the appointment of the
order to remedy the situation. Moreover, if
Secretary-General to the General Assembly
the Council considers these measures not to
of the United Nations (UNGA) and together
be effective, it may authorize the use of
with the UNGA, electing the judges of
measures involving the use of force, to put
International Court of Justice.14 Having
an end to a threat or breach of the peace
these responsibilities, the Security Council
(Article 42).17
can issue resolutions that are legally binding
In order to fulfil its responsibility of
on all Member States while other organs of
maintaining international peace and security;
regional
conflicts
from
turning
the UN can only make recommendations to
and when faced with a conflict, the first
the governments.15
action of the Council is to recommend to the
a. Chapter VII and Measures to Maintain
parties that they reach an agreement through
International Peace and Security
peaceful means; it may appoint special
“Every person in the world capable of
representatives, may ask the Secretary-
rational thought wishes and hopes not only
General to appoint special representatives,
for immediate peace, but that, so far as
and may set some principles for the peaceful
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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settlement of the conflict, may issue
The
ceasefire directives.18 The Council may also
operations depends on the expectations and
send UN peacekeeping forces or eventually
assessments of the parties, therefore; a UN
decide on enforcement actions such as
peacekeeping force should be “strictly
economic sanctions or collective military
impartial”; thus “it must be prejudice to the
action. Moreover, Article 29 of the United
rights, claims or positions of the parties
Nations Charter sets out that the Security
concerned.”23
Council may establish subsidiary bodies as
c. Use of Force in Peacekeeping Missions
needed
The use of force in peacekeeping operations
for
the
performance
of
its
effectiveness
of
peacekeeping
functions.19
has two aspects that are parallel to the use of
b. UNSC peacekeeping operations
force in international law, the first one being
To fulfil the responsibility of maintaining
the minimum use of force and the second
international peace and security, Security
one being the use force for self-defence
Council
keeping
only.24 A clear definition of “the use of force
operations which are one of the main
except in self defence” has been made by the
instruments used by the UN to prevent
academician James Sloan as: “men engaged
war.20 Under the Charter of the UN there is
in the operation may never take the initiative
not a definition of peacekeeping. While this
in the use of armed force, but are entitled to
provides a wide range for the peacekeeping
respond with force to an attack with arms,
to deal with different kinds of threats to
including attempts to use of force to make
international peace and security, it causes
them withdraw from positions which they
problems
of
occupy under orders from the Commander,
peacekeeping.21 Although there is not a
acting under the authority of the Assembly
may
establish
related
to
peace
the
limits
definition, there are some limits such as the
and within the scope of its resolutions.”25
the
III. Use of Force and the Article 2(4) of
emplacement and the continuous presence of
the UN Charter, Prohibition on the Use of
a peacekeeping operation; otherwise it will
Force and Exceptions
mean
domestic
The ban on the use of force has often been
jurisdiction of the states which is a violation
described as the ‘cornerstone’ of the modern
requirement
of
state
intervening
consent
in
the
of the Article 2 (7) of the Charter.
EuroAsia MUN 2013
22
for
international system.26
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, obliges UN
Article 2(4); first one of them is stated in
members to ‘refrain in their international
Article 51 of the Charter, is available to
relations from the threat or use of force
states which find themselves to be victims of
against the territorial integrity or political
aggression:30
independence of any State, or in any other
"Nothing in the present Charter shall impair
manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the
the inherent right of individual or collective
United Nations’, stating that in Articles 42,
self-defence if an armed attack occurs
43 and Article 51, the Charter recognizes
against a Member of the United Nations,
two exceptions to this prohibition: forcible
until the Security Council has taken
enforcement measures within the framework
measures
of the organization’s collective security
system, and the right of self-defence of
nations against armed attacks.
necessary
to
maintain
international peace and security. Measures
taken by Members in the exercise of this
27
right of self-defence shall be immediately
Conversely, the Charter regime on the use of
reported to the Security Council and shall
force,
fundamental
not in any way affect the authority and
importance or even its role as a cornerstone,
responsibility of the Security Council under
has been anything but static. Faced with
the present Charter to take at any time such
challenges such as those referred to in the
action as it deems necessary in order to
preceding
maintain or restore international peace and
notwithstanding
paragraph,
its
the
international
community has not formally amended the
Charter rules, but has re-appraised them
through interpretation.
28
security.”31
b. Collective Security
In many respects,
the interpretation has produced clear and
stable results, but it has also led to processes
of adaptation and adjustment in the light of
new realities or perceptions.29
With regards to the second exception
according to the Chapter VII; Security
Council may, if deems necessary, take
military actions involving the armed forces
of member-states, or with an authorisation
a. Self Defence
of states which are willing individually or in
The law of the UN Charter provides two
ad hoc coalitions or acting through regional
exceptions from the prohibition expressed in
or other international organisations with one
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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of them being the North Atlantic Treaty
principles
Organization (NATO).32
understanding
c. Humanitarian Intervention
have an accepted definition, it aims at
preventing or ending widespread and grave
violations of the fundamental human rights
of individuals, without the permission of the
state within whose territory the force is
applied.33 The concept of humanitarian
intervention has evolved as a subset of the
laws governing the use of force and has very
quickly come to occupy an institutional
with
that
regard
to
sovereignty
is
the
a
responsibility falling under the competence
of
Although humanitarian intervention does not
taken
governments
which
implies
that
governments bear utmost responsibility for
the protection of their peoples.37 In case of a
situation where a group of people suffering
from serious harm, as a result of (a) internal
war, (b) insurgency, (c) repression or (d)
state failure, generally emerges as ethnic
cleansing; and the state in question is
reluctant or unable to determine “the
principle
of
non-intervention
to
the
international responsibility to protect.”38
position alongside self-defence and Security
Council authorization as a legal and
legitimate reason for war although it is
Agreement on a shared responsibility to
protect means that people who live under the
widely accepted as highly controversial.34
threat
Bearing in mind that other writers affirm
governments, state-sponsored actors or other
other definitions; an example can be given
non-state actors now have a new tool to
as “coercive actions by states involving the
battle the often deadly indifference and
use of armed force in another State without
paralysis of the international community.39
the consent of its government, for the
Thus, three particular responsibilities are
purpose of preventing or putting an end to
mentioned:
massive violations of human rights or
of
genocide
from
preventing,
their
reacting
own
and
rebuilding.40
international humanitarian law.”35
e. Fighting Terrorism
d. Responsibility to Protect
Whether states can use force against
Responsibility to protect was established by
terrorists based in another country is a
the adaptation of the 2005 World Summit
crucial discussion. The relevant articles of
Outcome by UN.36
the UN Charter have to be interpreted. It is
EuroAsia MUN 2013
It envisages a set of
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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argued that the restrictive approach to anti-
Although
terrorist force obtaining 20 years ago has
founding of the organization in 1949 was
come under strain thus as far as collective
collective
responses are concerned.41 It is no longer
countries collectively combat terrorism, use
disputed that the Security Council could
of weapons of mass destruction and
authorize the use of force against terrorists;
government
however, it has so far refrained from doing
populations, leading to a three-pillar task
so
structure:
and
more
controversially,
the
the
initial
idea
self-defence,
management
decades has increasingly recognized a right
through partnerships.47
terrorists.
42
This new practice is justified
and
of
collective
the
NATO
civilian
defence,
international community during the last two
of states to use unilateral force against
today
oppression
collective
behind
crisis
security
II. History of NATO - Foundations of the
Organization
and
the
Washington
43
under the doctrine of self-defence. Bearing
in mind the conditions of Security Council
Treaty:
From
the
Cold
War
to
Afghanistan
action, it remained at least doubtful whether
terrorist attacks could have amounted to a
threat to, or breach of, the peace in the sense
The Organization was founded right after
the Second World War ended, in 1949.48
The continental Europe was recovering from
of Article 39 UNC.44
effects of a war in the magnitude that 36.5
B.
NORTH
ATLANTIC
TREATY
million Europeans died during the 5 years it
ORGANIZATION
lasted.49 The motives that initiated the
I. Introduction
signing of the founding treaty were the risk
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
of Soviet expansionism and using the
(NATO) is one of the most significant
influence of the United States to prevent
political and military formations in the
another war that may arise from European
international arena. It has 28 member-states
nationalism.50
both in Europe and North America.45 The
members-United
fundamental idea behind the organization is
Kingdom,
the safety, security and the freedom of its
Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Belgium,
members in addition to the trans-Atlantic
Netherlands, and Luxembourg- signed the
multilateralism and military cooperation.46
North Atlantic Treaty on April 4, 1949,
EuroAsia MUN 2013
The
twelve
States,
Canada,
the
France,
founding
United
Denmark,
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followed by the accession of Greece and
he
Turkey in 1952 and West Germany in
independent.57
1955.51
headquarters were moved to Brussels in
Meanwhile in 1950, the Cold War between
1967.58 French troops and fleet were slowly
the Soviet Union and the US became an
wanted
to
keep
France
Consequently
more
NATO’s
withdrawn from NATO’s military structure;
Korean
however France stayed in the Alliance, and
peninsula, as the Korean War took place
in the following years became one of the
actual
armed
conflict
in
the
between communist North, supported by the
most important states to provide troops in
Soviets and the South, supported by the
peacekeeping missions.59
US.52 Although a cease-fire was signed
In
following the war that killed an estimated 2
Czechoslovakia which again alarmed the
million Korean civilians, a peace treaty was
NATO countries about Soviet expansionism.
never agreed on, even now after 50 years.53
However the idea of protecting the status
As the Cold War progressed and NATO
quo was also in the talks which led to the
expanded, in 1955 the Soviet inspired
signing of the Helsinki Final Act in 1973.60
Eastern Europe formed the Warsaw Pact,
Nevertheless, following the Soviet invasion
including East Germany; therefore Europe
of Afghanistan, a nuclear war between the
was divided by the symbolic line the Berlin
Pact
Wall drew in 1961. During this period of
possibility. In 1982 Spain joined NATO.61
time political and scientific aspects of the
By mid 1980s the tension remained;
organization grew, in competition with the
however, it was clear that the Pact had lost
Soviet Union.54
the scientific competition against the West.62
In the 1960s the tensions between the United
By late 1980s, the economy of the Soviet
States and the Soviet Union grew over a
1968
and
the
the
Soviet
Alliance
Union
was
invaded
again
a
Union was collapsing; when East German
missile crisis in Cuba, a large scale conflict
regime was shaking, the Union did not
was avoided in the end.55 In 1966, French
intervene.63 On November 9, 1989 the
President Charles de Gaulle announced
Berlin Wall fell, Germany was united, a
France’s withdrawal from NATO because
chain of events started that would result with
the Alliance was heavily influenced by the
the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union
United States and the United Kingdom56 and
dissolved.64
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Nevertheless, post-Cold War environment in
The Operation Allied Force in Kosovo was
Europe was not entirely stable, conflict
concluded when the United Nations Security
sparked up in Yugoslavia as a result of
Council formed an interim government in
nationalist militarism.65 In response to the
the area.70 However the fact that NATO,
continuous breaches of humanitarian law,
believing a resolution encompassing a
NATO carried out a 9-day air campaign in
military intervention would not pass from
1995 and later on continued to be active in
the Security Council, intervened with a
the area with the authorization from the
peacekeeping mission
United Nations Security Council.66
NATO officials argued that they could not
NATO executed its first peacekeeping
stay indifferent and observe as human lives
mission in Kosovo, where a humanitarian
were at stake.71 However, the North Atlantic
crisis emerged because of the armed conflict
Treaty, in itself, in Article 7, states:
between the Kosovo Liberation Army and
“Article 7: This Treaty does not affect, and
Serbian authorities over the freedom of
shall not be interpreted as affecting in any
Kosovo. In 1999 NATO started an air
way the rights and obligations under the
campaign67 without the Security Council
Charter of the Parties which are members of
authorization.68 The Secretary General made
the
a press release prior to the Operation,
responsibility of the Security Council for the
saying:
maintenance of international peace and
“Let me be clear: NATO is not waging war
security.” (North Atlantic Treaty, 1949)
against Yugoslavia...
The
Our objective is to
United
raised
Nations,
operation
in
or
the
Kosovo
questions.
primary
remains
prevent more human suffering and more
controversial, since even today, there is no
repression and violence against the civilian
Security Council resolution condemning
population of Kosovo... We must stop an
NATO’s
authoritarian regime from repressing its
Whether NATO, which was initiated as a
people in Europe at the end of the 20th
self-defence
century. We have a moral duty to do so. The
peacekeeping missions without the UNSC’s
responsibility is on our shoulders and we
approval, remains a question, since it is not
will fulfil it.”69(Secretary General of NATO,
certain
1999)
“primary responsibility” of maintaining
EuroAsia MUN 2013
unauthorized
that
intervention.72
organisation
although
can
UNSC
execute
has
the
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international
peace
and
security,
that
Overall, over the course of 60 years since
responsibility is exclusive to the Council.73
NATO was founded, the Soviet Union
In September 11, 2001 the United States of
collapsed (1991) and the possibility of a
America was targeted with multiple terrorist
world-wide war rising from Europe became
acts which were carried out using passenger
smaller and smaller as the European
planes, Pentagon in Washington and the
countries
twin towers of the World Trade Centre were
Union.78 Therefore following the fall of the
integrated
in
the
European
hit, leaving thousands dead or wounded.74 In
Soviet Union, the Allies gathered in Rome
response the Allies invoked the Article 5 of
in November of 1991 to develop a new
the Washington Treaty –for the first and
strategic concept for the post-Soviet Europe.
only time in its history- and called for
First, NATO focused also on outside the
collective defensive action.
boundaries of member countries in terms of
“At this critical moment, the United States
can rely on its 18 Allies in North America
and Europe for assistance and support.
NATO solidarity remains the essence of our
Alliance. Our message to the people of the
United States is that we are with you. Our
message to those who perpetrated these
unspeakable crimes is equally clear: you
will not get away with it.” (NATO, 2001)75
NATO then intervened in Afghanistan to
capture and detain as many Al-Qaida
members as possible.76 In December 2001
the Taliban regime fell, followed by the
Security Council initiating International
Security and Assistance Force (ISAF), in
2003 the Force was left to the control of the
Alliance.77
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intervention and management of crises.79
Second, the role in peace-keeping and
stability-building systems was accepted by
the Alliance.80 Additionally, as a new
phenomenon,
the
understanding
of
Partnership for Peace as a key concept was
embraced by the Alliance so as to contribute
to the notion that the security of the Allies is
inseparable from the security of other
European nations.
With the dawn of the 21st century, NATO
started going through a transformation, with
more
members
and
new
partnerships,
missions of peacekeeping and promoting
democracy, the Alliance is now in a
different place in international security and
politics. Enlargement became a priority, new
members throughout Europe joined the
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Alliance, as the number of member states
building measures, theatre missile defence,
reached 28: Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia,
logistics, military-to-military cooperation,
Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania in
defence reform and civil emergencies.84
joined 2004, and Croatia and Albania joined
The Istanbul Summit of 2004 took the
in 2009.81 Following the 9/11 attacks, 5
progress of the Prague Summit a step further
Summits took place, all regarding NATO’s
military capabilities: Prague Summit of
2002, Istanbul Summit of 2004, Riga
as to strengthening cooperation on fighting
terrorism
on
every
level,
including
intelligence sharing and improvement of
Summit of 2006, Lisbon Summit of 2010,
technological capabilities to protect civilians
and Chicago Summit of 2012.82
from terrorist attacks. 85
During the Prague Summit of 2002, the
“NATO
Alliance
transformation,
capabilities in order to adapt to the
updating NATO into the 21st century. They
changing strategic environment. The new
reaffirmed their commitments to each other
command structure, the NATO Response
on matters such as Iraq and fighting
Force,
headed
for
a
terrorism. They also initiated the NATO
Response
Force
-a
technologically
advanced,
flexible,
deployable,
interoperable
and
sustainable
force
is
and
transforming
the
its
Chemical,
military
Biological,
Radiological, Nuclear Deference battalion
are progressing. Together, they give NATO
much
stronger
and
faster
military
capabilities.” (NATO, 2004) 86
including land, sea, and air elements ready
to move quickly to wherever needed- and
matters such as chemical and nuclear
weapons, weapons of mass destruction were
discussed on.83
In the Riga Summit of 2006 the Alliance
reaffirmed their duties in Afghanistan and
their commitment to the reformation and
modernization of NATO.87 At the 2010
Lisbon Summit in Portugal, the Alliance
In 2002, a partnership with Russia was
introduced a “New Strategic Concept”
founded in order to improve the relations,
which is meant to serve as the Alliance’s
NATO-Russia Council was initiated in order
road map for the next 10 years.88 In addition
to fight common security issues such as
a new Missile Defence system was approved
terrorism,
crisis
management,
non-
proliferation, arms control and confidenceEuroAsia MUN 2013
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in order to protect European cities from
The North Atlantic Council meets every
missile attacks.89
week in a permanent representative level;
In 2012 during the Washington Summit, the
twice a year at a foreign ministers level;
Alliance discussed more than issues such as
three times a year at a defence minister level
Afghanistan and Iraq, but Middle East and
and on some occasions where a summit
Syria crisis, cyber defence, energy security,
takes place, on a head of state level.94 The
fight against terrorism, deterrence and
Council is the only body established by the
defence capabilities,
conventional arms
North Atlantic Treaty; it has the authority
“Smart
and power of decision on any political or
Defence” lies at the heart of the new
military process and can initiate subsidiary
approach of collective defence as it is stated
bodies.95
in the Article 7 of “Summit Declaration on
“Article 9: The Parties hereby establish a
Defence Capabilities: Toward NATO Forces
council, on which each of them shall be
2020”.
The term acknowledges that
represented, to consider matters concerning
although development and deployment of
the implementation of this Treaty.” (North
defence capabilities are primarily national
Atlantic Treaty, 1949)
tasks, certain capabilities are agreed to be
The North Atlantic Council –one of the most
possible only with the cooperation of many
specific aspects of the organ- adopts
Allies working together.91
documents unanimously, as a result, a policy
III. Structure of the Organization
accepted by the Council will reflect the will
The Alliance is governed by the North
of all its sovereign member states.96 The
Atlantic Council, which meets at different
organization has two official languages,
levels
French and English. The headquarters of
control,
and
and
reform.90
NATO
chaired
by
the
Secretary
General.92 The Secretary General of NATO
NATO sits in Brussels, Belgium.
is responsible for leading and ensuring the
NATO currently has 16 members who
decision making processes and is the head of
joined the Alliance over the past 60 years,
the
expanding more than twice its size since its
International
spokesperson.93
Staff
and
the
chief
initiation in Washington: Apart from the 28
members NATO has, there are 22 additional
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countries that participate in the Partnership
economic needs of NATO as the defence of
for Peace (PfP) program with 15 other
the Alliance gets costlier.
countries
involved
in
institutionalized
V. Relations and Partnership with Russia
dialogue programs such as the Istanbul
Cooperation
Initiative
and
the
It is mentioned above that in 2002 the
NATO-Russia Council (NRC) was founded,
Mediterranean Dialogue.97
however the relations between the Alliance
IV. Smart Defence
and the Russian Federation dates back to
Introduced in the Washington Summit of
1997.100 An act was signed, founding mutual
2012, smart defence is a concept integrating
relations, cooperation and security between
the unforeseeable nature of modern conflicts
them was signed in Paris, France.101
with the world economic crisis in order to
“NATO and Russia do not consider each
rebalance the costs of a conflict equitably
other as adversaries. They share the goal of
between the US and European countries.
98
overcoming
From missile defence to intelligence; mostly
confrontation
everything is included in the Smart Defence
strengthening
system
cooperation.”
which
prioritization,
cooperation.
has
three
pillars:
specialization
and
Prioritization
is
the
vestiges
and
of
competition
mutual
(FOUNDING
earlier
and
trust
of
and
ACT
ON
MUTUAL RELATIONS, 1997)
keeping
national priorities in line with NATO’s
priorities in a less-costly way. Specialization
is nations, concentrating on their strengths
and act in alliance with NATO when it
comes to defence budgeting. Cooperation
can be strategic, geographic, but in basic
means acting together economically, when
one’s economy is not able to provide. 99
In addition to this, Permanent Joint Council
(PJC) was founded, in order to increase
Russian cooperation and mutual dialogue.102
Although the relations got tense during the
Kosovo crisis in 1999, where Russia
proposed a resolution to the Security
Council right after NATO started bombing
Yugoslavia –a draft resolution demanding
immediate ceasefire which failed 3 votes in
The Smart Defence plan was the first of
favour, 12 against103– in 2002 the parties
many planned initiatives to provide the
gathered in Italy and founded the NATORussia Council.104 The change is attributed
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to the September 11 attacks, as in 2001, both
towards achieving a true strategic and
parties announced their support for the US
modernized partnership”.111
as it wages war on terror.105 The NATORussia Council had many aspects that made
it different from the Permanent Joint
Council. The NRC was to be chaired by the
Secretary General of NATO and Russia was
deemed equal as NATO members whereas
VI. Collective Self-Defence Mechanism
through Article 5 of the North Atlantic
Treaty
“Unus pro omnibus, omnes pro uno!” (One
for all, all for one)
in the PJC had a NATO +1 structure.106
Alexandre Dumas ‘The Three Musketeers’
Furthermore, the number of the issues NRC
Article 5 of the NAT is the legal grounds of
and joint committees addressed was more
the collective defence principle behind
than what was under the scope of the PJC;
NATO. In the most basic sense, an attack
therefore formation of NRC in such a way
against one will be considered an attack
extended the cooperation between the
against all. As mentioned above, this clause
parties.
107
The most significant key areas of
was invoked only once, it was by the US,
the partnership with Russia are: support for
following the September 11 terrorist attacks.
ISAF and Afghan armed forces, combating
The interpretation of the Article 5 was made
terrorism, cooperative airspace initiative,
rather widely, incorporating large scale
missile defence, non-proliferation and arms
terrorist attacks to its scope.112 The exact
control, nuclear matters, countering piracy
scope of the Article is quite unclear from its
and defence transparency, strategy and
wording, for example debate has been going
reform.
108
on whether a cyber attack or energy cuts can
In 2008 the diplomatic relations and the
be
activities of the NRC were halted because of
examined
Russia’s
consultation-
ongoing
military
action
in
included.
Although
under
the
these
Article
question
4
can
be
–security
remains
if
Georgia.109 The relations were restarted a
collaborative action can be made under
year later.110 In 2010 during the Lisbon
Article 5 in the face of these modern
Summit the NRC leaders reaffirmed their
challenges.113
cooperation by stating they intend to “work
Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen
stated in a press briefing that invoking
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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Article 5 in the face of any modern attack,
be reported to the Security Council. Such
such as a cyber attack, will be left to the
measures shall be terminated when the
Allies, depending on the situation. However,
Security Council has taken the measures
he stated that the NAT mechanism would
necessary
work more efficiently if it is initially
international peace and security.” (North
examined under Article 4, and then if the
Atlantic Treaty, 1949)
Allies see fit, Article 5. He explained this
flexibility as: “I mean there is what I would
call a 'constructive ambiguity' as regard the
use of Article 5. And that's exactly the
strength
of
Article
5
that
potential
aggressors never know when the Alliance
attack against one or more of them in
North
America
and
maintain
VII. NATO and Afghanistan
NATO’s presence in Afghanistan dates back
to the terrorist attacks on the United States
on September 11, 2001 when passenger
aircrafts were kidnapped and crashed into
Pentagon in Washington115 leaving nearly
“Article 5: The Parties agree that an armed
or
restore
the World Trade Centre in New York and
will invoke Article 5.” 114
Europe
to
shall
be
3.000 dead.116 In the immediate aftermath
of the attacks -October 2001- a US-led
operation in Afghanistan began against the
considered an attack against them all and
responsible terrorist group al Qaida and the
consequently they agree that, if such an
Taliban regime which supported them.117
armed attack occurs, each of them, in
exercise of the right of individual or
collective self-defence recognised by Article
51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will
assist the Party or Parties so attacked by
taking forthwith, individually and in concert
with the other Parties, such action as it
deems necessary, including the use of armed
force, to restore and maintain the security of
the North Atlantic area.
In December 2001, a conference in Bonn
was gathered with the attendance of the
Afghan opposition.118 During the Bonn
Conference it was decided that in order to
rebuild
with
international
cooperation a UN-mandated international
force had to be present and in consequence
International
Security Assistance
Force
(ISAF) was created,119 its mandate was
limited
Any such armed attack and all measures
Afghanistan
to
the
security
of
Kabul.120
Meanwhile the Taliban were forced out of
taken as a result thereof shall immediately
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(Rasmussen, 2011)129
power, yet the fighting went on and more
ISAF troops were deployed.121 In 2003,
NATO was given control over the ISAF
troops, and the mandate of ISAF was
VIII. Relationship between NATO and
the UN Security Council: The UN
Charter and the North Atlantic Treaty
extended and changed from just protecting
in and around Kabul to the entire country.122
Over the course of three years ISAF troops
took control over the entirety of Afghanistan
taking command in the east from a US-led
coalition force.123 In 2009, the number of
troops led by NATO in Afghanistan peaked
with numbers estimated around 150.000.124
The search for the leader of al Qaida, Osama
Bin Laden was pursued by the US all
throughout the operations in Afghanistan
until 2011, when he was found and killed by
US forces in Pakistan.125 Following this and
the
successes
of
other
operations
in
Afghanistan, troops are slowly being pulled
NATO and the United Nations (UN) are
dependent on each other on the matter of
maintaining
international
peace
and
security.130 The two organizations have been
cooperating in this area since 1990s.131
Relations between the United Nations and
the Alliance enhanced in 1992 in order to
encounter the conflict occurred in Western
Balkans where a practical cooperation in the
field was needed. From that day on NATO
and the UN has cooperated in the field
operations in the framework of different
aspects of the conflicts such as in former
Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, Iraq and Libya.132
back,126 although full withdrawal is due
The collaboration between NATO and the
December 2014.127
UN and its agencies, is a significant factor in
Even though ISAF forces have been lead by
NATO for the last 10 years, they consist of
soldiers from 50 nations –as of 2012- in
addition to the 28 members of the Alliance,
a proof of the wide-spread support for the
operation.128
order
to
provide
“Comprehensive
an
Approach”
international
to
crisis
management and operations.133 Within this
regard, NATO is involved in with various
efforts of the UN bodies in order to
challenge with the matters of terrorism; the
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction
“..Afghanistan will one day stand on its
own, but it will not be standing alone.”
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and their means of delivery; promoting the
rights and role of women in conflict;
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protecting children affected by armed
NATO, refers to the Article 51 of the UN
conflict.134
Charter in order to specify the rights of the
Such cooperation is also set forth in the legal
Allies to take individual actions and the role
documents of the two organizations.135
of UN Security Council in the case of an
NATO’S legal basis was created by the
armed attack.140 Further reference is made in
Charter of the United Nations, signed in San
the Treaty in Article 7 which indicates that;
Francisco on 26 June 1945 by fifty nations,
“This Treaty does not affect, and shall not
which at the time recognized the overall
be interpreted as affecting in any way the
responsibility of the UN Security Council on
rights and obligations under the Charter of
the matters of international peace and
the Parties which are members of the United
security.136 Correspondingly, the preambles
Nations, or the primary responsibility of the
of
Security Council for the maintenance of
North
Atlantic
Treaty,
signed
in
Washington on 4 April 1949, state that the
UN Charter’s scope covers the functions of
Alliance.
137
In particular, in the Treaty, it
was undertaken that the signatories to agree
upon their reliance on the UN Charter.
clearly
that;
“The
Lastly,
the
Article
12
indicates
the
reviewing of the Treaty after ten years or if
requested,
considering
the
new
138
developments on the matter of peace and
Along with the Article 1 of the Treaty which
expresses
international peace and security.”141
security and in the light of UN Charter.142
Parties
On 23 September 2008, a Joint Declaration
undertake, as set forth in the Charter of the
on UN-NATO Cooperation was established
United Nations, to settle any international
which was signed by both Secretaries-
dispute in which they may be involved by
General
peaceful means in such a manner that
declaration
international peace and security and justice
development in the UN-NATO relationship
are not endangered, and to refrain in their
which encompasses five crucial points
international relations from the threat or use
providing “a framework for expanded
of force in any manner inconsistent with the
consultation and cooperation” between the
purposes of the United Nations.”;139 Article
organizations’ secretariats.144
of
the
is
organizations.143
seen
as
a
The
significant
5 of the Treaty, which encompasses the
collective
self
defence
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mechanism
of
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Despite all the interferences of cooperation,
over non-self defensive use of force.151
political arguments remain on the matter of
However, the Treaty does not refer any of
relations between the UN and NATO.145 It is
the matters which exist in the Chapter VIII
claimed that some of the UN Member States
of the Charter focusing on the “regional
consider that NATO is faithful to USA.146
organizations”.152 Thus, it may lead for the
Being the organization created by Central
Charter to undermine the NATO’s freedom
European countries and USA itself, NATO
of action since NATO itself is a regional
submits to the UN Security Council in
organization153 and as it is enforced in the
which Russian Federation and China have
Article 54 of the Charter that;
veto power.147 In a cooperation which is
“The Security Council shall at all times be
included in the legal documents of the
kept fully informed of activities undertaken
organizations, such issues make the matter
or
worth to mention. Moreover, NATO’s
in
contemplation
under
regional
arrangements or by regional agencies for
primary mission which includes collective
the maintenance of international peace and
self defence is seen as a threat to the
security.”154
international peace and security which the
UN is struggling for from the very
This would lead NATO to take actions only
if permission is given by the UN Security
beginning of its foundation.148
Council.155 As a consequence, Russian
Question of Authorization
Federation and PR China would veto all the
The provisions of the UN Charter and North
alliance decisions.156 Instead of mentioning
Atlantic Treaty, specifies that NATO’s
those clauses, the Treaty refers to the Article
particular field operations are overseen
51 of the Charter which enforces NATO to
under
report to Security Council after self defence
the
authorization
of
Security
Council.149 Chapter VII of the UN Charter
measures have been taken.157
specifically indicates that use of force which
NATO’s 2010 strategic concept includes
includes collective self defence or does not
that “Alliance is firmly committed to the
serve for the sake of individuals, may only
purposes and principles of the Charter of the
be used on the basis of a Security Council
United Nations”, affirming “the primary
mandate.
150
Thus, the Security Council is the
responsibility of the Security Council for the
only body which has de jure authorization
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maintenance of international peace and
tension.164 Therefore the governments were
security”.158 It also states that NATO will
taking violent measures in order to suppress
“fulfil its task always in accordance with
opponents
international law”.159
organizations. Consequently, the methods of
Nevertheless, neither NATO’s being a
the
regional organization as defined in Chapter
challengeable by the people.165
VIII of the Charter, nor the explicit
II. Arab Spring Movement
expression
Being the outcome of the combination of
of
undertaking
excluding
offensive
NATO
military
from
actions
without UN authorization, exists in the
strategic plan.
and
governments
poverty,
non-governmental
were
unemployment
considered
and
as
political
repression which are the three characteristics
160
of most Arab countries; the Tunisian
uprisings started after the self-immolation of
C. OPEN AGENDA
a man named Mohamed Bouazizi in front of
I. General Overview
a government building in 17 December
Both in the Middle East and North Africa
there were post-colonial autocratic regimes
governed by military or reign based
rulers.161 As a consequence, there was a
2010.166 Four weeks of protests
and
demonstrations led the President Zine El
Abidine Ben Ali to be forced out in 14
January 2011.
strict distance between the governments and
peoples. In certain regimes the governments
The spread of the news from Tunisia
drew their strengths from different aspects
through social network triggered Arab world
such as by; having the control of natural
to take initiative to oust their leaders.167
sources, taking the support of military forces
Most of the demonstrations have been met
and
with
securing
the
domestic
political
violent
responses
from
the
balances.162 Not having democratic elections
governments. During the uprisings, more
enabled the leaders to protect their status in
than 200 people died and more than 90
the governments.163 Within this regard, the
people were injured.168
tensions were rising on the grounds of
Uprisings were welcomed by Al-Qaida
economic instability, income inequality,
leaders, stating that "Our mujahedeen
unemployment, and religious and sectarian
brothers in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and the
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rest of the Muslim world will get a chance to
government.174 The vice-presidents were
breathe again after three decades of
deemed to be the successors of the
suffocation," while Qaddafi condemned the
presidents. Hosni Mubarak's predecessor,
uprisings.169
Anwar el-Sadat, was assassinated by the
The Tunisian revolution was considered as a
Islamist groups which opposed to peace with
breakthrough
numerous
Israel.175 Then, Hosni Mubarak acceded and
uprisings in various countries such as Egypt,
ruled Egypt for almost 30 years until the
and
inspired
Algeria, Jordan, Libya and Syria, which
country was overcome by the wave of mass
soon was called as “Arab Spring” which is
protests, in February 2011.176
seen as one of the most important political
a.
and social movements in the last decades.170
Mubarak and Causes of a Rebellion
III. Egypt
Hosni Mubarak was selected as the president
Following the withdrawal of Britain from
of Egypt for four times for six-year terms.177
Egypt after the Second World War, in 1947,
However; he was the only candidate in each
the opposing views arose against King
and every four elections. As for the last
Farouk I who was installed by the British
election held in 2005, the constitution was
authorities.171
poor
changed in order for the other candidates to
economic and military performance in the
compete against Mubarak.178 Nevertheless,
country and corruption, King Farouk was
he won the elections again and sworn in for
overthrown by a military group named Free
his fifth term of presidency.179
Officers with a coup d’état in July 29,
Notwithstanding that Mubarak was accused
1952.172
by
Being
The
accused
of
movement
against
Before the protests: Rule of Hosni
imprisoning
critics,180
squelching
constitutional monarchy was accomplished
opposition parties181 and manipulating the
and
existing
elections,182 from the very beginning of his
constitution was abolished and the Free
presidency, Mubarak preserved amity with
Officers declared Egypt a republic.173
Israel and USA which led him to sharply
Although it was a republic, until Hosni
suppress
Mubarak became the president in 1981,
terrorism.183
in
July
19,
1953;
the
Islamic
fundamentalism
and
elections had never been held by the
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Mubarak is usually referred to as Egypt's
government had arrested 5,000 to 10,000
modern pharaoh, not in an explicit way but
people without trial in 2010.189
quiescently, for the reason that government
One of the main issues was that Mubarak
critics were consistently imprisoned and
did not appoint a vice-president, while
freedom of expression was restricted.184 For
Article 82 of the constitution enforces that
the reason that Mubarak had systematically
when the president is not capable of
eliminated civil and political institutions,
fulfilling his duties, all his executive powers
there were no opponent decisions for him to
shall be delegated to the vice president.190
negotiate with, therefore a system was
Thus the successor of the presidency was a
formed which provides opportunity to his
contradiction. It was argued that Gamal
party and allies to change the policies in
Mubarak, one of the two sons of Hosni
their will.
185
Mubarak, would come to power after his
From 1967 to 2012, with 18 months of
father for the reason that he was already in
suspension
Egyptian
charge of various domestic policy making
government had used Emergency Law No.
matters.191 That would lead the way for the
162/1958 which was enacted after the Six-
inheritance of power which was opposed by
Day War with Israel.186 The law enforced
both left and right political groups in the
the legalization of censorship, extension of
country.192
police powers, suspension of constitutional
Along with the governmental arguments,
rights,
street
police brutality was another issue which was
demonstrations and gives the government
laid stress on, in Egypt.193 The international
the right to imprison one without a reason.187
and national reports show that, under the
Based
authorization of the emergency law, the
in
and
upon
opposition
1980,
prevention
that,
groups
the
such
the
of
terrorism
as
and
Muslim
human rights were being violated by the
Brotherhood as a threat to the national
police.194 Although the Mubarak regime
security, Mubarak extended the emergency
denied; it was proven by the videos taken
law and manipulated the elections with
that torture, assault and abuse were used by
arresting activists without trials.
188
Human
rights activists estimated that the Egyptian
the police to make people confess, take
information
or
without
any
reason.195
Deployment of Mubarak’s own plainclothes
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officers called Baltageya which caused
Muslim Brotherhood was instituted by
hundreds of deaths and wounds raised the
Hassan el-Banna in 1928 in Egypt as a pan-
tension among people.196
Islamic political and social organization.202
With the poor economy, income inequality
According to the movement, the main
and unemployment, discomposure gradually
reasons behind the income inequality, poor
increased and it led the situation to get
economy and social retrogression in Egypt
disordered.197
was the influence of West on the way to the
estrangement from the Islamic discipline.203
b.
Initial Protests and the Tunisian
Influence
Therefore, the exact solution is to instil the
Qur'an and Sunnah to the order of regular
Following the events of self immolation of
lives, community and state.204 Within this
Mohamed Bouazizi, several demonstrations
context, due to the activities of preaching
and stepping down of Zine El Abidine Ben
Islam, doing charity works and political
Ali in Tunisia; it was assumed that the
activism, the movement spread across the
uprisings were initially to spread to Egypt
Arab world.205
on the grounds of having the same basis
with Tunisian unrest.198 Hence, weeks later,
self immolations occurred in Egypt in order
to protest the current situation.199 It led the
tension to rise on the way to a rebellion and
the first and foremost demonstration was
Setting a paramilitary wing after the Second
World War, the movement started to
practice
violent
activities
such
as
assassinations and bombings. Hence, it was
banned and suspended by the Egyptian
government in 1940s.206
planned among activists through social
media which was held in Tahrir Square on
During the Mubarak era, the conflict
25 January 2011.200
remained still between government and the
Brotherhood. Therefore, the movement tried
On 25 January, thousands of protesters
gathered in Cairo, Alexandria, Suez and
Ismailia simultaneously in order to stress the
fact that Mubarak is no different than Ben
Ali.201
c.
to
re-enter
the
political
arena
and
participated in all elections as a part of
various coalitions.207 In the elections of
2005, they managed to gain 88 seats in the
parliament which was equal to 20% of all, in
The Muslim Brotherhood
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spite of the repression by the government
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and electoral irregularities.208 Thus, along
mostly on social media networks such as
with being a forceful movement in society, it
Twitter and Facebook.219 The following day
was now the strongest political opposition
the protests continued regardless of the
against
Mubarak's
party.209
After
the
official ban against it and the police
elections, having been selected again,
continued its efforts to oppress the crowd
Mubarak put pressure on the Brotherhood
using tear gas and live ammunition.220 On
and imprisoned hundreds of people.210
the 27th of January many reports stated that
Once the protests began, the Brotherhood
the Internet services were disrupted to stop
was involved with individual participation
the protesters from organizing more as the
but not organizational.211 In the third day of
clashes between them and the police grew
the uprisings, on 27 January 2011, the
more violent.221 The next day Mubarak
Muslim Brotherhood declared its support to
announced that the government will be
the protests.212 As the government made
replaced with a new one222, acknowledging
more concessions, the Brotherhood took part
the protests yet refused to step down from
in the demonstrations in a more confident
power.223
way.213 During the protests, Mohammed
On the 31st of January, 250.000 people
Mursi who was a senior Brotherhood leader
gathered
stated their intension on the protests as; "We
regardless
are not pushing this movement, but we are
shortages in Internet225, the international
moving with it. We don't wish to lead it but
community, led by United States of America
we want to be part of it."214
and the European Union acted in unison and
d.
Timeline of the Revolution
On the 25 of January, the day known as
‘the day of rage’215, 2011 thousands started
marching the streets of Cairo shouting
216
, police answered
by using teargas and water cannons.217 The
protests also spread to Alexandria and
Aswan.218 The protesters got organized
EuroAsia MUN 2013
of
Cairo’s
Tahrir
the
continuing
Square224
service
a democratic transition
in
Egypt.226 The following day Mubarak stated
th
“Down with Mubarak”
called for
in
he will not run for presidency in the upcoming elections but would not step down
from power.227 February 4th, known as the
‘Day of the Departure’, the opposition
consisting of thousands protestors, gathered
in the Tahrir Square as the uprising
continued.228 The next day the leaders of the
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leading party started resigning from their
governmental functions235, suspended the
posts, one by one, including the son of
constitution236
President Mubarak, Gamal Mubarak.229 The
parliament.237 As a consequence the military
Egyptian Health Minister stated 11 were
rule began in Egypt that would last until the
dead, the United Nations stated that 300
30th of June, 2012 when the new President
might be killed since the initiation of the
Mohamed Morsi was inaugurated.238 In the
protests.230 On the 6th of February, the
meantime, the two houses of the Egyptian
Muslim Brotherhood made a statement that
parliament were elected with the vast
the group: “has decided to participate in a
majority of the seats allocated to the Muslim
dialogue round in order to understand how
Brotherhood and Islamists, rather than
serious the officials are in dealing with the
secular, liberal and leftists.239
demands of the people”.231 On the 10th of
Following these events, a new assembly was
February Mubarak stated he will transfer
gathered to draft the new constitution, yet its
some of his powers to the Vice-President,
proceedings got hampered when the Liberal
yet refused to step down.232 However the
parties and the Church-members of Egypt
following day, after 18 days of violent mass
protested and not attended sessions in the
protests, Mubarak resigned from his duties
face of the overwhelming majority and
as the President of Egypt, leaving the
pressure of the Islamists.240 The date of the
governmental duties to the Army.233
constitutional referendum was set as the 15th
Subsequent to the resignation of the 30-year-
of December 2012, prior to it, more than
old ruler, celebrations started in Egypt, the
100.000 protesters walked to the Presidential
state announced it will keep its current
Palace, asking the cancellation of the
obligations under international treaties as
constitutional process.241 The referendum,
Tahrir Square was being cleared out of
however, took place with a low turnout and
protestors, signs and tents.234
63% of the voters in favour of the new
e.
and
dissolved
the
constitution.242
Post-Revolution Egypt
The Supreme Council of Armed Forces
On 25th of January, 2013 Tahrir Square was
(SCAF), a group consisting of generals from
filled again with protestors, on the second-
the
Egyptian
Army,
took
over
the
year anniversary of ‘the day of rage’, this
time to protest President Morsi of the
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Muslim Brotherhood243, who has been
the military regime253 in various places in
unilaterally giving himself immunities, such
Cairo, The Muslim Brotherhood called for
as excluding his decisions from under the
the continuation of the protests.254 On 14th of
scope of judicial review.244 During January
July, 170 people were killed in the clashes in
2013, more than fifty people were killed as
Ramses Square, Cairo.255
protests got violent one more time.245 In the
As of October 2013 the military rule
following
continues as Egypt remains unstable.256 The
six-month
Brotherhood-dominated
period
Muslim
government
military regime, having suspended the
extended its power as 13 of 27 governors
constitution and overthrown the only non-
were elected from Islamist groups.246 On the
military President to be democratically
th
30
of July 2013, a year after Morsi was
inaugurated
247
elected in Egypt in the past 60 years, is
, massive protests consisting
subjected to criticism as whether it would
of millions of people around Egypt against
bring back the authoritarian elements of the
the Morsi government erupted, and sixteen
Mubarak regime.257
people were killed in the clashes outside the
Muslim
Brotherhood’s
headquarters
in
IV. Libya
a.
Cairo.248
On the 3rd of July, 2013 the military headed
by General al-Sisi took control with an
Before
the
protests:
Colonel
Muammar Gaddafi and 40 years of his
rule
organized coup d’etat, suspending the
Libya is a North-African Mediterranean
constitution.249 Morsi was taken to an
country and it has been independent since
undisclosed location and is being held under
1951, following a colonial-era under Italy’s
house arrest.250 The head of the Supreme
control who took over from the Ottoman
Court of Justice of Egypt, Adly Mansour
Empire in 1911.258 In 1959, significant
was sworn in as an interim-president.251
amount of oil was discovered, making
In August 2012 the most violent clashes,
where 600 people were killed252, occurred
between
the
security
forces
and
the
supporters of Morsi and the Muslim
Brotherhood who were camping in protest of
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Libya, under the reign of King Idris, very
wealthy.259 In 1969, Idris was forced out of
power by a military coup d’etat260 under the
leadership of a young Colonel named
Muammar Gaddafi who then came to
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power.261 Col. Gaddafi followed a pan-Arab
members on the plane and 11 on the
socialist agenda which led him to nationalize
ground.270 Two Libyan intelligence officers
a major part of the economic activity,
were suspected to have an involvement in
including the oil industry.262 In 1970, bases
the deadly terrorist attack and Gaddafi
belonging to the United Kingdom and the
refused to hand them over.271 In 1992 the
United States of America were shut down.263
United Nations Security Council announced
In 1977 the state name of Libya was
sanctions against Libya and the regime was
changed from Libyan Arab Republic to
shunned by the international community.272
Great
Arab
Although weakened by the sanctions, it took
Jamahiriyah.264 From the beginning of the
7 years of military embargoes and reduction
1980s tensions grew between Libya and
of all diplomatic relations for Libya to hand
USA, in 1981 USA shot down 2 Libyan jets
over the 2 suspects, on the terms that they
flying over the Mediterranean.265 In 1986 a
would be tried in a third party's Court.273 In
nightclub in
2001 one of the suspects was found guilty
Socialist
People's
Berlin
Libyan
which was
most
commonly crammed with USA soldiers was
by
bombed.266 USA claimed there were clear
Netherlands.274 In 2003, Libya officially
indications that the attack was organized by
accepted the responsibility of the Lockerbie
Libya.267 The same year, President of the
bombing
USA, Ronald Reagan when answering a
compensation to the 270 families.275
question on Libya and Gaddafi said “we
Following the
know that this mad dog of the Middle East
Lockerbie
has a goal of a world revolution, Muslim
towards the West softened; in 2003 the
fundamentalist revolution...”
268
the
Scottish
and
court
paid
set
$2.7
events
bombings,
up
billion
relating to
Libya’s
in
as
the
attitude
5 days after
government announced it would dismantle
this statement the US bombed Tripoli and
unconventional weapons, weapons of mass
Benghazi,
destruction.276
bombing.
in
response
to
the
Berlin
In
2004
Libya
paid
269
compensation $35 million for the nightclub
in
Berlin,277
In 1988, a Pan Am passenger Flight 103
bombing
and
in
2006
going from London to New York was blown
diplomatic relations with the US were
up as it was flying over Lockerbie, Scotland,
restarted.278
killing all of the 259 passengers and crew
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In 2008 Gaddafi spoke at a conference in
education and healthcare, incomes were low
Columbia University, New York, stating:
and the wealth provided from the vast oil
"There is no state with a democracy except
sources was in the benefit of the government
Libya on the whole planet."279 The same
officials and the elite.284
year, Secretary of State of the US,
On 15th of February 2011, the protests
Condoleezza Rice visited Libya as an
burning through the Middle East reached
indication of the level of diplomatic
Libya, when human rights activist Fethi
relations reached and Libya was the
Tarbel was arrested.285 On the 17th of
president of the Security Council in its
February 2011, ‘day of rage’286or ‘the day of
monthly rotation and Gaddafi addressed the
the revolt’287, widespread anti-authoritarian
United Nations, first time since he took over
protests started in Benghazi, Ajdabiya,
in 1969.
280
Overall, by the time the Arab
Darnah and Zintan, government forces
Spring began, although relations with the
responded
international community were strained from
reportedly killing a dozen protestors.288 By
the terrorist act, at the time the Arab Spring
the 20th of February the anti-Gaddafi
movement started, the Gaddafi regime was
rebellion had taken control over Benghazi289
working
and violent clashes continued.290 On the 21st
towards
a
more
cooperative
by
opening
fire
at
them,
diplomatic approach.281
of February, Gaddafi vowed to crush the
b.
rebels uprising against him.291 On the 26th of
Protests, Clashes and the Security
Council Response
February, the United Nations Security
During the last years of Gaddafi’s rule,
Council, in unanimity, passed resolution
Libya was shunned from the international
1970 under Chapter VII, initiating an arms
community
embargo to Libya, referring the situation to
because
of
the
Lockerbie
bombing, putting a big strain on the
the
International
Criminal
Court
and
economy. In the meantime the government
freezing the assets of Col. Gaddafi and his
was also heavily criticized for corruption
immediate family members.292 The National
and income inequality.282 The freedom of
Transitional Council was founded on the
speech in Libya was inadequate and books
27th of February with wide-participation
were being burned.283 Although the socialist
from the rebel forces, shortly followed by a
government provided free water, electricity,
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declaration
stating
it
is
the
sole
On March 19th, the French military was the
representative of Libya.293
first to strike Libyan government targets300,
For the following 15 day period, the
followed by British and American action
violence increased and no one seemed to
under the name Operation Odyssey Dawn.301
have the upper-hand.294
On the 17th of
It was not until 22nd of March when NATO
March, the United Nations Security Council,
took the first step by enforcing the arms
passed resolution 1973 under Chapter VII.295
embargo via sea as NATO ships in the
Resolution passed with 10 votes in favour
Mediterranean started searching ships and
and 5 states abstaining –Russia, China,
preventing mercenaries to transmit weapons
India, Germany and Brazil.296 The resolution
or any related material to Libya.302 By the
condemned the “gross and systematic
31st of March, the Alliance had taken control
violation
including
over all the international operations under
enforced
the scope of the Security Council Resolution
disappearances, and torture and summary
1973, under the name Operation Unified
executions”297 and authorized all states to
Protector.303
arbitrary
of
human
rights,
detentions,
take measures necessary to protect civilians
and initiated an enforceable no-fly zone.
The intense fighting went on for a couple of
298
months, as NATO continued air-strikes. By
“4. Authorizes Member States... acting
the end of August, Tripoli was captured after
nationally
days
or
through
regional
of
violent
fighting.304
By mid-
organizations or arrangements... to take all
September, 2011, it was clear that the
necessary measures... to protect civilians
Gaddafi regime was in its last days.305 The
and civilian populated areas under threat of
British Prime Minister and French President
attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,
visited Libya, welcomed by cheering big
including Benghazi, while excluding a
crowds.306 In the meantime an interim
foreign occupation force of any form on any
government was formed by the National
part of Libyan territory...”(United Nations
Transitional Council and recognized by the
Security Council Resolution S/RES/1973
United Nations General Assembly on 16th of
(2011))299
September.307 Even though the rebels had
effectively taken control of the entire
country, the last strong-hold of Gaddafi – his
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hometown Sirte- fell October 20th as the
Since there are many different militia groups
Colonel himself was captured and killed.308
in different areas of the country with
On October 31st Operation Unified Protector
different backgrounds and agendas, some of
was ended as all ships belonging to the
them integrated to the governmental system,
Allies left Libyan waters to return home.309
it is not possible to determine a single cause
c.
of the on-going power struggle in Libya.315
Post-Civil War Libya
However it is clear that the Libyan central
Following the 8-month armed conflict and
the immediate withdrawal of international
forces, Libya was left to function on its own,
filled with weaponry, small arms and the
devastation of a large scale civil war.
310
The
National Transitional Council, after 10 more
months of control over the ‘liberated’ state,
left the power to the elected General
National Congress in August 2012.
311
The
most significant problem faced by the new
government of Libya was around 1.700
government does not have the authority or
the means to control all of the groups316 and
the recent abduction of the prime minister is
proof.317
The
powerless
state
of
the
government is mainly due to the fact that
following Gaddafi’s fall, law enforcement
mechanisms, such as the police force could
not
be
re-established.318
Since
the
government cannot achieve it on its own, it
relies on the militant groups for maintaining
local security.319
groups of militia emerging from the
rebellion against Gaddafi.312
Militia in the East blocked the government
oil facilities and some international trade
The disarmament of these groups has been a
great concern. Recently the militia blocked
government functioning at the highest level
when the Prime Minister Ali Zeidan was
kidnapped and held hostage for a few hours
in October 2013.313 The militia previously
seized government building in order to pass
a law banning Gaddafi-era officials from
serving.314
ports for the duration of a month, costing the
oil-dependent Libya an estimated $130
million.320 Following the violent overthrow
of the 40-year-old dictators, some local
groups want recognition and position for
their losses, some groups have Islamist
agendas, some are said to have connections
with al Qaida and groups in Benghazi where
the protests started, state their pre-revolution
marginalization did not change.321
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On a more international note, there have
within a couple of months, first by Sami al-
been reports that Gaddafi’s arsenal is being
Hinnawi326 -colleague of al-Zaimy-, then by
smuggled out of the country to conflicted
Adib
areas close by, such as Mali, the Gaza strip
undermined civilian rule and resulted in
and even Syria.322 This is an indication of
1951 in the complete seizure of power of al-
the instability throughout the country as the
Shishakli. He ruled the country until 1954
problems relating to proliferation, not only
and then was removed from the presidency
affect
by another coup.328
the
fragile
dynamics
of
post-
al-Shishakli.327
The
last
coup
revolution Libya, but the entire region in the
After the fall of al-Shishakli, the civilian
aftermath of the ‘Spring’.
rule was restored but it was to face
instability again, generated from abroad.
V. Syria
The fall of Al-Shishakli’s supported political
I. Pre-protests
a. From the independence to the United
manoeuvring among competing groups,
which led Arab nationalists and socialists to
Arab Republic
Syria gained independence in 1946 from
come to power.
France. Following the independence, its
From 1946 –the independence- to 1956,
economy grew fast. However, Syria suffered
within ten years, the state had twenty
from political instability until the late
different cabinets and drafted four different
1960s.323 Two years after the declaration of
constitutions,
independence, Syria got involved in the
abovementioned political instability.329
Arab-Israeli War against the lately-founded
Martial law was declared in Syria during the
State of Israel, which ended up with the
Suez Crisis of 1956, following the Israeli
signing of an armistice agreement with
invasion of the Sinai Peninsula and the
Israel in July 1949 as the last Arab
intervention of the British and French
country.324
troops. In November 1956, Syria signed a
Three years after gaining independence, the
pact with USSR, with which Syria provided
democratic
a footing for communist influence within the
rule
ended
with
a
US-
which
exchange
for
the
supported325 military coup led by Hussni al-
government,
Zaimy. This was the beginning of a “coup
equipment.330 This advancement increased
loop”, as two coups followed the first one
the Turkish security concerns regarding the
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in
reflects
military
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South-eastern
borders
and
Socialist Ba'ath Party, the National Council
especially Iskenderun, a former land of
for the Revolutionary Command (NCRC),
Syria, with a possibility for an attempt to
composed
retake the land.331 During this high-tension
Nasserists and Independents, was founded to
period, communists gained more power over
rule the country. However, the Military
the Syrian government and military and the
Committee, to ensure a complete command
heated debates within the United Nations
of power, made the decisions on the agenda
were the only effective solution to the threat
of NCRC before its meetings.337
of war.332
b. First Ba’athist government
The everlasting instability in Syrian politics
The Syrian coup in 1963 took place in the
proceeded after the coup staged in 1954. The
next month of the Ba’ath coup in Iraq,
similarity of Syrian and Egyptian policies
which led to a consideration of the
and more importantly the wave of Pan-
possibility of a federation with Egypt, as in
Arabism paved the way towards Syria and
the failed attempt of the United Arab
Egypt forming a union.333 334 On February 1,
Republic, and Iraq controlled by the Ba’ath.
1958, presidents of Syria and Egypt
An agreement was adopted in Cairo on April
announced the creation of the United Arab
17, 1963, for a referendum on the question
Republic.
of the tripartite union to be held in
The union did not last for a long time due to
September 1963. However, due to serious
economic difficulties and political clashes335
conflicts in the policies of the parties, the
and collapsed in practice with Syria
plan for a tripartite federation was laid aside
seceding from the union. The seceding
and the new governments in Syria and Iraq,
occurred in the wake of the coup and then
both occupied by the Ba’aths, started to
Syria was re-established as the Syrian Arab
work on the opportunities of a bipartite
Republic.336 The political instability shaped
union,
the following 1.5 years with several coups
government in Iraq in November 1963.338
reaching its highest level on March 8, 1963.
In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the
With the coup in 1963, which resulted in the
NCRC
seizure of power by the Military Committee
constitution, establishing a National Council
of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab
of the Revolution (NCR), a legislature with
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of
Turkey
of
until
12
the
Ba'thists
overthrow
promulgated
a
and
eight
of
the
provisional
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appointed members from mass organisations
ceasefire and the hostilities ended in a
–such as labour unions-, a presidential
meeting of the Arab League in Cairo.344
council with vested executive power and a
The Syrian retreat led to a conflict in the
cabinet.339
Ba’ath Party between an extremist military
c. Second Ba’athist government
wing and a moderate civilian wing.
On February 23, 1966, a group of military
d. Baath Party under Hafez al-Assad
officers staged an intra-party coup in Syria.
In November, 1970, after having observed a
The putschists340 imprisoned the ousted
power struggle between Salah Jadid and
President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and
Hafez al-Assad, a bloodless military coup –
the National Council of the Revolution and
Syrian Corrective Revolution– was staged,
finally revoked the provisional constitution.
led by the Defence Minister Hafez al-Assad.
On March 1, a regionalist and civilian
Having the civilian party leadership ousted
Ba’ath government was formed. The coup
and the presidential seat assumed by Hafez
was
al-Assad, he began his term of office with
described
by
its
leaders
as
a
"rectification" of Ba'ath Party principles.341
efforts
With the Six Day War, taking control of the
infrastructure for his government and hence
Golan Heights from Syria, Israel weakened
to consolidate control.345 Therefore, the 173-
the radical socialist government formed by
seated People’s Council was gathered. The
to
create
an
organisational
Syria
Ba’ath Party had 87 seats in the Council,
catastrophically intervened with a great
while the other seats were divided among
amount of troops, equivalent to a regiment,
minor
to the Trans-Jordanians during the Jordanian
organisations”.346 In March 1971, Assad’s
Civil War, also called as Black September.
presidency was confirmed for a 7-year term
Syria claimed the attack to be on behalf of
by a national referendum. To broaden the
the Palestinian Liberation Organisation.343
base of his rule, Assad formed the National
Jordanian counter attack resulted to the
Progressive Front in March 1972, a coalition
detriment of the Syrian side and hence
of parties led by the Ba’ath Party, and local
Syrian forces retreated. With the swift fall-
councils for Syria’s 14 governorates were
back of Syria and due to the strength of the
established with elections. In March 1973, a
Jordanian side, the Palestinians agreed to
new constitution went into force, which was
the
1966
coup.342
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In
1970,
parties
and
“popular
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shortly
followed
second
Lebanese forces as proxy powers. Claimed
parliamentary elections for the People’s
to be an occupation, Syrian presence in
Council.347
Lebanon lasted until 2005, with a heavy-
On October 6, 1973, which happened to be
handed influence over Lebanese politics.350
the holy Yom Kippur holiday of Jews and
It is also claimed that the abovementioned
the Ramadan holiday of Muslims at the
Syrian
same time, Syria and Egypt staged a surprise
colonisation.351 This claim is based on the
attack to the Israeli-occupied territories,
fact that about a million Syrian workers,
namely the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan
who are more preferable over Palestinian
Heights, which started the Yom Kippur
Arabs and Lebanese workers due to their
War.348 The element of surprise did not
demand for lower wages, moved to Lebanon
change the result that Egypt and Syria lost
to search for jobs with the encouragement of
their initial gains in a warfare of three weeks
the Syrian government. Furthermore, the
and the Israeli occupation continued.
Lebanese government granted citizenship to
In early 1976, Syria was given two mandates
over 200 hundred Syrian residents in the
to intervene in Lebanon: the first was given
country with a Syrian pressure.352
by the Lebanese President Elias Sarkis due
Despite the ever-increasing power of the
to the disadvantageous proceeding of the
authoritarian regime, fundamentalist Sunni
Lebanese Civil War for the Maronite
Muslims rejected the fundamental values of
Christians, while the second was given by
the secular Ba’ath rule and objected to be
the Arab League.349 First, the Syrian troops
ruled by the Alawites, whom they consider
were involved to prevent the Christians from
heretical. The ultraconservative Muslim
being overrun, but then it turned to the
Brotherhood led an armed insurgency
beginning
Syrian
against the Ba’ath government from 1976 to
presence in Lebanon. During the following
1982, when the fundamentalist opposition
15 years of the Lebanese Civil War, which
was crushed by the government, causing
ended with the Taif Agreement, Syria
thousands of dead and wounded.353 This led
struggled both for maintaining control over
to a serious decrease in anti-government
Lebanon and for undermining Israel in the
protests during the rest of Hafez al-Assad’s
southern parts of Lebanon, through the
term of office.
of
the
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by
the
30-year-long
presence
was
an
act
of
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Syria’s relations with the Arab states and the
receiving 97.29% of the total votes in the
Western World marked a dramatic change in
elections was elected the new President.358
the last 10 years of Hafez al-Assad’s term,
From the death of Hafez al-Assad in July
after Syrian participation in the US-led
2000 to August 2001, an intense debate on
coalition against Saddam Hussein.354 Syria
political and social issues took place in the
attended the Madrid Conference of 1991,
Syrian politics –Damascus Spring–, with
convened by USA and USSR to start a peace
numerous political forums emerging and
process involving Israel, the Palestinians,
having groups of like-minded people meet in
Lebanon and Jordan along with Syria. Then
private houses to debate the abovementioned
Syria had face-to-face negotiations with
issues.359 The most famous forums were the
Israel which failed to reach a result.355
Riad Seif Forum and the Jamal al-Atassi
Following the Council elections in 1998,
Forum. Bashar al-Assad, able to speak
violent protests and armed clashes took
English and French and married a British-
place in Latakia and were generated by the
origin woman, was said to have “inspired
long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad
hopes for reform”. However, the Damascus
and his younger brother Rifaat, who
Spring was concluded in August 2001 with
attempted to stage a coup in 1984 but was
the imprisonment of ten leading activists
eventually expelled from the country.
who had called for democratic elections and
Opposition sources claimed that the clashes
civil disobedience.360
resulted in hundreds dead and wounded.356
II. International and internal tensions in
Hafez al-Assad died on June 10, 2000, by a
the rule of Bashar al-Assad
heart attack, after a rule of 30 years.
On October 5, 2003, Israel bombed a site
e. Bashar al-Assad
near Damascus, claiming “the site was a
Following the death of Hafez al-Assad, the
terrorist training facility for members of
People’s Council amended the constitution
Islamic Jihad361”, which is contradicted by
so that the required minimum age for the
the Islamic Jihad claiming the site was not in
presidency be 34 instead of 40, which
use, and the Syrian government claiming the
allowed Hafez’s son, Bashar al-Assad, to be
site was on a civilian area.362 This bombing
eligible for the nomination by the Ba’ath
was condemned by European governments
party.357 On July 10, 2010, Bashar al-Assad
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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and
considered
as
“a
violation
of
cliquish” and to be the main reason of the
international law and sovereignty rules”.
current crisis. It further called for the
The US Congress adopted the Syria
implementation of a democratic regime.368
Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty
On September 6, 2007, a Syrian military
Restoration Act in December 2003, to stop
facility was bombed with no claim of taking
alleged Syrian support for terrorism; end
responsibility. Syria accused Israel for the
Syrian presence and domination in Lebanon;
bombing; Israel in response claimed the
stop
of
indicated site to be a nuclear facility with a
weapons of mass destruction; attempt to
military purpose, which was denied by
block Syria’s illegal oil import from Iraq
Syrian authorities.369
and end illegal shipping of military items to
In late 2008, US Special Operations Forces
anti-US forces in Iraq through international
carried out an attack to the Syrian territory
sanctions.363
from Iraq. The attack was called “criminal
The riots occurred in al-Qamishli in 2004
and terrorist”, claiming all the casualties
was a catastrophe for an increase in ethnic
were civilians, by the Syrian government.
tensions.364 According to Kurdish sources
Meanwhile, the target was alleged to be a
and Amnesty International, several people
network of fighters from foreign origins who
participated in the protests were arrested and
travel to Iraq via Syria to join Iraqi
nine people were killed.365
insurgency against the US-led coalition in
Syria’s
alleged
development
366
In June 2005,
thousands of Kurds demonstrated in the
Iraq and the Iraqi government.370
same city to protest the assassination of
III. The Structure of the Opposition371
Sheikh Khaznawi, a Kurdish cleric.367 As a
Throughout the process, the civil war in
result, a policeman died and four Kurds
Syria has slowly changed in content more or
were
the
less becoming an international conflict with
publicised,
the participation of multi-national actors
prepared by leading opposition figures and
and involvement of international factors
led by Michel Kilo –a Syrian Christian
therein. This concluded as a slight variation
writer and a human rights activist-. The
in
Declaration criticised the Syrian government
comparatively minor change in the image of
to
the regime.
injured.
Damascus
be
In
October
Declaration
“authoritarian,
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was
2005,
totalitarian,
and
the
opposition
profile
with
a
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The main combatant force of the opposition
Brigade and al Nusra Front have manifested
is the Free Syrian Army which has been
suspicion on its reliability.376 Yet, FSA
reportedly active since the 29th of July,
represents the main fighting power and the
2011.372 It was mostly formed by the military
only officially-regarded military recourse to
personnel who defected from the regime’s
be supported by the countries in attention.377
military to join the rebellion. In the
The FSA officially gives political support to
beginning of the upheaval, it adopted the
the
tactics of guerrilla warfare, but by the time
Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.378
with its increasing power and influence, it
Furthermore, the Syrian National Council
has started to occupy cities, towns and
(SNC) was founded on August 23, 2011 with
villages in some critical regions within
the contribution of mostly the Muslim
Syrian territories. The FSA has been alleged
Brothers-oriented
with war crimes and crimes against
dissidents and other parts of the opposition
humanity for several times, which caused its
centres of Syria, who fled the country, being
credibility to be questioned by the world
located in Istanbul, Turkey. Even though the
community373 like kidnapping, torture and
SNC expressed its concerns regarding the
execution as some components of the
militarization of the movement, it has been
opposition publish on the internet.374 The
generally supporting the armed activity
situation is summarized by the words of
against
Sarah Leah Whitson, Middle East director
Libya became the first country to recognize
of Human Rights Watch in her open letter to
the SNC as the only authority of Syria, while
the leaders of the Syrian opposition: “The
the USA, the UK and France recognized it
Syrian government’s brutal tactics cannot
as the only official representative of Syrian
justify abuses by armed opposition groups.
people alongside with several UN members.
Opposition leaders should make it clear to
On 11th of November, 2012 the SNC agreed
their followers that they must not torture,
to be part of a rather umbrella organization
kidnap
or
execute
National
the
for
politicians,
regime.
several
Post-revolutionary
any
with
relations
and
forming up the National Coalition for Syrian
collaboration with radical Islamists and
Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.379
jihadists like Ahrar al Sham, al Tawhid
The recently formed coalition has a council
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Its
opposition
Syrian
under
circumstances.375
other
Coalition
units
involved,
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Open Agenda
consisting of 63 members in total and 22
a hundred government delegates, including
members from the SNC.
from the US, France, Britain and the Gulf
Its stated goals were:
countries, have gathered in the Moroccan
city of Marrakesh to unveil measures to
1. Preserving national sovereignty
support the newly formed Syrian group.384
and independence of decisions
Some particular powers like China and
2. Preserving geographic unity
Russia refrained from this recognition
3. Preserving the people's unity
progress.385
4.
Emphasising
a
The
USA386,
UK387,
the
Turkey388, Spain, Saudi Arabia, Qatar,
political
Bahrain, Oman, Kuwait , and the UAE389
transition can only begin after
recognized
"Bashar al-Assad and the symbols
the
coalition
as
the
sole
legitimate representative of Syrian people,
of his regime are brought down",
as France took a further step recognizing
and "those responsible for the
the organization as the future interim
spilling of Syrian blood are brought
government of Syria.390 The remaining
to trial"
member states of Friends of Syria accepted
5. Emphasising the importance of
the terms of recognizing the coalition as a
establishing a civil, pluralistic and
legitimate representative with the Assad
democratic state.
380
regime as well.
The Free Syrian Army also supports the
Another prominent actor within the civil war
National
the
is the PYD which represents the armed wing
, while the jihadist fractions
of the Kurdish presence in the northern part
fighting in Syria aiming to found an Islamic
of the country. It is considered as a terrorist
state unanimously rejected the recognition
organization by Turkey, USA, NATO and
Coalition
381
opposition
of the coalition.
382
as
most
of
Further, the organization
European Union due to its affiliation with
named Friends of Syria, with its 130
PKK. The main argument of the party is
delegates from different countries declared
having autonomy under the banner of a
that they recognized the coalition as the
democratic Syria, even if the will of
legitimate representative of the Syrian
independence is also mentioned. Yet, its
people on 12 December 2012.
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383
More than
political stance is slightly complicated due
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UN Security Council and North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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to its ideological and armed collisions with
their discontent with the newly-published
both the FSA and the regime.”
constitution which made no reference to
IV. Political Islam in Syria391
Islam; following this wave of unrest, a
“When Bashar al Assad became the Head of
State on 17 July 2000, hopes of the
reformers were high. Assad put forward a
policy of development and modernization in
Syria. For instance, more than 600 political
prisoners were released in October 2000.
The Islamist question and its political
implications
for
Syria
have
become
especially remarkable since the fall of
Baghdad in 2003392.These developments
enabled the creation of a national platform
which brought together secularists and
conservatives.
Recently, in contravention of the repression
on the Muslim Brotherhood under the
United Arab Republic with Egypt (195861393), there had been no major clashes with
the state. However tensions increased
following the military coup of 1963, when
the Baath party took power. In 1964, clashes
took place around the Sultan mosque in
Hama, and were followed by a series of
arrests. In 1967, the Muslim Brothers
organized demonstrations, following the
publication of an article in an army journal
considered to be blasphemous394. At the
reference was introduced as had been
expected.395
The political tension led to an armed
rebellion by Sunni Islamists in 1976 to last
until 1982, centring in Hama and Aleppo in
the north of the country. The insurgency was
suppressed by the series of actions which
were called the “Hama Massacre” in
February, 1982.396
Since the roots of the current opposition are
also composed of the elements of radical
Islamist movement in a serious percentage,
the international community started to take
the fact into consideration while specifying
policies over Syrian issues including both
parties. For instance, Russia expressed her
concerns for the threat of a possible radical
Islam take-over in Syria, reminding the
examples in Iraq and Libya397. On 1
November 2012, US Secretary of State,
Hillary Rodham Clinton mentioned that they
would not let the radical Islamists “hijack”
the revolutionary process in Syria.398 399”
V. Demographic roots of the problem
Syrian demographic structure is a mixture of
different ethnic roots with several religious
beliefs. Arabs form the 90% of the
beginning of 1973, the Brothers also showed
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population; Kurds form a 9%, Turcomans,
Some member-states supported the idea of
Assyrians,
an intervention, while some others did not.
Armenians
and
Circassians
1%.400
This dichotomy could be seen among the
Among the Muslims, 90% of the total
members of the Security Council as well,
population, 74% of the population is Sunni
especially among the permanent members.
Muslim, while the 16% is Alawites -which
The permanent members USA, UK and
includes the al-Assad family-, Ismailis,
France attempted to produce a resolution for
Shi’a and the Druze. The other 10%
the authorisation of such an intervention;
practices Christianity.401
however Russia and China vetoed several
The mix characteristics of the Syrian
resolution proposals.405 So far, the Security
demographics is one of the main roots of the
Council has succeeded to produce three
ongoing Civil War; both the government and
resolutions:
the opposition accuse each other of using
Resolution 2058 renewed the mandate of the
sectarianism in obtaining further support and
Supervision
recruiting militia.402 In addition, it is certain
recommendation of the Secretary-General.
that the opposition is supported by many
With the UNSC Resolutions 2042 and 2043
multi-national armed groups, which express
of the year 2012, the United Nations
themselves
Supervision
as
radical
Islamists
and
2042,
2043,
Mission
Mission
and
2118.
upon
in
the
Syria
was
jihadists.403
established to carry out observations on the
The world community and Vatican are also
implementation of the six-point peace plan
concerned about the future of the Christian
of Kofi Annan.406 In late September, the
minority in the country who had to change
Council agreed on a resolution regarding
their locations due to the ongoing conflict.
Syrian
VI. United Nations involvement so far
Taking as a basis the Resolutions 2042 and
Right after the civil war started, on March
2043, and the General Debate of the Sixty-
18, 2011, Ban Ki-moon –UN Secretary-
Eighth Session of the United Nations
General- called the use of force of the Syrian
General Assembly; the Security Council
regime
adopted a resolution that gives the Syrian
against
“unacceptable”.404
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the
protesters
as
chemical
weaponry
problem.407
government time until June 30, 2014 to
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destroy all of its chemical weapons. The
VII. Chemical Weapon Problem
resolution also included a transition plan.408
The first reported use of chemical weapons
"For many months, I have
came at 02:45 local time on 21 August in
said that the confirmed use
Ein Tarma, east of the centre of Damascus,
of chemical weapons in
and again at 02:47 in Zamalka, an adjoining
Syria required a firm, united
district.412 Under a deal struck by the United
and
response.
States and Russia, the Organisation for the
Tonight, the international
Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
community has delivered. A
(which is the implementing body of the
red light for one form of
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC))
weapons does not mean a
sent experts to Syria after a sarin gas attack
green light for others. This
killed
is not a license to kill with
Damascus in August.413
conventional weapons. All
The CWC aims to eliminate an entire
the violence must stop. All
category of weapons of mass destruction by
decisive
the guns must fall silent.” –
than
1,400
people
near
prohibiting the development, production,
Ban Ki-moon, SecretaryGeneral
more
acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer
409
or use of chemical weapons by States Parties
The United Nations supports the convention
thus states Parties, in turn, must take the
of the Geneva II Middle East peace
steps necessary to enforce that prohibition in
conference to be held in Geneva in late
respect of persons (natural or legal) within
2013, which aims to stop the ongoing
their jurisdiction.414
conflict, organise a transition period and
post-conflict reconstruction. The dates of the
conference have not been announced and it
has been postponed for several times, which
causes a decrease in hopes for a possible
success
from
the
conference.410
The
conference is referred to by Bashar al-Assad
A unique feature of the CWC is its
incorporation of the 'challenge inspection',
which means that under this procedure,
States Parties have committed themselves to
the principle of 'any time, anywhere'
inspections with no right of refusal.415
as having no success factors.411
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The experts, supported by the United
requirements for the citizens of both states
Nations, aim to oversee destruction of
for travelling in between were removed420
chemical weapons production and mixing
and a bilateral free-trade treaty came into
equipment in Syria by November 1, and deal
force in 2007 enhancing the economic
with all chemical weapons materials by the
relations.421
end of June 2014.416
In the immediate aftermath of the initial
"The Syrian Arab Republic submitted to the
skirmishes between the Syrian government
OPCW
declaration
and the rebel forces, massive numbers of
covering its chemical weapons programme"
refugees started fleeing towards the 822 km
which
long Turkish-Syrian border.422 According to
its
formal
"includes
initial
a
general
plan
of
destruction for consideration by the OPCW
the
Executive Council", an expert said in a
Management Directorate, the number of
statement thus it followed as "Syria's
refugees exceeded 600.000 as of October
submission is in line with the deadline".417
2013.423 In addition to the on-going refugee
On 7 October United States and Russia
problem the relations between the two
stated that they are "very pleased" with the
Middle-Eastern states which were pre-civil
progress
weapons
war on the mend have gotten tense
disarmament.418 Although world's worst
following skirmishes in the border area.424
chemical weapons attack in 25 years may
The tension raises the question whether
not be repeated in Syria both Assad's forces
Turkey, a NATO-ally, in the case where the
and rebels continue to kill with conventional
conflict accelerates, would take the matter to
weapons daily.419
the North Atlantic Council in order to
in
Syria's
chemical
Turkish
invoke
VIII. Syria and Turkey
Disaster
Article
5
of
and
the
Emergency
Washington
Treaty.425
The
relationship
between
Syria
and
Republic of Turkey (Turkey) is significant
During
the
to the dynamics of the region, especially
crackdown in Syria in 2011426 Turkish
when the current civil war in Syria is
minister
concerned. Turkey and Syria were on good
Davutoglu, visited Damascus, demanding
terms prior to the civil war in Syria: visa
the halting of the violence against the
for
very
beginnings
foreign
affairs,
of
the
Ahmet
protesters.427 President al Assad said he
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would not "not relent in pursuing terrorist
As the Turkish and Syrian navies searched
groups" in order to ensure the safety of
for the 2 missing crew members on the
Syrian citizens.428 In October same year,
plane,436 Turkish authorities stated that the
Turkey suspended all treaties and its
plane was shot down in international air
financial
issuing
space after it accidentally entered Syrian
sanctions until a peaceful and legitimate
airspace for a brief amount of time,437 in
government is founded.429 These actions
addition to this, the plane was unarmed,438
followed similar ones from the Arab League
was marked as Turkish439 and it was
and other members of the United Nations in
executing
response to the many violations of human
authorities remained to their statement as to,
rights.430 During the earlier periods of the
shooting down the plane was an act in
conflict, Turkey’s role was moderating and
accordance with the laws that govern such
conciliating, yet following the unresponsive
situations440 and the plane crashed 1km from
attitude of the Syrian government, this role
the Syrian coastline441 well within its
changed.431
territorial waters and it was unidentified.442
On the 22nd of June, 2012 Syrian military
Prime Minister of Turkey, Recep Tayyip
officials stated they shot down a Turkish
Erdogan in response stated: "A short-term
warplane as they were flying over Syrian
border violation can never be a pretext for
territorial
an attack".443
dealings
waters,
with
Syria,
violating
Syrian
a
training
mission.
Syrian
airspace.432 Syrian authorities said the plane
In the meantime Turkey invoked Article 4 of
was flying at a very low altitude, at a high
the North Atlantic Treaty and called upon
speed. 433
the Alliance for a military consultation.444
An
announcement
followed
from
the
Turkish authorities after an emergency
On the 26th of June NATO issued a
statement condemning Syria’s actions: “We
meeting in the office of Prime Minister
consider this act to be unacceptable and
Recep Tayyip Erdogan;434 it briefly said the
condemn it in the strongest terms. It is
incident will be examined and that the
Turkey will take the necessary steps.435
another example of the Syrian authorities’
disregard for international norms, peace
and security, and human life.”445 In July
2012, the bodies of the two pilots were
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recovered from the seabed.446 President al
banned each other’s aircrafts from their
Assad expressed that he ‘wished the shoot
respective airspaces.458
down did not happen.’447 On 3rd of October
In
2012 a shell from Syria landed in Akcakale
recognized the National Coalition of Syrian
a town in Turkey near the Syrian border
Revolutionary and Opposition Forces as the
killing 5 civilians, two women and three
legitimate representatives of the Syrian
children.
448
Turkey in response opened
artillery fire on targets determined by
radar.
449
November
people.459
In
2012,
Turkey
December
2012,
officially
NATO
announced its decision to deploy Patriot
In addition the Turkish Parliament
batteries in Gaziantep, Kahramanmaras and
went into emergency session450 and passed a
Adana, cities close to the Syrian border460
bill authorizing cross-border military action
and
in Syria.
451
NATO stated that the shelling “is
strongly condemned by, all Allies.”
452
The
United Nations Secretary General Ban-Ki
Moon requested the countries to show
restraint and aim for political resolutions.453
Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan stated
Turkey does not want war and the response
fire was a warning yet adding that Turkey
would
not
‘shy
away
from
war
if
provoked’.454
the
deployment
was
finished
in
February 2013.461
In 11th of May, 2013, two cars bombs
exploded in Reyhanli, Hatay a Turkish town
near the Syrian border.462 The attack made
history as one of the most deadly attacks in
the last decade,463 killing 46 people and
leaving 100 wounded.464 Following the
attack, minister of foreign affairs, Ahmet
Davutoglu said the matter and deaths: "The
attack has nothing to do with the Syrian
Following the incident, Turkey intercepted a
refugees in Turkey; it's got everything to do
plane heading to Damascus from Moscow
with the Syrian regime".465 466
and carrying 30 passengers.455 This was due
to the fact that the aircraft was suspected to
carry military materials.456 Turkey stated
that some material was confiscated before
the plane was allowed to leave as Syria
accused Turkey of air piracy.457 Both states
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Syria
rejected
the
accusations,
the
information minister Omran al-Zohbi stated
that "Syria did not commit and would never
commit such an act because our values
would not allow that".467
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"stop all violence from any side in order to
IX. International responses
protect the Syrian citizens".472 However, the
i. Arab League
Syrian government has not honoured this
The Arab League is concerned about the
civil war from its beginning. In August
2011, the Secretary-General Nabil Elaraby
took note of the escalating violence and
military operations especially in Hama and
Deir al-Zor and called upon the government
to “stop all acts of violence”, while
acknowledging the “chance for the reforms
announced by the President Bashar alAssad to be accomplished”.468 By the end of
August 2011, the Arab League agreed on
condemnation of the crackdown, calling for
an end to the violence and “asked the
Secretary-General of the Arab League to
carry out an urgent mission to Damascus
and transmit the Arab initiative to resolve
the crisis to the Syrian leadership".469 It
further agreed on urging respect for the
Syrian people's right to see political, social
and economic reforms.470 These agreements
are part of the Arab League Action Plan.
The
Syrian
government
rejected
the
statement of the Arab League with a “strong
formal protest memorandum”, claiming that
the League has violated its Charter.471
After a meeting with Bashar al-Assad in
agreement, considering the ongoing acts of
violence of the government.473
After
warnings
and
calls,
Syria’s
membership was suspended.474 The League
further warned the Syrian government with
economic and political sanctions and taking
the matter to the United Nations Security
Council.
On December 19, 2011, the al-Assad
government
agreed
to
permit
foreign
observers from the Arab League to monitor
the progress in Syria in removing troops
from protest areas, free political prisoners,
and negotiating with dissidents. The mission
was in accordance with the Arab League
peace plan aimed to resolve the Syrian
crisis. The monitors were appointed and
supported by the Arab League.475 The
monitoring mission was criticised because
of its head, Mohamed Ahmed Mustafa alDabi, who was criticized to have tolerated
the
incidents
of
genocide,
which
is
investigated by the International Criminal
Court.
Currently, Syria’s membership is suspended
and the Syrian National Coalition has been
early September, the Secretary-General
stated that the Syrian government agreed to
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granted the official representation of Syria
Along with the extensive support to the
within the League476
Syrian government, Iranian policy aims to
ii. European Union
ensure,
The European Union has condemned the
collapses, that it can continue to “pursue its
government actions since the very beginning
vital interests ..., using parts of Syria as a
of the conflict. Catherine Ashton, the High
base as long as the Syrian opposition fails to
Representative of the Union for Foreign
establish full control over all of Syrian
Affairs and Security Policy, issued a
territory”, bearing in mind the possibility
statement on March 22, 2011, right after the
for the al-Assad regime to be ousted and
conflict had started, and condemned the
opposition forces will come to power.479 480
violent
iv. People’s Republic of China and
repression,
called
for
political
in
case
the
al-Assad
regime
dialogue and called upon Syria for respect to
Russian Federation
its international commitments to human
Stances of China and Russia are an
rights and fundamental freedoms.477
important
iii. Iran
involvement. So far, they have vetoed
The involvement of Iran in the Syrian crisis
resolutions in the Security Council on the
has close links to the continuity of Iranian
Syrian issue, therefore these two countries
influence in the Levant. The Syrian crisis
can be considered as the reasons of the
has directly threatened this influence; hence
inability of the Security Council to act
Iran conducts an extensive effort to keep
firmly towards the Syrian crisis.
Bashar al-Assad in presidency.
China has close links to Syria thanks to
The supporting efforts include trainings,
economic reasons; China is the third largest
military
aspect
of
the
international
assisting
pro-
importer of Syria.481 While some base the
militias.
The
Chinese disapproval to an intervention
evolvement of the supporting efforts into an
authorised by the UN Security Council on
expeditionary training mission is a notable
these economic reasons, others have another
fact reflecting Iran’s desire and capability to
basis: China does not want to reprise what
project
happened in Libya and Côte d'Ivoire after
supplies
government
and
shabiha
military
borders.478
force
outside
of
its
the UNSC-authorised interventions.482 "A
political solution is always the only realistic
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means to resolve the Syria issue," Chinese
upon al-Assad to settle for the consequences
Foreign Minister Wang Yi said.
of the total rejection of his regime by the
As for the Russian Federation, along with
Syrian people and to leave power, for the
sharing
greater interest of Syria and the unity of his
the
aforementioned
concerns
regarding the cases of Libya and Côte
people.486
d'Ivoire, economy, military and politics can
UK provided the opposition forces with
be counted among the motives of the
intelligence share487 and non-lethal military
disapproval to such an intervention:
aid as "the right thing to do" and that will
(1) Economy and military: Russia is the
"help save lives".488
main arms supplier of Syria; the in-between
arms contracts of Russia and Syria is worth
at least $4 billion as of 2011.483 The Tartus
Naval Base has a key role for Russia,
serving as the only base that ensures Russian
presence in the Mediterranean.
On August 29, 2013, a motion failed in the
House of Commons of the UK to determine
if the UK will take part in an action with the
US against the use of chemical weapons by
the Syrian government.489
(2) Politics: Russia aims to shape the Middle
vi. United States of America
East region and expel the US power from
The United States of America has a very
the region.484
clear stance on the Syrian crisis. Right after
Russia cooperates with the United States of
the beginning of the civil war, USA imposed
America to maintain peace in Syria. To this
sanctions on Bashar al-Assad and six other
end, the Framework for Elimination of
seniors following the crackdown of the
Syrian
protesters.490
Chemical
Weapons
has
been
approved by both sides, following the
USA has repeatedly condemned the al-
chemical attacks in Ghouta.485
Assad rule for its alleged tyrannical actions.
v. United Kingdom
USA has even backed the idea that the
The policy of the United Kingdom is similar
current regime has lost its legitimacy and
to that of the USA, as a close partner and a
therefore shall step down.491
co-member of NATO.
USA is among the few governments which
In late August 2011, UK issued a joint
recognise the National Coalition for Syrian
statement with France and Germany, to call
Revolutionary and Opposition Forces as the
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sole legitimate representative of the Syrian
solving
people.
democracy. Cooperating with Russia, USA
Moreover, USA once attempted to make the
approved the Framework for Elimination of
UN
Syrian Chemical Weapons, which led to the
Security
Council
authorise
an
intervention to Syria. Now, it is more into
the
conflict
with
means
of
Security Council Resolution 2118.492
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
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2
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3
ibid
4
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5
Ibid.
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6
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8
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9
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10
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12
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[Accessed: 16 Oct 2013].
15
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20
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27
Ibid.
28
Cf. Cassese, ‘ Return to Westphalia?’ , in A. Cassese (ed.), T he Current Legal Regulation of the Use of Force
29
Tom Franck’s Recourse to Force (2002) offers an excellent analysis of the evolving nature of the Charter’s
regime governing force.
30
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ibid
39
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41
Christian J. Tams. 2009. The Use of Force against Terrorists. Available at:
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42
Ibid.
43
Ibid.
44
Christian J. Tams. 2009. The Use of Force against Terrorists. Available at:
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45
NATO in focus. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - BELGIUM: Public Diplomacy Division.
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46
Ibid.
47
Ibid.
48
Ibid.
49
A Short History of NATO. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - Belgium: Public Diplomacy Division.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-2CD5ACAE-05C895BE/natolive/topics_85928.htm? [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
50
Ibid.
51
Ibid.
52
News.bbc.co.uk. 2013. In depth: Korean War, Introduction. [online] Available at:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/03/the_korean_war/html/ [Accessed: 18 Oct 2013].
53
Ibid.
54
Opt. Cite. A Short History of NATO. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - Belgium: Public Diplomacy Division.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-2CD5ACAE-05C895BE/natolive/topics_85928.htm? [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
55
Ibid.
56
News.bbc.co.uk. 2013. BBC News - Q&A: France and Nato. [online] Available at:
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57
Ibid.
58
News.bbc.co.uk. 2013. BBC News - Timeline: Nato. [online] Available at:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1543000.stm [Accessed: 18 Oct 2013].
59
Opt. Cite. A Short History of NATO. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - Belgium: Public Diplomacy Division.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-2CD5ACAE-05C895BE/natolive/topics_85928.htm? [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
60
Ibid.
61
Opt. Cite. News.bbc.co.uk. 2013. BBC News - Timeline: Nato. [online] Available at:
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62
Opt. Cite. A Short History of NATO. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - Belgium: Public Diplomacy Division.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-2CD5ACAE-05C895BE/natolive/topics_85928.htm? [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
63
Ibid.
6464
Ibid.
65
Ibid.
66
Ibid.
67
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Press Release (1999)040, March 23, 1999
68
Greenwood, Christopher, “Humanitarian intervention: the case of Kosovo”, London School of Economics
Research Online, November 2008
69
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Press Release (1999)040, March 23, 1999
70
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244(1999)
71
García-Orrico, D. n.d. “Kosovo”. [e-book] http://www.fride.org/uploads/Cap5_Kosovo_ENG_oct9.pdf [Accessed:
4 Nov 2013].
72
Ibid.
37
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73
Ibid.
Opt. Cite. A Short History of NATO. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - Belgium: Public Diplomacy Division.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-2CD5ACAE-05C895BE/natolive/topics_85928.htm? [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
75
NATO 2001. Statement by the North Atlantic Council. [press release] 11 September 2001.
76
Opt. Cite. A Short History of NATO. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - Belgium: Public Diplomacy Division.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-2CD5ACAE-05C895BE/natolive/topics_85928.htm? [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
77
Ibid.
78
Assenova, M. “The Debate on NATO’s Evolution”.[Online] Available at:
http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/NATO_Debate_guidebook.pdf [Accessed 10 October 2012].
74
79
Ibid.
Ibid.
81
Opt. Cite. A Short History of NATO. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - Belgium: Public Diplomacy Division.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-2CD5ACAE-05C895BE/natolive/topics_85928.htm? [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
82
Ibid.
83
Nato.int. 2002. NATO Update: NATO transformed: new members, capabilities and partnerships - 21 Nov. 2002.
[online] Available at: http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2002/11-november/e1121e.htm [Accessed: 18 Oct 2013].
84
Nato-russia-council.info. 2013. Nato-Russia Council - About. [online] Available at: http://www.nato-russiacouncil.info/en/about/ [Accessed: 18 Oct 2013].
85
NATO 2004. The Istanbul Declaration Our security in a new era. [press release] 28 June 2004.
86
Ibid.
87
Nato.int. 2006. NATO Update: NATO boosts efforts in Afghanistan - 29 November 2006. [online] Available at:
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88
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89
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80
92
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93
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94
Opt. Cite. NATO. 2012. NATO - The North Atlantic Council. [online] Available at:
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95
Ibid.
96
Ibid.
97
Ibid.
98
NATO. 2013. NATO - Smart Defence. [online] Available at:
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99
Ibid.
100
FOUNDING ACT ON MUTUAL RELATIONS, COOPERATION AND SECURITY BETWEEN NATO AND
THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION!. 1997. [e-book] Paris: NATO - Russia Council. http://www.nato-russiacouncil.info/media/59451/1997_nato_russia_founding_act.pdf [Accessed: 19 Oct 2013].
101
Ibid.
102
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103
Opt.Cite García-Orrico, Débora “Kosovo”
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104
Smith, J. 2008. The NATO-Russia Relationship. [e-book] Center for Strategic & International Studies and
Institut Francais des Relations Internationales.
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105
Ibid.
106
Ibid.
107
Ibid.
108
NATO. 2013. NATO - NATO’s relations with Russia. [online] Available at:
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_50090.htm? [Accessed: 19 Oct 2013].
109
Ibid.
110
Ibid.
111
Ibid.
112
Jonson, P. 2010. The debate about Article 5 and its credibilty. [e-book] Rome: Research Division - NATO
Defense College. http://www.gees.org/files/documentation/28052010065121_Documen-07840.pdf [Accessed: 19
Oct 2013].
113
Ibid.
114
NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen 2010. Monthly press briefing. [press release] 11 Oct. 2010.
115
Opt. Cite. A Short History of NATO. 2013. [pdf] Brussels - Belgium: Public Diplomacy Division.
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-2CD5ACAE-05C895BE/natolive/topics_85928.htm? [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
116
Telegraph.co.uk. 2013. Afghanistan: 2001 to Nato handover timeline - Telegraph. [online] Available at:
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117
NATO Public Diplomacy Divison. 2012. NATO and Afghanistan: questions&answers. [e-book] Brussels:
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118
Isaf.nato.int. 2013. History | ISAF - International Security Assistance Force. [online] Available at:
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119
Ibid.
120
Opt. Cite. NATO Public Diplomacy Divison. 2012. NATO and Afghanistan: questions&answers. [e-book]
Brussels: NATO. http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_publications/NATO_and_Afgh_LR_en.pdf
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121
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at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/10127579/Afghanistan-2001-to-Nato-handovertimeline.html [Accessed: 19 Oct 2013].
122
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123
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124
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125
Ibid.
126
Ibid.
127
BBC News. 2013. Afghan militants attack Isaf convoy. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldasia-24584877 [Accessed: 19 Oct 2013].
128
Opt. Cite. NATO Public Diplomacy Divison. 2012. NATO and Afghanistan: questions&answers. [e-book]
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129
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130
NATO, 2012. NATO’s Relations with the United Nations. [online] Available at:
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131
Ibid
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132
Ibid
Ibid
134
Ibid
135
Ibid
136
NATO, 2012. NATO’s Relations with the United Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_50321.htm (accessed: 25 October 2013)
137
Ibid
138
Ibid
139
NATO, 2008. North Atlantic Treaty. [online] Available at:
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/official_texts_17120.htm (accessed: 25 October 2013)
140
NATO, 2012. NATO’s Relations with the United Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_50321.htm (accessed: 25 October 2013)
141
NATO, 2008. North Atlantic Treaty. [online] Available at:
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/official_texts_17120.htm (accessed: 25 October 2013)
142
NATO, 2012. NATO’s Relations with the United Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_50321.htm (accessed: 25 October 2013)
143
Eastern Illınoıs Universiyt, undated. NATO and the United Nations: Debates and Trends in Institutional
Coordination. [pdf] Available at: http://www.journal-iostudies.org/sites/journaliostudies.org/files/JIOS201121final_4.pdf (accessed: 26 October 2013)
144
Ibid
145
Georgetown University, 2012. Sustainability of the NATO. [pdf] Available at:
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f?sequence=1 (accessed: 4 November 2013)
146
Ibid
147
Ibid
148
Ibid
149
German Institute for International and Security Affairs, 2012. NATO and the UN: Partnership for Potential. [pdf]
Available at: http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/research_papers/2012_RP02_har.pdf
(accessed: 26 October 2013)
150
Ibid
151
Ibid
152
German Institute for International and Security Affairs, 2012. NATO and the UN: Partnership for Potential. [pdf]
Available at: http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/research_papers/2012_RP02_har.pdf
(accessed: 26 October 2013)
133
153
Ibid
United Nations, undated. The Charter of the United Nations, Chapter 6. [online] Available at:
http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter7.shtml (accessed: 26 October 2013)
154
155
Ibid
Ibid
157
Ibid
158
Ibid
159
Ibid
160
Ibid
161
International Journal of Asian Social Science, 2013. Typology of Political Regymes in North Africa Before Arab
Spring. [pdf] Available at: http://www.aessweb.com/download.php?id=2054#page8 (accessed: 26 October 2013)
162
Ibid
163
Ibid
164
CNN, 2011. What’s Causing North African Unrest. [online] Available at:
http://business.blogs.cnn.com/2011/01/16/whats-causing-north-african-unrest/ (accessed: 26 October 2013)
156
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165
Almanar News, 2012. The Arab Spring: The Root Causes. [online] Availabe at:
http://www.almanar.com.lb/english/adetails.php?eid=45439&cid=31&fromval=1 (accessed: 26 October 2013)
166
International, 2011. Uprising in Tunisia: People Power topples Ben Ali regime. [online] Available at:
http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2011/01/16/18669320.php (accessed: 24 October 2013)
167
Ibid
168
Ibid
169
The Guardian, 2011. Al-Qaida Leaders Welcome Arab Uprisings. [online]Available at:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/31/alqaida-leaders-welcome-arab-uprisings (accessed: 3 Novermber
2013)
170
BBC News, 2011. Tunisia: President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali forced out. [online] Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12195025 (accessed: 24 October 2013)
171
About.com, 2010. This Day in African History: The Republic of Egypt is Declared. [online] Available at:
http://africanhistory.about.com/b/2010/06/19/18-june-1953-the-republic-of-egypt-is-declared.htm [accessed: 23
October 2013]
172
Ibid
Egypt News, 2009. Egyptian Revoluiton of 1952. [online] Available at: http://news.egypt.com/en/egyptianrevolution-of-1952.html (accessed: 23 October 2013)
174
Ibid
175
The Newyork Times, 2013. Middle East. [online] Available at:
http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/08/21/world/middleeast/Mubarak_timeline.html?ref=hosnimubarak&_r=0
#/#time139_4617 (accessed: 23 October 2013)
176
Ibid
177
Ibid
178
Ibid
179
Ibid
180
The Newyork Times, 2011. Hosni Mubarak. [online] Available at:
http://web.archive.org/web/20110216065944/http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/m/hosni_m
ubarak/index.html (accessed: 24 October 2013)
181
Ibid
182
Ibid
183
Ibid
184
Ibid
185
BBC News, 2013. Profile: Hosni Mubarak [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east12301713 (accessed: 24 October 2013)
186
The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights, 2008. Egypt and the Impact of 27 Years of Emergency on Human
Rights. [online] Available at: http://en.eohr.org/2008/05/28/%E2%80%9Cegypt-and-the-impact-of-27-years-ofemergency-on-human-rights%E2%80%9D/#more-22 (accessed: 24 October 2013)
187
Ibid
188
Ibid
189
Amnesty International, 2010. [online] Available at:
http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE12/027/2010/en/7139fa34-dd0b-4204-87ba4b8c08f27a2d/mde120272010en.html (accessed: 24 October 2013)
190
Texas University,2008. The Heir Apparency of Gamal Mubarak. [pdf] Available at:
https://webspace.utexas.edu/jmb334/www/documents/article.ASJ.2008.pdf (accessed: 24 October 2013)
191
Ibid
192
AlJazeera, 2010. Egyptians reject inheritance of power. [online] Available at:
http://blogs.aljazeera.com/blog/middle-east/egyptians-reject-inheritance-power (accessed: 24 October 2013)
193
The Guardian, 2011. US reported 'routine' police brutality in Egypt [online] Available at:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/28/egypt-police-brutality-torture-wikileaks (accessed: 25 October
2013)
194
Ibid
173
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195
US Department of State, 2010. 2009 Country Reports on Human Right Practices. [online] Available at:
http://m.state.gov/md136067.htm (accessed: 25 October 2013)
196
New York Times, 2011. Violent Clashes Mark Protests Against Mubarak’s Rule [online] Available at:
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/26/world/middleeast/26egypt.html?_r=0 (accessed: 25 October 2013)
197
BBC News, 2013. Profile: Hosni Mubarak [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east12301713 (accessed: 25 October 2013)
198
International, 2011. Uprising in Tunisia: People Power topples Ben Ali regime. [online] Available at:
http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2011/01/16/18669320.php (accessed: 24 October 2013)
199
Ibid
200
AlJazeera, 2011. Three Deads in Egypt Protests. [online] Available at:
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/01/20111251711053608.html (accessed: 25 October 2013)
201
Ibid
202
Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013. Muslim Brotherhood. [online] Available
at:http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/399387/Muslim-Brotherhood (accessed: 26 October 2013)
203
A genealogical inquiry into early Islamism: the discourse of Hasan al-Banna, 2012. [pdf] Available at:
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13569317.2012.644986 (accessed: 26 October 2013)
204
Ibid
205
Ibid
206
BBC News, 2013. Profile: Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood. [online] Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12313405 (accessed: 26 October 2013)
207
Ibid
208
New York Times, 2007. Islamic Democrats? [online] Available at:
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209
Middle East Report, undated. The Brotherhood goes to parliament. [online] Available at:
http://web.archive.org/web/20061001175005/http://www.merip.org/mer/mer240/shehata_stacher.html (accessed: 26
October 2013)
210
BBC News, 2013. Profile: Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood. [online] Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12313405 (accessed: 26 October 2013)
211
Ibid
212
Fox News, 2011 Nobel Peace Winner Returns to Egypt to Lead Anti-Government Protest Movement. [online]
Available at: http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/01/27/egypts-protests-pose-threat-regime/ (accessed: 26 October
2013)
213
CNN, 2011. Muslim Brotherhood’s Key Role in Egypt. [online] Available at:
http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/02/14/gerges.muslim.brotherhood/ (accessed: 26 October 2013)
214
Fox News, 2011 Nobel Peace Winner Returns to Egypt to Lead Anti-Government Protest Movement. [online]
Available at: http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/01/27/egypts-protests-pose-threat-regime/ (accessed: 26 October
2013)
215
Al Jazeera English. 2013. Timeline: Egypt's revolution. [online] Available at:
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216
Ibid.
217
Ibid.
218
Ibid.
219
The Huffington Post. 2013. Egyptian President Faces 'Day Of Rage' Protests. [online] Available at:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/25/mubarak-faces-egypt-prote_n_813572.html#s229529 [Accessed: 30 Oct
2013].
220
Wong, C. 2013. Egypt Protests: Anti-Mubarak Clashes Continue For Second Day (PHOTOS). [online] Available
at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/26/egypt-protests-antimubara_n_814514.html#230285 [Accessed: 30
Oct 2013].
221
Huffington Post, T. 2013. Egypt's Internet Shut Down. [online] Available at:
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Kanalley, C. 2013. New Egypt Government Coming, But Mubarak Won't Step Down. [online] Available at:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/28/new-egypt-government-to-b_1_n_815682.html [Accessed: 30 Oct
2013].
223
Ibid.
224
Al Jazeera English. 2013. Timeline: Egypt's revolution. [online] Available at:
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/01/201112515334871490.html [Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
225
Ibid.
226
Ibid.
227
Ibid.
228
Kanalley, C. 2013. Day Of Departure. [online] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/03/day-ofdeparture-feb-4_n_818398.html [Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
229
Huffington Post, A. 2013. Egypt Ruling Party Leadership Resigns; Obama Backs Gradual Transition. [online]
Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/05/egypt-ruling-party-leader_n_819084.html [Accessed: 30
Oct 2013].
230
Opt. Cite. Al Jazeera English. 2013. Timeline: Egypt's revolution. [online] Available at:
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/01/201112515334871490.html [Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
231
Ibid.
232
Huffington Post/AP, T. 2013. Mubarak Won't Step Down But Passes Powers To Vice President. [online]
Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/10/mubarak-speech-egypt-vice-president_n_821568.html
[Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
233
Huffington Post/AP, T. 2013. Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President; Armed Forces To Take Control. [online]
Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html [Accessed: 30 Oct
2013].
234
Opt. Cite. Al Jazeera English. 2013. Timeline: Egypt's revolution. [online] Available at:
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/01/201112515334871490.html [Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
235
The Huffington Post. 2013. Egypt: Post Revolution Timeline. [online] Available at:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/01/egypt-post-revolution-timeline_n_3528293.html [Accessed: 30 Oct
2013].
236
New York Post. 2013. From Mubarak to the ‘Day of Rage’ – timeline of Egypt’s transition, turmoil. [online]
Available at: http://nypost.com/2013/08/19/from-mubarak-to-the-day-of-rage-timeline-of-egypts-transition-turmoil/
[Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
237
Ibid.
238
Opt. Cite. The Huffington Post. 2013. Egypt: Post Revolution Timeline. [online] Available at:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/01/egypt-post-revolution-timeline_n_3528293.html [Accessed: 30 Oct
2013].
239
Ibid.
240
Ibid.
241
Opt. Cite. New York Post. 2013. From Mubarak to the ‘Day of Rage’ – timeline of Egypt’s transition, turmoil.
[online] Available at: http://nypost.com/2013/08/19/from-mubarak-to-the-day-of-rage-timeline-of-egypts-transitionturmoil/ [Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
242
Ibid.
243
Opt. Cite. New York Post. 2013. From Mubarak to the ‘Day of Rage’ – timeline of Egypt’s transition, turmoil.
[online] Available at: http://nypost.com/2013/08/19/from-mubarak-to-the-day-of-rage-timeline-of-egypts-transitionturmoil/ [Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
244
BBC News. 2013. Egypt profile. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13315719
[Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
245
Ibid.
246
Ibid.
247
BBC News. 2013. Q&A: Egypt in turmoil. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east23146910 [Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
248
Opt. Cite. The Huffington Post. 2013. Egypt: Post Revolution Timeline. [online] Available at:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/01/egypt-post-revolution-timeline_n_3528293.html [Accessed: 30 Oct
2013].
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Smith, M., Wedeman., B. and Sayah, R. 2013. Coup topples Egypt's Morsy; deposed president under 'house
arrest'. [online] Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/03/world/meast/egypt-protests/ [Accessed: 30 Oct
2013].
250
Opt. Cite. BBC News. 2013. Q&A: Egypt in turmoil. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddle-east-23146910 [Accessed: 30 Oct 2013].
251
Opt. Cite. Smith, M., Wedeman., B. and Sayah, R. 2013. Coup topples Egypt's Morsy; deposed president under
'house arrest'. [online] Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/03/world/meast/egypt-protests/ [Accessed: 30
Oct 2013].
252
Ibid.
253
Ibid.
254
Ibid.
255
Ibid.
256
Ibid.
257
Ibid.
258
Aşık, İ. and Koçak, K. 2011. Study Guide of NATO. [e-book] Ankara: Model United Nations Association
Turkey. http://muntr.org/v4/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/NATO.pdf [Accessed: 19 Oct 2013].
259
BBC News. 2013. Libya country profile. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa13754897 [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013].
260
BBC News. 2013. Libya profile. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13755445
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261
Ibid.
262
Ibid.
263
Nytimes.com. 2013. Timeline: Col. Muammar el-Qaddafi. [online] Available at:
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264
BBC News. 2013. Libya profile. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13755445
[Accessed: 20 Oct 2013
265
GWERTZMAN, B. 1981. U.S. REPORTS SHOOTING DOWN 2 LIBYA JETS THAT ATTACKED F-14'S
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266
BBC News. 2013. Libya profile. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13755445
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267
Ibid.
268
New York Times 1986. PRESIDENT'S NEWS CONFERENCE ON FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC ISSUES.
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269
Opt. Cite. Nytimes.com. 2013. Timeline: Col. Muammar el-Qaddafi. [online] Available at:
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270
Associated Press. 2011. Pan Am Flight 103. New York Times, [online] August 29. Available at:
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271
BBC News. 2013. Libya profile. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13755445
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272
Ibid.
273
Aşık, İ. and Koçak, K. 2011. Study Guide of NATO. [e-book] Ankara: Model United Nations Association
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274
Mcneil Jr., D. 2001. THE LOCKERBIE VERDICT: THE OVERVIEW; LIBYAN CONVICTED BY
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275
BARRINGER, F. 2003. Libya Admits Culpability In Crash of Pan Am Plane. New York Times, [online] 16
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Opt. Cite. BBC News. 2013. Libya profile. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa13755445 [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013]
277
Ibid.
278
Ibid.
279
Al Jazeera English. 2011. Gaddafi as orator: A life in quotes. [online] Available at:
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280
Opt. Cite. BBC News. 2013. Libya profile. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa13755445 [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013]
281
Ibid.
282
Opt. Cite. Aşık, İ. and Koçak, K. 2011. Study Guide of NATO. [e-book] Ankara: Model United Nations
Association Turkey. http://muntr.org/v4/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/NATO.pdf [Accessed: 19 Oct 2013].
283
BBC News. 2011. Gaddafi's quixotic and brutal rule. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica-12532929 [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013].
284
Ibid.
285
Reuters. 2011. Timeline: Libya's uprising against Muammar Gaddafi. [online] Available at:
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286
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287
Al Jazeera English. 2013. Battle for Libya: Key moments. [online] Available at:
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288
Al Jazeera English. 2011. Deadly 'day of rage' in Libya. [online] Available at:
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289
Opt. Cite. Al Jazeera English. 2013. Battle for Libya: Key moments. [online] Available at:
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290
Ibid.
291
Reuters. 2011. Timeline: Libya's uprising against Muammar Gaddafi. [online] Available at:
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292
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293
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294
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295
Ibid.
296
Opt. Cite. Reuters. 2011. Timeline: Libya's uprising against Muammar Gaddafi. [online] Available at:
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297
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298
Un.org. 2011. Security Council Approves No-Fly Zone over Libya, Authorizing All Necessary Measures to
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300
Al Jazeera English. 2011. French jets attack Gaddafi targets. [online] Available at:
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301
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303
Ibid.
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Opt. Cite. Al Jazeera English. 2013. Battle for Libya: Key moments. [online] Available at:
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305
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306
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307
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308
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309
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310
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311
Ibid.
312
BBC News. 2013. Guide to Libya's militias. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middleeast-19744533 [Accessed: 21 Oct 2013].
313
Ibid.
314
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315
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316
Ibid.
317
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318
Ibid.
319
Ibid.
320
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321
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322
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380
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381
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382
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MICHAEL R. GORDON and MARK LANDLER. 2012. U.S. Moves Toward Recognizing Syria’s Opposition.
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391
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395
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396
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397
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400
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401
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402
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403
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404
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405
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406
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407
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408
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409
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411
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413
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415
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416
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417
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418
John Kerry, 2013. Syria's chemical weapons destruction on track, US and Russia agree. Available at:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/07/syrias-chemical-weapons-destruction-on-track-us-and-russia-agree
[Accessed: 24 Oct 2013].
419
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420
Phillips, C. 2013. Chapter: Turkey and Syria. [e-book] London School of Economic's. p. p.34.
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421
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422
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423
Number of Syrian refugees in Turkey exceeds 600,000: Turkish official. 2013. Reuters, [online] 12 October.
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424
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425
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426
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427
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428
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429
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430
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431
Kirisci, K. 2013. Turkey's Syria Calculus Must Change Again. The National Interest, [online] September 23.
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432
BBC News. 2012. Syria says it downed Turkish jet. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddle-east-18561219 [Accessed: 24 Oct 2013].
433
Mawad, D. and Gladstone, R. 2012. Syria Shots Down Turkish Warplane, Fraying Ties Further. International
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434
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435
Ibid.
436
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437
Ibid.
Ibid.
439
BBC News. 2012. Turkey challenges Syria jet story. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddle-east-18568412 [Accessed: 24 Oct 2013].
440
Ibid.
441
Ibid.
442
Ibid.
443
BBC News. 2012. Turkey gives Syria border warning. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddle-east-18584872 [Accessed: 24 Oct 2013].
444
BBC News. 2012. Turkey calls Nato meeting on jet. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddle-east-18568207 [Accessed: 24 Oct 2013].
445
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446
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447
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448
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449
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450
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451
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452
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453
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454
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455
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456
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457
Ibid.
458
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459
ARSU, S. and ARANGO, T. 2012. Turks Grant Recognition to Coalition of Syrians. New York Times, [online]
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460
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461
Ibid.
462
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463
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438
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464
Shelton, T. and News Desk. 2013. Deadly explosions strike Turkish-Syrian border town of Reyhanli (PHOTOS).
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465
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470
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471
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472
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