Module 3 – Contemporary theories of Motivation
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
3.1.1 What stimulates human behaviour? ................................................................ 1
3.1.2 Is their a distinction between motivation and performance? .......................... 1
3.1.3 Are there different types of motivation theory? .............................................. 2
3.2 Content Theories of motivation .................................................................................... 2
3.2.1
A question of needs: Maslow’s Hierarchy ...................................................... 2
3.2.2 Applying the need hierarchy ........................................................................... 2
3.2.3 Herzbergs Two Factor Theory ........................................................................ 3
3.2.4 Comparing Maslows and Herzbergs models .................................................. 3
3.3 Process Theories of Motivation .................................................................................... 3
3.3.1 Equity Theory: Social comparison in the work setting ................................... 3
3.3.2 New Research light on equity theory applications ......................................... 4
3.3.3 Understand the basics of expectancy theory ................................................... 4
3.3.5 Extending Expectancy theory to the Individual and the Organisation ........... 5
3.4 Cultural Differences in motivation ......................................................................... 6
3.4.1 Principles of Behaviour Modification ............................................................. 6
3.4.2 Making sense of schedules of reinforcement ................................................. 7
3.4.3 Behaviour modification in perspective ........................................................... 8
3.4.4 Understanding the role of Punishment in Management practices .................. 8
3.4.5 Setting up a behaviour modification program ................................................ 9

Study of motivation is complex

Motivation stimulates employee behaviour to achieve org goals

Human behaviour rests on the concepts of needs and motives
 A motive pulls one’s behaviour in a predictable direction

E.g. need: pay rise. Behaviour = work harder. Motive = high performance will merit pay rise

Work motivation is referred to as direction, level of effort and extent of persistence

Performance always involves the evaluation of a persons behaviour on the job


Motivation is only one of several factors that influence performance. Other factors include: o Ability o Personality o Difficulty of job o Extent of resources available o Work attitudes such as org commitment and job involvement

Low motivation does not necessarily mean low performance

Two types of motivation theory – content theory and process theory

Content theory – specifies those factors in individuals which stimulate, direct, sustain and stop behaviour

Content theory answers the question: What specific needs cause motivation

Process theory : how behaviour is stimulated, directed, sustained or stopped
 Process answers the question about how motivation occurs, what process can bring it about

Maslow believed that motivation could be explained by organising human needs into five levels: o Physiological o Safety o Belongingness o Esteem o Self Actualisation

A satisfied need ceases to motivate behaviour at that need level

Unsatisfied employees needs led to undesirable outcomes at work – inc. perceived inequalities

People have a need to grow and develop their full potential and consequently strive to move up the hierarchy

Needs are not usually satisfied completely
o Tends to parallel career development – e.g. early in your career = security issues o Becoming an entrepreneur = self actualisastion o Unmet needs are more motivating than needs which have been satisfied


Closely related to Maslows theory

Herzberg did a study to investigate the reasons workers gave for positive or negative job satisfaction and motivation

Hygienes are components of job context: the elements surrounding the job, examples are: o Pay, supervision, work environment, job security

Improvement of job hygienes does not lead to sustained long term job satisfaction and performance

Reductions in hygienes must be fully explained to employees

Factors that raise job satisfaction and motivation in the long run are called motivators

Motivators are related to the employee-job interaction and job centred satisfaction e.g. autonomy, recognition

When motivators are present and hygienes are acceptable , employees are more likely to achieve satisfaction

Absence of motivators can lead to apathy and alienation

Motivators are examples of intrinsic motivations whereas hygienes are extrinsic motivations

All of this focuses on job design rather things like pay

Herzberg is concerned with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Maslow is concerned with human needs which encompasses more than just HR issues

Maslows lower order needs resemble hygiene factors – they trigger the search for personal growth

Maslows higher order are equivalent to motivators
 Herzberg is a subset of Maslows

Herzberg is criticised for requiring workers to look retrospectively at what was the source of satisfaction

Others feel that it is too simple

Equity theory shows how employees react to the available rewards from work in terms of their experienced levels of job satisfaction
 It is a prominent process theory of motivation


It states that if employees feel their rewards are inadequate when compared to what others get, they will fell inequity which may motivate employee to do something about it
 Employee’s rewards vs. their efforts is compared to others rewards vs. their efforts
 To restore equity the employee may o Change work inputs and reduce performance efforts o Change the outcomes received (ask for more responsibility to reduce positive equity imbalance) o Leave the job o Change the people used for comparison o Mentally alter the comparison – rationalise that the inequity is temporary o Take a decision to alter the inputs or outputs of the comparison employee
– ask them to work harder or less

Negative inequity (underpaid) may reduce output or quality
 Positive inequity (overpaid) may increase output or quality

Negative inequity (underpaid) is a stronger motivator than positive inequity
(overpaid)

An important revision of equity theory is that there are 3 types of individuals with different preferences for equity: o Benevolents are employees that are comfortable with an equity ratio which is less than that of their peers o Equity sensitive’s follow the traditional view of equity theory o Entitles (or slackers) are comfortable with a positive equity imbalance

Managers must look at individuals and what type they are
 Its not what a manager feels that’s important, its what the employee feels

Managers must ensure that inequities are recognised and addressed quickly

A manager must keep the following principles in mind: o When allocating rewards, equity sensitives are going to make the comparison most closely o Anticipate which employees will feel positive and negative equity imbalances o Tell employees in advance about salary ranges, pay increases and promotion opportunities o Avoid secrecy about pay policies and procedures

Expectancy theory is a process theory of motivation

It helps us understand why motivated behaviour occurs at work and how the behaviour can be channelled


Expectancy theory is a leading explanation for things such as turnover, absenteeism etc.

Expectancy theory states that a behaviour that is likely to lead to an outcome valued by a person is probably the one a person will pursue

Valence is the personal attractiveness of different outcomes: if promotion has positive valence then individual is strongly pulled to those behaviours that make this outcome more likely

Two classes of outcome in expectancy theory: o First level outcomes are the result of expending effort in some directed way e.g. leaving a job, increasing number of hours worked o Second level occur as a result of the first : getting a promotion, attending a

Instrumentality is the personal belief that first level outcomes lead to second level outcomes: positive => 2 nd level will occur, negative = it wont

Positive instrumentality is what you want in an organisation

Expectancy is the subjective belief that a given level of effort will lead to first level outcome in a job
WORK
ENVIRONMENT
EFFORT
EXPECTANCY
FIRST-LEVEL
OUTCOME
Excellent report delivered on-time and saves co. $50000
ABILITY INSTRUMENTALITY
SECOND-LEVEL OUTCOMES

Promotion

Pay Raise

New high-status title

Purchase a new home
 Become member of prestigious club
VALENCES

Prompt feedback about second level outcomes is necessary to sustain high level efforts

Ability is important to achieve first level outcomes

Work Environment above include both hygienes (components of job context ) and motivators (related to the employee-job interaction and job centred satisfaction )

There are several factors that have to be understood to manage effectively the motivational process described by expectancy theory

Individual factors: o Self Efficacy e.g. time management

o Need for achievement => level of effort, instrumentality and expectancy o Locus of control e.g. external => low instrumentality o Self Esteem

Organisational factors: o Role ambiguity: confusion about work duties o Role conflict: two sets of work expectations which are in disagreement o Performance appraisal, they have the goals:

Informing employees about where they stand
 Developing information to make personnel decisions e.g. pay rise

Identifying employees with training and development needs o Reward system o Job design : autonomy, acquiring skills

Differences include Americans wanting self actualisation versus Japanese wanting job security

In places where co-operation and collaboration are prized, expectancy theory breaks down because it is individual rather than team focused

Behaviour modification (B Mod) is an environmental theory – it de-emphasises the role of the individual

Behaviour modification emphasises the relationship between behaviour and its consequences rather than on ego needs of an individual
What can managers do practically, according to expectancy theory?

Carefully define the meaning of good performance

Determine the rewards which employees value

Set attainable goals

Provide good feedback

Administer rewards

Make sure no negative second level outcomes are associated with high performance

Make sure its equitable: excellent performance means more rewards than average performance

Prof Skinner came up with B Mod

It says that behaviour is a function of its consequences rather than a function of internal needs and motives

B Mod states that external or environmental consequences determine behaviour

Definitions:

o Operant Conditioning: reinforcement which modifies behaviour through consequences o Law of effect: tendency to repeat behaviours which cause favourable consequences o Positive reinforcers: favourable consequences o Negative reinforcers: unfavourable consequences o Positive reinforcement: strengthening a behaviour by occurrence of a pleasant consequence e.g. bonus

Negative reinforcement: weakening a behaviour by occurrence of an unpleasant consequence e.g. reprimand for being late

Punishment: weakening behaviour with occurrence of an unpleaseant consequence e.g. public humiliation by your boss

Extinction: weakening behaviour with occurrence of a neutral consequence or removal of a positive one e.g. ignoring someone who is talking crap

Behavioural Shaping: successively closer approximations to desired behaviour

Schedule of reinforcement: frequency with which reinforcement accompanies behaviour

Stretching the ratio: altering the rate of reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement is when consequences occur predictably after each relevant behaviour e.g. worker dobs on another each time they are late

A Partial reinforcement schedule refers to the number of behaviours occurring before the reinforcement or the amount of elapsed time between reinforcers
How partial reinforcement schedules influence employee behaviour

Behaviour learned under partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to change or extinction

Interval schedule (fixed or variable) is when reinforcement occurs after a certain amount of time

Ratio schedule (fixed or variable) is when reinforcement occurs after a certain number of behaviours
Characteristics of partial reinforcement schedules

The fixed ratio schedule links consequences to a given number of behaviours
(sales bonuses) – this produces a very high behavioural response rate

The variable ratio schedule presents consequences based on an average number of responses - e.g. one customer service rep gets rewarded for helping 8 customers, another 10, the average is 9 - response rate with variable is constant and high

Fixed interval schedules – e.g. sales activities ramps up at end of quarter

Variable interval schedules – e,g. Average customer wait time in a queue
Stretching the Ratio and Interval of reinforcement


This is shifting a reinforcement from one rate to another e.g. praising an employee every other week rather than every day

This stops employees taking rewards for granted, generally not to be used with financial rewards like sales commissions

Supporters of B Mod say o it is more objective than other approaches to motivation o no manipulation when employees help design and participate in B Mod o improves instrumentalities o employees receive higher quality feedback about their performance

Critics say B Mod o Undermines employee respect and dignity o is manipulative o oversimplifies and dehumanises employees o Erodes creativity
 Managers don’t like to talk about punishment because it implies: o They hired the wrong person o Work environment they have created is not ideal o They and their org treat their employees badly

Predicting the effects of punishment is much more difficult than doing it with positive reinforcement

Punishment always weakens behaviour

Reasons why some people think punishment is not useful: o For it to be effective, managers must closely monitor employee behaviour o Punishment never eliminates undesirable behaviour, it only suppresses it temporarily o Employees become more stressed and less creative

Alternatives to punishment: o Extinction – ignore the behaviour e.g. someone talking crap at you o Re-engineer the work environment so undesirable behaviour cannot occur e.g. remove canteen o Reward behaviour which is physically incompatible with undesirable behaviour e.g. reward people for cleaning up o Be patient and allow time for undesirable behaviour to disappear

Positive side of punishment: o Much of our behaviour is learned from naturally occurring punishers e.g. getting sun burnt o Often there is no alternative e.g. when an employee is taking drugs you have to punish him


How can punishment be used effectively? o Undesirable behaviours must be prevented from becoming bad employee habits – before they become ingrained o Punishment must be intense and immediate – short sharp shock o Punishment must be equitable across people and infractions o Punishment must have informative value: receive explanation, told how to correct and be told consequence of further infractions o After corrective action, employees value to the org should be reaffirmed o Punishment should not be followed by non-contigent reward: e.g. don’t take a person out to lunch because you gave out to them
1.
Conduct a job analysis to ensure understanding of job responsibilities – everyone knows their responsibilities
2.
Define performance behaviours and set performance goals – SMART goals
3.
Conduct a baseline audit to identify the rate of correct performance behaviours i.e. what is the situation now versus where we want to be
4.
Select powerful and abundant reinforcers to reward excellent performance – as well as what punishments will be used and when
5.
Use continuous reinforcement to encourage new performance behaviours
6.
Practise behavioural shaping to obtain closer and closer approximations to the desired performance behaviours – use teamwork and coaching
7.
Establised desired behaviours by adding new positive reinforcers which employees value – e,g. Incentive scheme setup on variable ratio/interval schedule
8.
Strectch the ratio or interval to move employees to a sustained level of performance
9.
Review and evaluate the programme to identify and measure target goals – extend the program into areas like cost reduction, employee attendance or safety
Some reminders about initiating a behaviour modification program

Moderate to high trust must exist

Employees must believe good workplace hygiene exists – they must perceive o Adequate pay o Likable co-workers o Safe and comfortable working conditions o Good supervision o Fair company policies o Employees must have control over their pace of work o Employee ability cannot be a cuase of the problem o Goals must be SMART – specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time based o Regular feedback to employees o Supervisors trained and committed to B Mod program

Similarities between Expectant and BMod
1) Both are process theories a.
Expectancy emphasises inner physchology b.
BMod focuses on the environment
2) Both suggest the connection between behaviour and its consequences
3) Both emphasise rewards a.
Rewards = second level outcomes in expectancy b.
Rewards = positive reinforces in B Mod
4) Contingency of reinforcement (non-cognitive) is similar to instrumentality
(cognitive)
What stimulates Human behavior – needs (Pushes ones behavior) and motives (Pull one’s behavior in a predictable direction).
Work Motivation – direction, level of effort and extent of persistence in the behavior of an employee.
Difference between Motivation and Performance.
– tow distinct aspects of behavior.
Performance always involved evaluation of a person’s behavior at work. Motivation is one of several aspects of behavior that influence performance, Other factors that influence performance are – ability, personality, difficulty of task, extent of job resources available, working conditions, work attitudes (Org commitment and Job Involvement).
Low motivation does not necessarily cause low performance.
Motivation Theories – Content (what needs cause motivation – Maslow, Hertzberg) and
Process (how motivation occurs -)
Maslow
– Physiological needs are dominant over psychological needs and needs to be satisfied first. Safety needs are tied strongly to physiological needs. Higher order needs are learned – not born with these. Esteem has external (recognition, prestige) as well as

internal (challenge, autonomy, self reliance) component. Self – efficacy (can- do) is part of the esteem. A satisfied need ceases to motivate behavior at that level. All humans selfactualize but only some do at work. Unmet needs are more motivating than satisfied needs. Criticisms – lower order needs become less important as they are satisfied but no decline in the higher order needs as they are satisfied.
Hertzberg – Two factor theory or the motivator-hygiene theory. Hygiene (job context) is necessary but not sufficient for JS and motivation. Absence of Hygiene factors leads to job dissatisfaction but when present they do not necessarily provide job satisfaction.
Presence of motivators does lead to JS if hygiene is in place. Motivators are Job content
(intrinsic) and raise JS and performance in the long term. These are job centered.
Absence leads to apathy, alienation because the jobs are experienced as unchallenging and boring. Benefits – it focuses attention on the effects of company systems and job design on employee job satisfaction.
Comparison of Maslow and Hertzberg - Hertzberg is concerned with job and org. sources of JS and dissatisfaction. Maslow focused on human needs. Hygiene’s are necessary but not sufficient to ensure personal growth at work.
Process Theories: Equity, expecentacy, b-mod
Equity Theory – Social comparisons n work setting.
(Stacey Adams) How employees react to incentives and outcomes in work settings. Rewards in terms of their experience level. EE rewards/EE input (effort) compared to others rewards/others input (effort)
Felt negativity- employee believes he has received lower rewards than others in proportion to the level of effort. Felt positive – receives more reward than others for a measured level of effort. Benevolent – comfortable with an equity ratio less then comparison other. Equity sensitive – prefer equity based on original formulation. Entitled
– comfortable with equity more than comparable other.
Managers should avoid secrecy about pay policies and procedures, Tell employees pay ranges, promotions, pay increases in advance, anticipate that some will positive and some negative, equity sensitive employees are more likely to make equity comparisons.
Expectancy Theory: why motivated behavior occurs at work and hoe behavior can be channeled and directed.(E.C. Tolman) . He said that behavior is always purposeful and goal directed and must be understood in terms of probabilities that a certain behavior will lead to outcomes valued by the individual. Components – Valance (personal attractiveness of different outcomes + or -) Outcomes
– has 2 classes of outcomes – first level ( result of expending effort in some way e.g. job performance, working at home)

and second level (direct result of achieving or not achieving first level- e.g. promotion , pay raise). Probabilities – Instrumentality (personal belief that first level outcome will lead to second level outcome + or - )
Expectancy - subjective belief that a given level of effort will lead to a first level outcome. Ability is an important component and must be sufficient to attain a given level of performance.
Extending the expectancy theory to individuals and ORGs.
– Powerful analytical tool for managers.
Several ORG factors also influence employee motivation- Role Ambiguity ( lack of clarity), Role conflict ( 2 or more bosses), performance appraisal system (provides feedback – primary goals 1. informing employees where they stand, 2. developing information to make personnel decisions-pay, promotion, termination. 3. Identify employees with training needs. Reward system , Job Design ( employees prefer more control over their work).
B-Mod Theory – Describes the role of the environment in shaping the behavior of employees. It de-emphasizes the role of the individual in the motivation process.
Employee behavior occurs because of learned connection between behavior and rewards.- ego has to do little with motivation – emphasizes relationship between behavior and its consequences.

Partial Reinforcement – Rewards after a given time = schedule (fixed or variable. After # of occurrences = ratio. Stretching ratio – used to keep employee from taking reward for granted.
B-Mod Perspective – major benefit – focuses on observable behavior which can be measured and used to improve motivation and performance. Critics argue that b-mod methods are undemocratic and undermine the individual choice. Supporters argue that primary issue is if employees are active participants in the design and administration of the program. Employees are trusted to gather and generate the feedback- making it more meaningful. Criticism – can not be extended to humans. Works best when applied to highly routine tasks in a short period of time and as tasks become more complex and require more creativity – it has less application.
Punishment – never eliminates undesirable behavior – only suppresses it temporarily.
Alternatives to punishment – extinction, reengineer the work environment, reward behavior which is physically incompatible, be patient and allow the undesirable behavior to pass.
Can be an effective tool

Setting up a B- MOD program –1. conduct job analysis, 2. define behaviors/goals, 3. baseline audit, 4. reinforces and reward 5. continuous reinforcement, 6. behavior shaping,
7. add new positive rein forcers 8. Stretch ratio, 9. review and evaluate.
Conditions for B-Mod 1. High trust, employee must believe good workplace hygiene exists, EE must have control over own pace of work, EE ability can not be a cause of problem, EE must have complete understanding of behavior they van measure and control, must get regular feedback. Supervisors must be trained and committed to b-mod.

Motives initiate, sustain and channel behavior. Motivation progresses through a sequence of need, behavior and goal attainment.
 Maslow’s hierarchy consists of two general levels: physiological needs and psychological needs. These levels are also referred to as lower and higher order needs. Individuals can progress up the hierarchy as their careers advance or as they grow older or both. Ideally, employees become increasingly concerned with higher order needs as their careers lengthen.
 Herzberg’s two factor theory states that job satisfaction is the result of factors which are different from that causing job dissatisfaction. Motivation and job satisfaction are created by job content factors such as promotion, challenge and recognition. Lack of motivation and job dissatisfaction are avoided by providing hygiene’s such as adequate pay, good supervision, pleasant coworkers and decent working conditions.

Expectancy theory is a process theory of motivation which explains how motivation occurs and what behaviors it will activate. In contrast, content theories of motivation address the issue of which internal needs cause motivated behavior.

Expectancy theory is a useful managerial tool for understanding employee behavior. It specifies the relationships between effort, performance and rewards. The theory articulates the significance of expectancy, instrumentality and valence. These concepts can be applied to work to help employees understand the crucial relationship between performance and rewards. The components of expectancy theory are sensitive to individual differences and organizational factors.

Behavior modification (B Mod) is a process theory of motivation and learning which specifies the crucial role of the environment in shaping behavior. It states that behavior is a function of its consequences.

Positive and negative reinforcement increase the strength of a behavior. Punishment and extinction reduce behavior strength. These are called contingencies of reinforcement.

A contingency of reinforcement can be adapted to continuous or partial reinforcement schedules.
Partial reinforcement schedules have variable effects on behavior.


Behavioral shaping is a process which induces closer and closer approximations to a desired behavior.
Behaviors which deviate from the desired approximation are not reinforced.

Stretching the ratio or interval of reinforcement helps sustain the strength of a desirable behavior.

Critics of behavior modification suggest that the application of its principles to work dehumanizes employees. B Mod program which are designed on the basis of employee participation tend to have a positive effect on employee work attitudes and performance.

Punishment has unintended consequences in the work setting when it is used indiscriminately.
Punishment, as a contingency of reinforcement, should not be confused with negative reinforcement.
Punishment can be an effective behavioral change strategy when it is: quick, intense, fair, focused, private, informative and not followed by rewards.

Setting up a behavior modification program requires careful consideration of: 1) the level of employee management trust, 2) current levels of hygiene, 3) employee work which is not machine paced, 4) levels of employee ability, 5) how employees will receive performance feedback and 6) the level of supervisory commitment to the program.