Biological level of analysis
General learning outcomes
Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis (for
example, patterns of behaviour can be inherited; animal research may
inform our understanding of human behaviour; cognitions, emotions and
behaviours are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous
and endocrine system)
Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be
demonstrated with research
”Patterns of behaviour can be inherited”: Bouchard, a study on twins where a pair of
twins was separated at birth and reunited 39 years later. An interview on the twins
shows that during their life they did the same activities, had the same attitude, and
liked the same things. The case study proves that genes do affect behavior and
emotions. (Bouchard is not the best study to use when demonstrating inheritance, the
evidence it is bit too anecdotal. Caspi 2003 is a better study to use)
”Cognitions, emotions and behaviours are the products of the anatomy and
physiology of our nervous and endocrine system”: Emotions and behavior occur in
the nervous and endocrine system. A reaction that results in emotions and behavior.
Examples like Schachter and Singer where they tested out the theory that emotions
occur only through arousal and attribution. They tested on 184 students, each injected
with euraphine and some placebo. They are separated to two groups with 4 smaller
subgroups. At the end of the experiment they found that people who were informed
of the injection showed more emotions than the other groups.
Discuss how and why research methods are used at the biological level of
analysis (for example, experiments, observations, correlational studies)
Why are they used at the biological level of analysis?
Observing participants or animals in their natural environment
Usually high in ecological validity
However: Not so controlled (reliability problem)
Natural experiment
Observation of a naturally occuring independent variable (independent variable is not
manipulated by the experimenter)
Often used in brain research in conjunction with neuroimaging techniques
Not so controlled as a laboratory experiment
-Small & Vorgan (2008)
Correlational/concordance studies
Look for relationships between two variables
Often used in genetic research (twin studies)
Positive correlation: Both variables increase at the same time
Negative correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases
No correlation: No relationship between the variables
Can only infer a relationship, not establish cause and effect
Concordance studies (e.g. twin studies): Measure the degree of similarity in
characteristics, such as intelligence, between genetically related and unrelated
individuals
-Thomas Bouchard’s concordance study of identical twins (1979)
Molecular genetics: Compare genetic material from individuals with a certain
characteristic with individuals without the certain characteristic
-Caspi et al
Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies of the biological
level of analysis.
Human research:
Informed consent:
-The participants of an experiment are asked for their agreement to participate;
the decision to participate should be based on informed knowledge of the
experiment along with their rights
Deception:
-The costs of something should be compared to the benefits
To deceive participants, strong, justifiable scientific or medical information
should exist
The right to withdraw:
-Participants have the capability to stop their participation anytime during the
experiment
Protection from harm:
-Any situation that might harm the participants in a physical or psychological
way should be avoided at all costs
Confidentiality:
-The real names of any participants should not be revealed; researchers should
use pseudonyms
Privacy:
-Observations made on anyone without their consent is improper without their
informed consent unless observations are made in open, public places
-Observations in public spaces are not always allowed; observations targeting
people such as lovers or people at urinals is intolerable
Debriefing:
-At the end of the experiment, the participants should be given a debriefing and
should be returned to their normal mental states that they entered the experiment
with
-Participants are informed about the true purpose of the study after the
experiment is done
This is not necessary to remember, but it is useful information:
Nuremburg Code of 1948· The first principle states that participation must be voluntary;
· The researchers must ensure that the participant has acquired adequate
information to make the decision, and his consent is voluntary;
· The subject may stop participation at any time;
· Research is based on good science (it must be conducted by qualified
scientists, and they must have knowledge of the problem)
Declaration of Helsinki· Regardless of the importance of the research, the health of a doctor’s
patient will be his first consideration;
· Research that is not conducted according to these ethical regulations
should not be published, regardless of scientific merit;
The Belmont ReportWhen conducting human research, it outlined 3 ethics principles that must be
followed
o
Respect for persons: All human beings have a value and can
make independent decisions
Beneficence: All participants are treated in an ethical manner;
their decisions are respected and are protected from harm;
-Two rules have been concocted expressions of beneficent actions
in this sense:
(1) Do not harm
(2) Maximize possible benefits and minimize possible
harms.
o
o
Justice: “fairness in distribution” + “what is deserved.”
-Valid informed consent: relevant information is given by the investigator to the
participant; they are made sure of to understand this information; there participation is
fully voluntary; there is competence on the participant’s behalf to make the decision
-it requires telling subjects:
- the activity is part of research
- the purpose of the research
-the main procedures involved
- risks
-possible benefits
-voluntary participation
-confidentiality
Relevant Websites:
http://www.princeton.edu/~hts/PDFs/Considerations.pdf
http://74.125.153.132/search?q=cache:p7_mYoz2LAUJ:www.opsoms.org/English/ad/dpc/cd/respahoerc.doc+ethical+considerations+in+research+on+human+subjects&cd=5&hl=en
&ct=clnk&gl=th
Animal Research:
The three R’s:
·
Replacement: animals should be replaced with invertebrates or less
responsive alternatives whenever possible
Refinement: regulations should be followed to minimize the harm
inflicted on the animals; appropriate anesthesia should be used; animals
should be protected from pathogens
·
Reduction: the number of animals should be minimized; alternative
methods to using animals should be used whenever possible
·
1. Justification of the Research
a. There should be a clear scientific purpose of the research
b. The purpose of the research should be
c. The research done on animals cannot proceed until the protocol has been
reviewed by an appropriate animal care committee.
d. The researcher should monitor the welfare of the animal throughout the
course of the experiment
2. Personnel
a. Personnel who work with the animals involved should know these
guidelines
b. All animal use procedures should conform to federal protocol
3. Acquisition of Animals
a. Animals that are not bred in the research facility should be obtained
lawfully
b. Any wild animal should be trapped in a humane way
4. Experimental Procedures
a. Experiments that use restraints of any kind must follow the federal
protocol
b. Any surgical procedure and anesthesia should be conducted under the
management of a person with acute knowledge of the procedure
Relevant websites:
http://www.nlac.mahidol.ac.th/nlacmuEN/RD/Ethics/Ethics%20for%20the%20use%2
0of%20Animals.pdf
http://www.medfak.ni.ac.rs/ASN/Ethical%20Principles-S.pdf
http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/ethical_prin
ciples_exp_animals.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-137181-0
Genetic Research:
-When a person is identified of being at risk for inheriting a condition because
they have provided family history, a genetic test might be able to help clarify their
chances of contracting this disease
1. Autonomy
-all decisions have to be voluntary and nobody can force participants into
making a decision
-the decision to have a genetic test is a choice each person makes of their
own accord based on his values and preferences
-a discussion of the purposes, benefits, dangers, and limitations of a
genetic test should take place
-an informed decision about a genetic test is through discussion with
adequate prior knowledge
2. Privacy
-the responsibility to prevent the misuse of genetic information obtained
through research
3. Beneficence and Nonmalificence
-providing sufficient benefits to communities that are contributing
genetic information for research
4. Justice
-everyone is treated equally and that all people receive fair and equal
treatment.
Physiology and behaviour
Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain (For
example, Wernicke, Broca, Gazzaniga and Sperry)
o Localization of function in the brain: This is the idea that different parts of the
brain can carry out different functions
o This is seen in the HM case study
o HM Case Study:
o Aim: To see the effect of the absence of the hippocampus (is
found in the limbic system of the brain. Is important for long term
memory, short term memory and orientation) on memory
o Procedure:
§ Brain Scans
·
Show the area of damage which would be the
hippocampus, amygdale, the intorhinal, and perihinal
cortexes
§ Interviews
·
Asked him to repeat numbers and recall very
recent (a minute ago) events, then repeated the same
task after a distraction
§ Naturalistic observation
·
Observed his behavior throughout the day and
his reactions to trivial activities in daily life
o Findings:
§ HM could recall very recent things but would forget after
few second or a distraction
§ He could not recall any past events past a certain year
§ Throughout the day he repeated his behavior believing to
never have done it (e.g. eating lunch again)
§ HM did learn some very procedural behaviors but could
never recall any events
o Localization of function in the brain and HM
o The case study of HM shows how different parts of the brain can
have specific functions
§ Since certain parts of his brain were removed, he is unable to
perform certain skills and/or functions
We can infer from this case study that the
hippocampus is in charge of the short term memory as
the removal of the hippocampus resulted in the
absence of his short-term memory therefore a certain
part of his brain is "localized" to carry out the function
of short term memory
Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on
human behaviour (For example, the effect of Noradrenaline on
depression)
Neurotransmission is the process when signals are transmitted in the neurons through
the synapse with the help of neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitter is a chemical in the synapse that transmits signals between neurons.
What happens in neurotransmission?
O Action potentials (a negative electric charge) in the neuron releases
neurotransmitters from the terminal buttons
O Neurotransmitters in the terminal buttons diffuses over the synaptic
cleft
o Neurotransmitters fit into receptor cells in the dendrites (lock-andkey model)
o This changes the charge of the neuron to be more positive
o When the neuron reaches a certain threshold (+15mv of the resting
potential) all ion channels in the neuron open, creating the action
potential (-40mv)
Serotonin – A neurotransmitter involved in aggression, depression, love, etc.
o It inhibits behavior and is involved in sleep, mood, aggression,
love
o Studies: Caspi 2003, Marazitti
o Studies in neuroscience has shown that people in love tend to
release more serotonin which leads to an increased heart rate, loss of
sleep, feelings of excitement, etc.
Dopamine – A neurotransmitter involved in eating behavior, love, etc.
O Dopamine is related with the pleasurable feelings we have,
motivating us to perform activities; for example rewarding
experiences such as food, sex, and drugs.
O People with Parkinson’s disease have a lack of dopamine, and
people with schizophrenia have an excess of dopamine.
O Like serotonin, studies in neuroscience show that people in love
tend to release more dopamine which stimulates the brain’s pleasure
center, leading to increased heart rate, loss of appetite, etc.
Acetylcholine – A neurotransmitter involved with memory.
o In a particular study, damage to the cholinergic (acetylcholineproducing) system in the brain was shown to be somewhat
responsible with memory deficits in Alzheimer’s disease.
o It has also been shown to be involved with synaptic plasticity in
learning and long term memory
Noradrenalin – A stress hormone andtransmitter involved with depression.
o Noradrenalin affects parts of the brain that controls attention and
responses, and is in association with increasing heart rate, blood
pressure, release of glucose, and increasing blood flow to muscles.
A lack of noradrenalin could cause depression because the body is not
as responsive to stimulation, and lack arousal and alertness.
Effects of neurotransmission on human behavior
o Neurotransmission has a significant effect on human behavior.
o They send signals that control bodily functions which are present
when we are faced with certain situations and arousals.
o Lack of neurotransmitters can also cause effects on our behavior.
o These neurotransmitters control bodily functions and behaviors
such as sleep, eating, learning, arousal, and even mood.
Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in
human behaviour
-Hormone: A chemical secreted by an endocrine gland. Travels through the
bloodstream. Usually involved in longterm functioning of the body.
-oestrogen (also estrogen): female sex hormones
·
regulates the menstrual cycle and prepares the uterus for pregnancy
·
·
can lead to memory problems
evolution theory believes that female have more estrogen to reproduce
·
affect shape of women's body --> suitable for prenancy
-androgen: any of a group of hormones that primarily influence the growth and
development of the male reproductive system (source)
·
controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics
evolution theory explains that men need to protect woman, so this hormone
activate their aggression
-adrenaline: hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, it is also called Epinephrine.
(source)
·
helps the body to adjust to sudden stress
when faced with sudden situation, adrenaline rush into veins -->
bodily function stops --> determine how we feel --> ready for
escape/adjust
o
when angry or frightened --> the adrenal gland release adrenaline
into the blood --> hormone causes changes in the body to make it
more efficient for "fight or flight"
o
·
increases the strength and rate of the heartbeat
·
raises the blood pressure
Speeds up the conversion of glycogen into glucose --> provide energy to the muscles
(stress)
·
can be used to treat some sickness
Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes (for
example, jet lag on bodily rhythms, effects of deprivation of
neuroplasticity, effects of environmental stressors on reproductive
mechanisms)
1. The effect of light on melatonin and vitamin D levels
Melatonin: A hormone secreted by the pineal gland. Regulates sleep and the circadian
rhytm. The production of melatonin by the pineal gland is stimulated by darkness and
inhibited by light. (the reverse is true for serotonin)
Circadian rhytm: Our biological clock that is based on a 24-hour day/night cycle. The
circadian rhytm is regulated by melatonin.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD): A type of depression in which the patient
experiences depressive symptoms in the autumn and winter. Is believed to depend on
reduced levels of sunlight in autumn and winter. (Other animals hibernate in the
winter, e.g. bears. It is suggested that pets also can suffer from SAD)
Vitamin D: The “sunshine vitamine”, is synthesized in our skin when we are exposed
to direct sunlight. Vitamin D is thought to activate and deactivate enzymes in the
brain and cerebrospinal fluid that are involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and nerve
growth. Studies suggest that Vitamin D protects neurons and reduces inflammations.
Supporting studies
Kent (2009): A correlational study on 14,474 American participants. The findings
showed that participants with low exposure to sunlight was associated with a
significantly higher cognitive impairment.
Llewellyn (2009): A correlational study on 1,700 British participants. The findings
showed that the lower the participants vitamin D levels, the lower their performance
on mental tests.
University of Manchester (2009): A correlational study on vitamin D levels and
cognitive performance 3,100 men aged 40 to 79 in eight European countries. The
findings showed that people with lower vitamin D levels had slower informationprocessing speed.
Golden (2009): A meta-analysis on eight studies on 228 patients who had been treated
for SAD with light therapy. The findings showed very weak evidence that light
therapy is effective for SAD. There was a large acute effect of light therapy on
symptoms of SAD the first week of treatment, but this effect disappeared quickly
thereafter.
2.
The effect of deprivation and stimulation on neuroplasticity
NEUROPLASTICITY - The changing of neurons, the
organization of their networks, and their function via new
experiences.
-
-
-
Rosenzweig & Bennett (1972)
o Aim: To investigate the effect of enrichment or deprivation on
the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex in rats
o Research method: Experiment
o Procedure: Rats were placed in either a stimulating
environment (toys) or a deprived environment (no toys). The rats
spent 30 or 60 days in their environment and then they were
dissected
o Findings: Post modern studies of the rats´ brains showed that
those that had been in a stimulating environment had an increased
thickness in the cortex
Kolb (1999)
o Aim: To investigate if stimulating environments affects the
growth of neurons in rats
o Research method: Experiment
o Procedure: Rats were placed in enriched environments
beginning at weaning or as young adults. Control group were
placed in standard cages
o Findings: Both age groups raised in enriched environments
showed a large increase of the length of dendrites in cortical
neurons.
Kolb et. al. (2004):
o Pregnant rat mothers were housed in enriched environments.
Their babies had increases in synaptic space on cortical neurons
as adults.
-
Pascal-Leone (2002):
o Participants were instructed to learn to practice a five-finger
piano exercise for five days, two hours every day. During the
session, the participants’ motor cortex was investigated by the use
of a transcranial-magnetic-stimulation test (TMS). The findings
showed that practice altered the structure of the area devoted for
the finger movements. For a group of participants who also had
been instructed to imagine they were playing five-finger piano
tone outside of practice, the area for finger movements in the
motor cortex expanded even more. The results suggest that
training and imagination can alter brain physiology.
Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of
behaviour (for example agnosia, anosognosia, prosapagnosia, amnesia)
SOME USEFUL INFORMATION:
THREE PROPOSITIONS UNDER TWO FACTOR THEORY:
1. When an individual has no explanation for an arousal state, he or she will label it
with
existing cognitions.
2. When an individual has an appropriate explanation for the arousal he or she
experiences, it is unlikely that he or she will use alternative explanations to
describe the arousal
3. When an individual experiences an arousal which has made them feel an
emotion before, the degree of the emotion felt will be proportional to the degree of
the physiological arousal.
Emotion: Schachter and Singer
- The experiment conducted involves 184 male college students who were a part
of the introductory psychology course in Minnesota University.
- At the start of the experiment, the subjects were split into two groups.
- One group was injected with epinephrine, while being told by the experimenters that
the injection was part of an investigation for the side effects of “Superoxin”(a pretend
vitamin used by the experimenters). This group was further divided into 3 different
categories, each being given different amounts of information regarding the effects of
the epinephrine. The first category (informed) was given the correct effects of
epinephrine, the second category (ignorant) was given no information regarding the
epinephrine and the third category (misinformed) was given the incorrect effects of
epinephrine.
- The other group was injected with a harmless placebo in the form a saline solution
and were told nothing about the effects of the injection.
- After the injections were performed, participants were put in one of two
conditions. The first condition was Euphoric, where a stooge was sitting with the
participant and performing various silly tasks with the purpose of entertaining and
amusing the participant. The other condition was Anger, where a stooge was in a
room with the participant and tried to irritate the participant by constantly making
snide remarks towards the participant.
- The experiment was now done and the participants were asked to take self report
measures in order to determine how happy or angry they were.
- It was observed that in the euphoric condition, those who were in the misinformed
and ignorant category were the happiest. In the angry condition however, the
informed group was the happiest. The results clearly prove and support the theory,
specifically the three propositions. The misinformed and ignorant category were the
happiest group in the euphoric condition as these participants were more influenced
by the stooge simply because they had no appropriate explanation as to why they were
feeling the way they were(falling under proposition 1). The ignorant group in the
angry condition were angriest because they also had no appropriate explanation for
their behavior and thus were more influenced by the angry stooge.
Aron and Dutton Study : The two bridges Study
- The subjects of this experiment consisted of random males, at the age of 18-35, who
were crossing either the scary Capilano Canyon Bridge which was structured a scary
430 feet above the ground and used as the “experimental” bridge or the regular 10 feet
Capilano River Bridge which was used as the “control” bridge.
- As they were crossing either of these bridges, the participants met either an
attractive female or average looking male interviewer(control). When approaching
the subjects, both the interviewers had to explain that they were conducting a project
for their psychology class on the topic of “effects of the exposure to scenic attractions
on creative expression”.
- The interviewer asked the subject whether they would fill a short questionnaire for
the project. The first page of the questionnaire consisted of common items such as the
name, age and education. However, in the second page, participants were asked to
write a brief story upon a picture of a young woman covering her face with one hand
and reaching out with another. The picture and the instructions in this experiment
were adopted from the Thematic Apperception Test which was originally introduced
by Murray (1943). This test was used to basically measure the amount of sexual
content or relativity within the participant’s story.
- After filling in the questionnaire, the interviewer gave the male participant her phone
number in case the participants wanted to have a further talk.
- At the end of the experiment, the results that were gathered were in direct alignment
with the Two Factor Theory. The men who crossed the extremely high Capilano
Canyon Bridge revealed more sexual content within their questionnaire and also an
astonishing 60% percentage of these men called the interviewer.
- However, on the control bridge, hardly any participants revealed sexual content in
their questionnaire and only 30% called the interviewer. These results support the
idea that the physiological arousal has to be present for us to cognitively interpret a
situation, and then feeling the emotion. As seen in this experiment, the participants
who walked the experimental bridge were more aroused than participants in the
control bridge and thus called the interviewer and revealed an essential amount of
sexual content in the questionnaire.
- Apart from proving that aspect of the theory, this experiment also supports the first
proposition of the Two Factor Theory of Emotion. Because the participants did not
have an explanation for the fear they felt as they walked the experimental bridge, they
adopted the available explanation and interpreted it as the love they had for the female
interviewer who was practically right in front of them, and that is the reason they
actually called her back.
Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies (for example, CAT, PET,
fMRI) in investigating the relationship between biological factors and
behavior
- The technologies that are used to investigate the brain structures such as:
- MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) which takes a three dimensional still
picture of the brain which the use of radio waves.
- There are other technologies like fMRI (functional magnetic resonance
imaging) which measures the action of blood and oxygen in your brain which
creates a moving coloured image of metabolism in the brain.
- There is another method called PET (positron emission tomography) which
detects the metabolism level of injected substances like glucose which is
made mildly radioactive with the help of X-ray scan, it shows the part of the
brain that is most active at a certain time period.
- These technologies can be used to monitor the brain action when related to emotion
and behavior when being scanned.
- Psychologists try to investigate the relationship between biological factors and
behavior.
- One method to monitor behavior was to ask some people to come in and volunteer
to have a scan of their brain and to understand the biological factors that affect
behavior they would use pictures to arouse the emotions in the volunteers.
- As an example the psychologists would ask for a person who had a love life and
when getting the fMRI to show them a picture of the person they love and when
recording they would see that there is a an flow of blood into her/his brain which
showed an emotion running through their mind.
- Biological factors of this experiment are that the feeling arousal in people from the
picture of someone or something they care about is what makes people happy and/or
sad and that is what rationalizes our behaviors.
- The relationship between biological factors and behavior is that behavior follows our
biological factors, which consist of arousal and that our behaviors are how we
interpret what we are seeing.
- Studies that have used these technologies are:
Banu Ahtam
Eleanor Maguire and Demis
Carnegie Mellon
Paul Elias
- There are a few advantages and disadvantages of using scans:
Advantages
Disadvantages
Scans can gain information
about the brain structure and
function of conscious patients,
some while they are performing
psychological tasks that would not
be possible with other methods
Some scans are non-invasive
Expensive
Difficult to interpret
(possible researcher bias)
Sensitivity to disruption, e.g.
small movements
Unnatural and uncomfortable
environment for cognition
(ecological validity problem)
Genetics and behaviour
With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic
inheritance influence behaviour?
Overview
-Genes (genetic information in DNA passed on from parents to offspring) influence
behavior indirectly: influence the production of proteins that affect anatomy and
physiology of body.
-Some behaviors are more genetically influenced than others.
-There is an interaction between environmental, biological, cognitive and genetic
factors in the development of behavior.
Correlation Studies (show relationship between two variables)
Thomas Bouchard’s concordance study of identical twins (1979)
Aim: to show how some behaviors run in families, regardless of environmental
factors
Participants: two identical twins separated at birth and reunited at age of 39
Experiment: ask both twins questions based on actions/behavior in daily life
Results: many behaviors matched (ex. drove Chevrolets, police work, build furniture,
same name for son & dog)
Conclusion: Certain components of basic personality/behaviors are inherited.
Caspi et. al. (2003)
Aim: To investigate relationship between 5-HTT gene and depression
Participants: 847 Caucasian New Zealanders
Experiment: Had participants give self-reports on depression (cross-check with their
friends)
Results: People with short allele for this gene correlated with more vulnerability to
depression Conclusion: Certain diseases based on behavior are caused by genes.
Lykken & Tellegen (1996)
Aim: To investigate how closely twins’ moods correlate
Participants: 3,000 identical & fraternal twins
Experiment: Collect information based on moods from both kinds of twins
Results: Identical twins, unlike fraternal twins, have similar moods regardless of
whether they have been raised together or separated at birth.
Conclusion: Happiness, which plays a role in behavior, is affected by genes.
Bouchard et. al. (1990)
Aim: To investigate relationship between heredity and weight gain
Participants: 12 pairs of male identical twins
Experiment: Participants stayed in a dormitory for 100 days to gain weight (ate 4
large meals per day)
Results: Twins gained the same amount of weight in same places in the body.
Conclusion: Gaining weight, a factor which is related to behavior, can be related to
genetics.
Evaluation of Studies based on Genetic Influence on Behavior
Strengths:
-Useful for understanding psychological phenomena (ex. Personality, help battle
hereditary diseases, etc.)
-Based on empirical support
Limitations:
-Correlation studies show relationship but cannot infer whether it is a cause-effect
behavior.
-Underestimate cognitive and socio cultural influences on behavior
-Problems with research: Problems of self report, researcher expectancies,
generalisability problems, validity problems etc.
Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour
Evolutionary psychology states that human behavior is generated by psychological
adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral
environments. Darwin's theory of evolution is used to explain our behaviour. All
individuals, and therefore species, inherit characteristics from both biological parents.
This is done by the passing on of DNA when genetic material in the alleles and
chromosomes (24 pairs in the majority of cases for humans) from father and mother
are combined, carried by the sperm and egg cells during reproduction (we inherit
slightly different genetic material from all other individuals).
The environment of a species is very important for the survival of the species.
Mutations and variance (and genetic drift) allow for physical chances in individuals .
The characteristics of a species are therefore passed on over time in this way. The
characteristics which are more useful for survival in any given environment are
passed on because, as Freud says, the sex drive is the most important one of all
species, and the individual with the most advantageous traits in terms of the potential
success of survival. This process is called natural selection. The most "fit" will be
most likely to produce healthy offspring because of their advantageous genes; and as
these traits are passed on, traits which are harmful to the survival of the species will
eventually become more rare.
EMOTION: A mental state that arises spontaneously rather than through conscious
effort and is often accompanied by physiological changes; a feeling.
Emotions that may be innate:
Fear
Love
Jealousy
Happiness
Disgust
Anger
Categories
·
'Cognitive' versus 'non-cognitive' emotions
·
Instinctual emotions (from the amygdala), versus cognitive emotions
(from the prefrontal cortex).
·
Basic versus complex: where base emotions lead to more complex
ones.
·
Categorization based on duration: Some emotions occur over a period
of seconds (e.g. surprise) where others can last years (e.g. love).
ADAPTIVE VALUE OF EMOTION?
·
Aids our decision making. Without emotion you cannot make
reasonable decisions (E.g. Damasio explains this in "Descartes' Error". One
of Damasio's key points is that rationality does not function without
emotional input. Damasio explores in depth the famous case of Phineas
Gage. While Gage's intelligence remained intact after his brain was damaged
in an 1848 accident, Damasio believes that Gage's ability to reason and make
rational decisions became severely handicapped because his emotions could
no longer be engaged in the process. Damasio uses this and other braindamage cases to develop his thesis on emotion and its relationship to human
activity. He argues that rationality stems from our emotions, and that our
emotions stem from our bodily senses. According to Simon we make a
decision when we get the nearest to a satisfactory solution and "emotiondriven intuition" results in "irrational decisions".)
·
Motivates behaviour
·
Aids communication within a group
Supporting studies
1) Observational learning of fear of snakes in primates (Mineka 1987)
Laboratory-bred infant rhesus monkeys viewed a video of an experienced
demonstrator monkey behaving fearfully in the presence of a variety of fearrelevant (e.g. a toy snake) and fear-irrelevant stimuli (e.g. a flower).
The observer monkey was subsequently exposed to these stimuli and his
reaction to them was analyzed for evidence of acquired fear.
The study indicated that monkeys who are not initially afraid of snakes will
rapidly acquire an intense fear when they have watched a wild-reared
monkey behaving fearfully in response to a toy snake.
Evaluation:
Weaknesses: Generalization problem
controlled study (e.g. cause and effect is clear)
Ethical considerations (captivity,
stress)
Replicable
Strengths: Well-
2) Lorenz imprinting on newly-hatched geese
The sensory object (Lorenz) met by the newborn bird is stamped
immediately and irreversibly into the nervous system (process called
"imprinting", innate disposition to form attachments to with first moving
thing they see)
Lorentz reared greylag geese from hatching,
The geese would treat him like a parental bird. The followed him about and
when they were adults they courted him in preference to other greylag geese.
The study points to the fact that goose offspring (and other species, by
extension) follow their parents and copy behaviour automatically- innate
impulse to imitate and become attached to mother for protection, survival
techniques.
Evaluation:
Weaknesses: Generalization
Strengths: Provided insight into the
combination of biological factors + experience for learning attachment
Ethics
3) Bright and noisy water experiment (Garcia & Kolling 1966)
Condition 1: Two groups of rats were given sweetened water (saccharine
flavoured) followed by nausea (either by an emetic drug or radiation) or an
electric shock
Condition 2: Two groups of rats were exposed to an audiovisual cue (a light
and a clicking sound followed by either nausea or an electric shock
The results showed that the rats were more biologically prepared to form an
association between sweetened water and nausea than an association
between pain and sweetened water. The results also demonstrated that the
rats were more biologically prepared to form an association between pain
and an audiovisual cue than between nausea and an audiovisual cue.
Evaluation:
Weaknesses: Generalization problem, Ethics of exposing rats to radiation
Strengths: well controlled, cause-effect could be established
Other studies
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Fessler (2006): Women in the first trimester of their pregnancy are more
sensitive to disgusting scenarios involving food
Curtis (2004): Disgust reactions are most strongly elicited for those which
threaten one’s immune system and decreases with age
Ekman (1973): Interviewed and tested participants from 22 countries,
including the South Fore people in Papua Guinea, who have had no prior
contact to western culture. People with different cultural background chose the
same facial expression for their emotions. The conclusion was that our basic
emotional life may be innate and has been formed by natural selection
Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on
behaviour
There are certain ethical considerations that are common to all methods of research.
To begin with, ethical considerations concern with what is acceptable and
unacceptable to perform in a study. Researchers, regardless of social or racial
background, will have to balance between the knowledge gained and the rights of the
participants. To prevent such matters from occurring, different professional
organizations of psychologists have established different sets of guidelines and
principles. Examples of organizations include American Psychological Association
(APA) and British Psychological Society (BPS). Some common ethical considerations
include informed consent, use of deception, protection from harm, the right to
withdraw, confidentiality, privacy and debriefing. The following is a general
overview of what the following are:
Informed Consent
Participants are formally asked to indicate their agreement to participate
Participants should be informed about the purpose of the experiment and their rights
Presumptive consent can be given
Deception
When the participants are deceived of the true aims of the study
Sometimes necessary because participants might alter behavior
Deception prevents informed consent
Participants may feel embarrassed and have a lower self esteem
The Right to Withdraw
Participants should have the right to withdraw at any time during the study
Protection from Harm
Experimenters should avoid any situation that may cause the participant to experience
psychological or physical harm at all costs
Confidentiality
Anonymity should be kept and real names should not be used/False names and
numbers should be used instead
Privacy
Researchers should not observe anyone without their informed consent even in public
places
Debriefing
Participants are informed of the true nature of the study after the research has taken
place
The aim of debriefing is to restore the participants to the state he/she was in at the
start of the experiment
Genetic Research- In terms of genetic research, there are also several ethical
considerations to make. Firstly, the information obtained during genetic research
should be kept confidential and the participant should be kept anonymous. This is
because if this information are leaked, it could be stigmatizing to the participant as the
participant may have difficulties securing jobs and insurance. The results can also
potentially deteriorate one’s self-esteem. Secondly, an informed consent should also
be given, which means that the participants should know that their privacy and
confidentiality will be preserved. Thirdly and more seriously, the results should not be
interpreted wrongly as to justify discrimination against a certain group of people.
Fourthly, genetic researches also bring up an important question; is our behaviour
partly influenced by our genes? Do we really have free will? Can we really be held
responsible for our actions? Lastly, if parents obtained certain information about the
genes of their unborn child, should there be limits to parental decisions based on the
information learnt about the genetic mapping of their child? In addition, do they have
the right to abort the child if unwanted genes show up in their unborn child? These are
all very interesting ethical questions.
Confidentiality issue: If misused, genetic information may be stigmatizing, may affect
people’s ability to get jobs or insurance
Consent: Participants should know their privacy and confidentiality will be protected,
they must agree to participate (example: The 1967 Money twin study where the twin
boys did not agree to participate)
Problems of abortion: Should parents have the right to do abortion because of genetic
knowledge of their unborn child?
Racism/discrimination: Genetic information may be misused to justify discrimination
and racism (e.g. the Eugenics movement, Jensen’s research on intelligence between
races, the prevalence of certain genes in different ethnic groups)
Ethical considerations of findings in genetic research: Given the methodological
problems involved in genetic research, particular care needs to be taken into the use
and interpretation of the findings.
Genetic determinism: If our behavior is partly influenced by our genes, to what extent
do we have free will, i.e. can be held responsible?