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What is a Debate?
A debate, of course, is a structured argument between two teams of debaters. The materials that
follow are designed to help you organize educational debates - designed to teach principles of
argument (research, speaking and refutation) in an atmosphere of good sportsmanship.
Let me sketch some basic rules of debate:
Topic: Anything goes, but it should be controversial and worded as an affirmative statement (of
fact, value or policy). Usually referred to as the resolution, proposition, or Bill.
Teams: Two temporary coalitions (usually of two or three debaters a side) called the Affirmative
(Pro, Government or Proposers) and the Negative (Con, Opposition, or Opposers), among other
things ...
Dress: Definitely.
Tools: Facts, charts, pictures, logic, humour, homilies, emotional appeals, dramatic delivery.
Words, words, words.
Objective: Affirmative must prove the resolution, Negative rebut it. These roles are reversed if
the Negative introduces a Counterplan (in which case, the Negative assumes the burden of
proof).
Officials: The Moderator (ÒSpeakerÓ in Parliamentary style) calls the debate to order,
announces the topic, introduces the debaters and officials, outlines the rules, maintains order,
asks the judges to consider (and when desired, announce) their decision, congratulates the
debaters, thanks the judges and adjourns the debate.
The Timekeeper (ÒClerkÓ in Parliamentary style) carefully keeps track of speaking times,
advises debaters (with cards or hand signals) how much speaking time remains, and signals
(usually by standing up) when the speaking time and any period of grace have expired.
Allowances should be made for interruptions.
The Judges are usually adults who are expected to be non-partisan and to decide which team won
the contest on the basis of what the debaters said, disregarding their own beliefs, prejudices, or
special knowledge of the topic. Judges should sit apart from and not confer with other judges
before completing their Score Sheets.
Order of Speeches: The Affirmative team enjoys the first speech and the last word. The
constructive speeches alternate between the teams ÒAffirmative, Negative, Affirmative ...Ó
while rebuttals alternate between the teams ÒNegative, Affirmative, Negative ...Ó (In
Parliamentary style, only the Prime Minister has a separate rebuttal speech: all other debaters
must include any rebuttal in their constructive speeches.) Intermissions between speeches are
generally not encouraged as they can interfere with the spontaneity of the debate.
Rebuttal: Attacking the other team's arguments and evidence and defending your own
(sometimes called refutation). This is the clash that characterizes good debating and is
encouraged throughout the debate (except during Cross-Examinations). In the Cambridge format
of rebuttal, each debater has a separate rebuttal speech; in Oxford format, only one debater for
each team has such a speech.
Speaking Times: Vary, depending on the experience of the participants. It is highly desirable
that all debaters have equal speaking time in tournaments. In most championship debates, the
maximum speaking time is eight minutes per debater at the senior high school level.
Styles of Debate: Three of the most popular styles of debate throughout Canada are Academic,
Cross-Examination and Parliamentary.
In Academic style, each team member gives a constructive speech. Depending on the rebuttal
format, one or all members of each team give a rebuttal-defence-summary speech. There is then
an opportunity for debaters to complain about rule violations and having been misquoted or
misrepresented by their opponents. Heckling may be allowed, though it is probably wise not to
introduce this feature until after novice debaters acquire some experience.
In Cross-Examination style, the procedures are the same as those in Academic style, though no
heckling or points of order or privilege are allowed. After each constructive speech, the debater
who delivered it is questioned (cross-examined) by an opponent. Strict rules govern the witness
(debater being questioned) and the examiner (questioner). After all speeches and crossexaminations, there is an opportunity for debaters to complain about rule violations and having
been misquoted or misrepresented by their opponents.
In Parliamentary style, debaters assume Parliamentary roles (such as Prime Minister, Leader of
the Opposition) as they debate the Bill. Except for the Prime Minister, each debater delivers a
speech which is expected to include rebuttal; the Prime Minister has a (shorter) opening speech
and an Official Rebuttal. Debaters may heckle and raise Points of Order and Points of Privilege.
They may also raise Points of Information if the member with the floor consents.
Smith’s Rules for Debates
For Proponents
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Choose a definitive formulation of the thesis you are proposing, and communicate this
formulation to your opponents at least several days beforehand. (Proponents and
opponents should be clear about the thesis that is being debated.)
State this formulation of the thesis at the beginning and end of your presentation, and
several times in the middle. (The audience should be clear about the thesis that is being
defended or attacked.)
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Make it clear what the theoretical background of your argument is. (E.g., in ethics:
utilitarianism, Kantian ethics, etc.)
Attempt to trap your opponent, by anticipating his arguments beforehand and showing
what is wrong with them.
Do not be afraid to use visual aids (blackboard, handouts, overhead projector) to make
your point.
For Proponents and Opponents
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Include a conclusion in which you demonstrate how you have established or refuted the
thesis.
Avoid lengthy and repetitive presentations of facts or stories. Avoid mouthing a familiar
party-line. Concentrate on arguments and on thinking through to basic presuppositions.
Use notes. If you attempt to write out every word of your presentation beforehand it will
sound wooden.
Speak loudly and clearly, and address your remarks to the audience.
Speak confidently; always sound as if you believe absolutely in what you are saying,
always maintain a consistent front.
Always prepare more notes than you think you will need. If you think you have said
enough, move directly to your conclusion. Do not leave the audience with the impression
that you have not said enough.
Leave your personal views and your personal experiences out of account; what is
important is exclusively the quality of your arguments.
Never concede that you agree with the other side or suggest compromise positions.
Preserve a clear opposition between the views of proponents and opponents throughout.
Use radical and imaginative gambits to keep the attention and sympathy of your
audience. For example: pretend to agree with almost everything the opposing side says,
but then reveal how what your opponents say implies that they are in fact quite wrong. Or
use the method of reductio ad absurdum (i.e. show that, if the opposing side were correct,
then this would have absurd consequences)
Do not use ad hominem arguments. Even perverts and criminals, even deconstructionists,
can have good arguments. The qualities of the person presenting an argument are
irrelevant to the quality of the argument he presents.
Students must be courteous throughout the debate. Debaters must address the judge, the
opponents and the class or audience. They may not interrupt a speaker at any time.
Debate Advice and Suggestions
Advice on Debating with Others
1. Avoid the use of Never.
2. Avoid the use of Always.
3. Refrain from saying you are
12. Quote sources and numbers.
13. If it is just an opinion, admit it.
14. Do not present opinion as facts.
wrong.
4. You can say your idea is
mistaken.
5. Don't disagree with obvious
truths.
6. Attack the idea not the
person.
7. Use many rather than most.
8. Avoid exaggeration.
9. Use some rather than many.
10. The use of often allows for
exceptions.
11. The use of generally allows
for exceptions.
15. Smile when disagreeing.
16. Stress the positive.
17. You do not need to win every battle
to win the war.
18. Concede minor or trivial points.
19. Avoid bickering, quarreling, and
wrangling.
20. Watch your tone of voice.
21. Don't win a debate and lose a friend.
22. Keep your perspective - You're just
debating.