Topic

Motivation
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
Describe the basic process of motivation;
2.
Explain the needs and processes approach to motivation;
3.
Discuss the contribution of the different models of motivation; and
4.
Describe how behaviour modification can be used for increasing
or reducing behaviour in organisations.
 INTRODUCTION
According to Williams (2000), motivation consists of powers that are able to
move, direct and enable a person to be diligent in their effort to achieve goals.
For example, an employee might be motivated to work hard in order to produce
as many outputs as possible while other employees are only motivated to
perform just enough of the work required. Managers must understand the factors
that form these differences. Managers are usually confused in differentiating
between motivation and performance. In industrial psychology, normal work
performance is represented by the following equation:
Work performance = Motivation x Ability x Situational constraints.
Since work performance is a function of motivation, ability and situational
constraints, work performance will decline if any one of the components is weak.
Needs are physical and psychological requirements that have to be fulfilled in
order to ensure existence and well-being. When needs are not fulfilled, a person
will experience internal tension but as soon as a need is fulfilled, a person will
gain satisfaction and feel motivated. Soon, the need fulfilled can no longer
motivate the individual and when this condition occurs, the individual will shift
to other needs that have not yet been fulfilled.
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CLASSICAL MODEL AND SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT
7.1
SELF-CHECK 7.1
After reading the segment above, do you still remember reading on the
contribution by Frederick Taylor in the previous lesson? What were his
contributions towards management?
According to Rue et. al. (2000), in his classical motivation model, employees can
be motivated by money. Frederick Taylor in his book, „The Principle of Scientific
Management (1911),‰ suggested an approach for companies and employees in
obtaining benefits based on his views on the workplace. He proposed that
employees be paid a higher salary to encourage them to produce more outputs,
which suits the opinion that employees can be motivated by money. Meanwhile
for companies, they need to analyse the job and find the best ways to produce
goods at lower costs, achieving a high level of profit and paying employees
promptly in order to motivate them.
The approach by Frederick Taylor is known as scientific management. His ideas
spread widely among managers in the early twentieth century. For example,
many factories in the United States of America hired experts to conduct studies
on time and movement. The techniques of industrial engineering are used in
every work section in determining how it can be performed effectively.
7.1.1
Approaches to Motivation
According to Lewis et. al. (2001), motivation can be studied using several
approaches. Models of motivation can be categorised into two types of models:
need-based models and process-based models. Need-based models are
motivation models that emphasise the specific needs of humans or internal
factors that give power to direct or stop action. Need-based approaches explain
motivation as a phenomenon that takes place internally. There are three
important models in this approach: hierarchy of needs model, two-factor model
and achievement of needs model. Process-based models are motivation models
that focus on the understanding of thinking or the cognitive process that exist in
the mind of an individual and actions that affect the behaviour of an individual.
Douglas McGregor (1906 – 1964) introduced Theory X and Y about employees.
Theory X comprised of negative attitudes, while Theory Y comprised of positive
attitudes.
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Theory X states that people:
(a)
Dislike working and prefer to receive directives;
(b)
Must be forced to work; and
(c)
Prefer to avoid responsibilities and have low ambitions.
Prioritise requirements for security rather than other requirements, that is Theory
X is of the opinion that people define work only as a necessity to live and will
avoid work whenever possible.
Theory Y states that people:
(a)
Prefer to work;
(b)
Will achieve the objectives that are assigned/entrusted;
(c)
Will accept and seek responsibilities; and
(d)
Have the intellectual ability that can be used to achieve organisational
objectives.
According to Theory Y, people will be satisfied with their jobs if the working
environment is suitable and they could implement their responsibilities well.
Although most companies use/apply Theory Y in their management, Theory X is
still being used in the management of some companies.
EXERCISE 7.1
How do need-based models differ from process-based models?
7.2
NEED-BASED APPROACH
7.2.1
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Have you heard about MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs model? What do you
know about this model of needs?
According to Lewis et. al. (2001), MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs model is the most
famous model for motivation. According to the hierarchy of needs, an individual
has five basic needs – physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualisation.
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Figure 7.1 shows the five needs according to hierarchy and divided into upper
level and lower level. Physiological and safety needs are lower-level needs that
can be fulfilled externally while social needs, esteem needs and self-actualisation
needs are upper-level needs that can be fulfilled internally. Refer to Table 7.1 for
a description of each of these needs.
Figure 7.1: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs
Source: Certo, S. C. (2000). Modern management (8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Table 7.1: Description on MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs
Needs
Hierarchy
Physiological
Needs
This need exists at the lowest level of the hierarchy. Examples of
this need are the need for food, water, air and sleep.
Organisations can help individuals to fulfil this need by preparing
sufficient income to obtain food, shelter and a comfortable
working environment. People will focus on fulfilling these needs
before fulfilling the needs in the following level.
Safety Needs
This need is related closely to acquiring a safe physical and
emotional environment. Examples of this need are employment
network, health insurance and retirement plans used to fulfil the
safety needs of employees.
Social Needs
After physiological and safety needs been fulfilled, social needs
will become the main source of motivation to people. This need
includes desire towards friendship, love and the feeling of
belonging. An example of social need is when an employee
establishes friendship in the workplace and feels a part of the
organisation.
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Esteem Needs
The needs at this level include the needs for status and
recognition. This need can be fulfilled through success. Esteem
needs are fulfilled when one is given recognition and respect by
other people. For example, organisations can help in fulfilling this
need through promotion or providing a spacious work station to
the employee. People in need of recognition want themselves to
be accepted based on their abilities and want to be known as
being capable and efficient.
Self-actualisation
Needs
This need is at the highest level of the hierarchy. This need means
that people value high achievement based on their self-potential
by using capability and interest to the maximum level in order to
perform work in the environment. As an example, a challenging
task can assist in satisfying a person towards the achievement of
self-actualisation needs.
According to Maslow, when a particular need has been fulfilled it will no longer
motivate the behaviour of employees. For example, when an employee has
gained confirmation in his work place, then a new retirement plan may become
less important to him compared to the opportunity of having new friends and
joining the informal group in the organisation. It is the same when the lowerlevel needs are not fulfilled, most people will pay attention to those particular
needs. For example, an employee who is trying to fulfil the need for selfrecognition by holding an important position in a particular department
suddenly finds out that the department and position he is going to hold may be
eliminated, hence the employee may find that the chances of not being
terminated in other organisations give more motivation to him compared to the
offer of promotion in the previous organisation.
MaslowÊs model identified that individuals have different needs which can be
motivated by different matters or activities. Unfortunately, this model can only
provide basic guidelines to managers. Many following studies conducted found
that hierarchy level differs between individuals in different cultural
environments.
7.2.2
Two-factor Model
According to Rue et. al. (2000), the study done by Frederick Herzberg, Bernard
Mausner and Barbara Snyderman produced an approach towards motivation
that is accepted widely in the area of management. This approach is known by
several names such as motivation and care approach, two-factor or motivation
and hygiene approach. This model relates job satisfaction with productivity for a
group of accountants and engineers. This study found that factors toward job
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satisfaction are separated from the factors that incline towards dissatisfaction of
jobs. Figure 7.2 shows the two-factor model.
Figure 7.2: Two-factor model
Source: Lewis et. al. (2001). Management
(a)
Motivation Factors
Motivation factors are factors related to the work performed. These factors
are related to positive feelings and attitude towards the particular work.
Motivation factors include the work itself, achievements, inner growth and
responsibility.
(b)
Hygiene Factors
These factors refer to the context of work or the environment where the
work is being carried out. The factors include supervision, workplace
conditions, individual relationship, salary, safety, and the companyÊs
administration and policies. These factors are closely related to the negative
feelings towards a particular job but nevertheless they do not contribute
towards motivation. According to the researchers, these factors do not
generate motivation but instead prevent motivation from occurring.
For example, employees will feel dissatisfied if they believe that their work
place is not safe; but if the condition of the workplace is improved,
employees may not necessarily become satisfied. If employees are not given
any recognition, feelings of dissatisfaction may not exist. At the same time
although they may not feel satisfied but when recognition is given,
employees will feel more satisfied.
This theory suggests that managers should use two approaches in order to
increase motivation. Firstly, they must ensure hygiene factors such as work
environment are policies that are clearly stated and can be accepted by the
employees. This practice will reduce dissatisfaction of employees. For
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second step, managers must use motivational factors such as recognition
and additional responsibilities as tools to increase satisfaction and
motivation.
In conclusion, this approach shows that motivation comes from the
individual himself. Attention towards hygiene factors will help individuals
to reduce excessive dissatisfaction. Both factors of motivation and hygiene
need to exist together to promote motivation. The result of this study found
that this two-factor model is effective in a professional workplace
environment but is less effective in a clerical or manufacturing environment.
EXERCISE 7.2
Describe the hygiene factors and motivational factors in the two-factor
model.
7.2.3
Acquired Needs Theory
According to Rue et. al. (2000), this motivation model focuses on the three needs
that are important or related to the working environment, namely, achievement,
affiliation and power. This model was developed by David Mc Clelland. The use
of the word „needs‰ in this model differs from the hierarchy of needs approach.
In this model, needs are assumed as something that can be learnt while Maslow
viewed needs as inherited.
Need for achievement is the desire to perform much better and more efficiently
than before. The level of achievement motivation in a person depends on factors
such as childhood, personal experiences and education and the type of
organisation joined.
Need for power refers to the desire to control, influence or be responsible over
other people.
Need for affiliation relates to the desire to maintain close and personal
relationships. This need can involve personal authority or institutional authority.
Meanwhile, the need for social acceptance is the desire for creating relationships
with other people.
According to McClelland, most people have already achieved certain levels of
these needs and that they vary from one individual to another. In this model,
when the strength towards these needs has been developed, it will be able to
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motivate the behaviour of individual in situations that will allow them to fulfil
highly demanding needs.
7.3
PROCESS-BASED APPROACHES
Employee motivation is a complex matter. Managers need to have a complete
perspective regarding methods that can be implemented to face the particular
situation. They need to understand the reasons why people have different needs
and goals, why individuals need change and how employees change in order to
satisfy their needs through various methods. The need for understanding these
aspects of motivation is crucial since organisations face various management
issues that are caused by changes in the global environment. Several models that
can be used to understand the complex motivation process are expectancy
model, equity model, goal-setting model and behaviour reinforcement model.
7.3.1
Expectancy Theory
According to Rue et. al. (2000), this model was developed by Victor H. Vroom.
The expectancy theory was based on the idea that employee believes in the
association between effort, performance and result are the consequence of the
value and performance that they have fixed on the result. Expectancy plays the
role of determining their level of motivation. This theory assumed that the
motivation level of employees depends on three basic beliefs which are
expectancy, valence and instrumentality. Figure 7.3 shows the association
between expectancy, instrumentality and valence.
Figure 7.3 Association between expectancy, instrumentality and valence
Source: Jones, G. R., George, J. M., & Hill, C. W. L. (2000).
Contemporary management (2nd ed.). Boston: Irwin-McGraw Hill
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(a)
Valence – EmployeesÊ belief regarding the value of outcome or simply how
far the particular reward or outcome is attractive or desired.
(b)
Expectancy – EmployeesÊ belief that their effort will incline towards the
level of performance desired or the assumption of the association between
effort and performance.
(c)
Instrumentality – EmployeesÊ belief that the achievement of the
performance level desired will lead to the outcome desired or the
assumption of the association between performance and rewards.
This model suggests that in order to become a highly motivated person, the three
factors or beliefs must also be high. If any one of the factors declines, the overall
motivation will also decline. Managers are able to use this model to motivate
employees through systematic gathering of information regarding what
employees want out of their job by creating a clear and simple association
between rewards and individual performance, and also granting power or
authority for the employee to make decisions. The measures mentioned will
increase the expectancy of employees that hard work and effort will bring about
excellent performance.
7.3.2
Equity Theory
According to Rue et. al. (2000), this theory was proposed by J. Stacey Adams.
This motivation model was based on the idea that people want to be treated
equally in their relationship with other people. Inequality exists when an
employee regards that his inputs or contributions in the form of time, effort,
education, experience, skill, knowledge and all the efforts given to the work
together with the outcome or rewards given by the organisation in the form of
salary, benefits, recognitions and others are less compared to the contribution
towards work and rewards received by other people. Figure 7.4 illustrates the
situation of comparison and its association with perception.
EmployeeÊs Self
Comparison to Other People
Perception
Reward
Input
=
Reward
Input
Equality
Reward
Input
<
Reward
Input
Inequality
Reward
Input
>
Reward
Input
Inequality
Figure 7.4: Comparative situations and its association with perception
Source: Bateman, T. S., & Snell, S. A. (1999). Management: Building competitive
advantage (4th ed.). Boston: Irwin-Mc-Graw Hill
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For example, a graduate who has just completed his studies received a job offer
to work with a company with a starting salary of RM24,000 per annum, having
the facility of a company car, and sharing an office room with another employee.
If he finds out that there is a new employee reporting for duty given the same
salary and remuneration he received, he will feel that the treatment given is
equal. But if the opposite happens, that is, if the new employee reporting for duty
is given a salary of RM30,000 per annum, a bigger company car and a specific
office room for himself, the particular employee will feel that inequality has
taken place. For an individual who experiences equal treatment, the ratio of
comparison may not necessarily be the same relatively. Based on the previous
example, the employee who initially feels that there is inequality when the new
employee receives a better remuneration will be able to alter that feeling when he
finds out that the new employee has higher work experience and qualifications
than himself hence he deserves the bigger remuneration based on his
contributions towards the company.
This theory also states that the existence of inequality can result in pressure
equivalent to the level of inequality felt by the employee. This pressure will
motivate a person to achieve equality or reduce inequality. There are several
actions that can be taken to reduce inequality such as reducing inputs or
contribution if it is much higher compared to the input and outcome received by
other people, increasing input if input is much lower compared to others,
demanding compensation such as a pay rise or deciding to resign from the job.
EXERCISE 7.3
Explain the main differences between the expectancy theory and the
equity theory.
7.3.3
Goal-setting Model
According to Williams (2000), the goal-setting model is a motivation model that
acts by increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of individuals, groups,
departments or organisation by emphasising specifically on the outcomes
expected. Goal is the target, objective or decision that a person tries to achieve.
This model states that people will be motivated up to a certain level when they
are given a specific goal, which is challenging and obtain feedback regarding
their development towards achieving the particular goal.
The basic components for a goal-setting model are that goals must be specific,
challenging and acceptable; have performance feedback; and gives at the correct
time. As a motivation tool, goal-setting can help employees in three ways: as a
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guideline and propeller of behaviour to support the goals of the organisation;
provide challenges and standards that can be used to make evaluations; and for
stating something important and preparing the framework for planning.
An important aspect of this model is the involvement of employees in goalsetting. When the employees themselves determine the goals they want to
achieve, it will be easier for them to accept the goal and become more committed.
If employees are not involved or participation is only minimal in setting the
goals, they normally will not be that interested in achieving the goals.
7.3.4
Reinforcement Model
According to Rue et. al. (2000), the growth of the motivation reinforcement model
was pioneered by B. F. Skinner. There are two assumptions for this theory which are
that the behaviour of humans is determined by the environment and is associated
with related laws that can be expected and altered. The basic idea that forms the core
of this theory is the assumption that the outcomes or consequences of a personÊs
behaviour at present will affect his behaviour in the future. The behaviour that
results in positive outcomes will be repeated while the behaviour that results in
negative outcomes normally will not be repeated. The outcomes or consequences of
the behaviour of an individual are referred to as reinforcements. Basically, there are
four types of reinforcements – positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or
avoidance, punishment and elimination. Figure 7.5 illustrates how behaviour can
affect outcomes.
Figure 7.5: Consequences due to behavioural actions
Source: Bateman, T. S., & Snell, S. A. (1999). Management: Building competitive
advantage (4th ed.). Boston: Irwin-Mc-Graw Hill
(a)
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is the contribution of positive outcome or
consequence based on the desired behaviour. For example, organisations
that pay cash bonus to salespeople who exceed the sales quota will
encourage them to work more diligently in the future.
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(b)
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement means giving an opportunity to a person in order
to avoid negative outcome or consequence through the desired behaviour.
Negative and positive reinforcements can both be used to increase the
frequency of desired behaviour. For example, making tax payment before
the month of May will prevent a person from being fined.
(c)
Elimination
Elimination involves the absence of positive outcome or effect, or drawing
back the positive outcome that used to give effect from the desired
behaviour.
(d)
Punishment
Punishment is the negative effect that is a result from the occurrence of
undesired matters. As an example, an employee who is always late for
work can be suspended or have his pay detained. Both forms of elimination
reinforcement and punishment can be used to reduce the frequency of
undesired behaviour. There are many studies conducted that show that
rewards can increase the level of satisfaction and motivation compared to
punishment.
Figure 7.6 below illustrates a summary of the reinforcement theory that was
discussed above.
Figure 7.6: The summary of reinforcement theory
Source: Rue, L. W., & Byars, L. L. (2000). Management: Skills and application
(9th ed.). Boston: Irwin-McGraw-Hill
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EXERCISE 7.4
Essay Question
As a manager, you have decided to reduce the behaviour of a
particular employee. What are the types of reinforcements that are
suitable to be used and why?
TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements
1.
The scientific management approach assumes that money is the
main inducer to motivation.
2.
The experience of an employee is an example of outcome or
result in the equity model.
3.
In the two-factor model, hygiene factors need to exist for true
motivation to take place but motivation factors do not need to
exist for true motivation to happen.
4.
Valence in expectancy model refers to employeesÊ belief
regarding the value of outcomes or consequences.
5.
The key to a successful positive reinforcement is that rewards
must be the result of performance.
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
„This model assumes that people are motivated towards lower
level needs that has not yet been fulfilled.‰
What model of motivation is referred to above?
A. goals
reinforcement
B.
C. hierarchy of needs
D. two-factor
2.
Which motivation model states that needs are assumed as being
learnt rather than being inherited?
A. Two factor theory
B.
Maslow hierarchy
C. Achievement of needs model
D. Expectancy model
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3.
Which is not a component of the expectancy model?
A. Valence
Instrumentality
B.
C. Forecasting
D. Expectancy
4.
What is the negative effect that is a result of undesired behaviour under
the behaviour reinforcement model?
A. Elimination
Positive reinforcement
B.
C. Negative reinforcement
D. Punishment
5.
According to the view of the two-factor model researcher, what factor
can prevent motivation from occurring but does not actually produce
motivation?
A. Hygiene factors
Motivation factors
B.
C. Equity factors
D. Expectancy factors
Motivation Caselet
1.
What do you understand by the term motivation?
2.
Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
3.
Which do you think is more important?
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
There are two main approaches for explaining the aspects of motivation.

Need-based approaches explain about motivation that exists and takes place
internally or explains about what truly motivates people.

Meanwhile, process-based approaches explain the cognitive process that
affects human behaviour.

The three needs-based models discussed were the hierarchy of needs model,
two-factor model and achievement of needs model.

In the process-based approach, there are four main models discussed namely
the expectancy model, equity model, goal-setting model and behaviour
reinforcement model.
Equity model
MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs
Expectancy
Reinforcement model
Goal-setting model
Valence
Instrumentality