Characteristics of all cells:
 Smallest living unit
 Most are microscopic
 A surrounding membrane
 Protoplasm/cytoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
 Organelles – structures for cell function
 Control center with DNA
Discovery of Cells:
Robert Hooke (mid-1600s) - Observed sliver of cork, saw “row of empty boxes”, and coined the term “cell”
Principles of Cell Theory:
All living things are made of cells
Smallest living unit of structure and function of all organisms is the cell
All cells arise from preexisting cells
Cell Types:
1. Prokaryotic Cells:
 First cell type on earth
 Examples: Bacteria and Archaea
 No membrane bound nucleus
 Nucleoid = region of DNA concentration
 Organelles NOT bound by membranes
2. Eukaryotic Cells:
 Nucleus bound by membrane
 Include fungi, protists, plant, and animal cells
 Possess many organelles
 Representative Animal Cell
 Representative Plant Cell
Organelles: (Cellular machinery. Similar to the “organs” that make our body work.)
1. Cell Membrane
 Outermost layer of animal cells
 Controls what enters/exits a cell
 Movement Across the Cell Membrane
 A few molecules move freely through: o Water, Carbon dioxide, Ammonia, Oxygen
2. Cell Wall
 Found only in plants, fungi, & many protists
 Surrounds cell membrane
 Protects cell
 Gives shape

3. Cytoplasm
 Viscous fluid around organelles that help stabilize all the cell parts
4. Cytoskeleton
 Filaments & fibers in the cell
Functions:
 mechanical support
 anchor organelles
 help move substances
Cilia & Flagella
Provide ability to move
Cilia
Short hairs
Used to move substances outside human cells
Flagella
Whip-like extensions
5. Nucleus
 Control center of cell
Contains
 Chromosomes (DNA)
 Nucleolus
6. Vacuoles
 Membrane bound storage sacs
 More common and larger in plants than animals
 Contents o Water o Food o wastes
7. Mitochondria
 Break down fuel molecules through “Cellular Respiration”
 Release Energy (ATP)
 Basically the power centers of the cell.
8. Chloroplasts
 Solar energy capturing organelle
 Where photosynthesis takes place to create food for the cell.
Cilia & Flagella
Provide ability to move
Cilia
Short hairs
Used to move substances outside human cells
Flagella
Whip-like extensions

Characteristics:
 Bacteria are small and unicellular
 They have no internal organelles
(no chloroplasts, nucleus,
ER, mitochondria)
Bacterial forms: (classified by shape):
 cocci(round)
 bacilli(rod shaped)
 spirilli(spiral)
Bacterial pathogens:
Animal pathogens:
 Typhoid, tuberculosis
 Bubonic plague or “Black Death”, transmitted by fleas (caused
25 million deaths in Medieval
Europe)
 Syphilis, gonorrea (venereal diseases)
 E. coli, Salmonella (food poisoning)
76 million illnesses worldwide
Ways of controlling bacterial growth:
 Disinfectants
 Antibiotics
 Low temperatures
 High temperatures,
 Low oxygen
Benefits of Bacteria:
 Nitrogen-fixation – convert atmospheric N into useful Nitrogen (N gas  plants  animals)
 Decomposition in the biosphere – get rid of dead organisms, nature’s recyclers
 Intestinal Bacteria – supply vitamins (K)
 Commercial use: yogurt, sour cream, fermentation
 Genetically-engineered bacteria produce insulin and other important chemicals.
 Can also help clean up oil spills: oil ‘eating’ bacteria!

Characteristics:
 200,000 species come in different shapes, sizes, and colors
 All are eukaryotes – have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Types of:
1. Protozoans
 Animal-like Protists
 Unicellular – made up of one cell
 Heterotrophs – they eat other organisms or dead organic matter
 Classified by how they move
Types of Protozoans
A. Amoebas: the Blobs
 No cell wall
 Move using pseudopods – plasma extensions
 Engulf bits of food by flowing around and over them
B. Flagellates/Euglena: the Motorboats
 Use a whip-like tails called a flagella to move
2. Algae
C. Ciliates/Paramecium: the Hairy Ones
 Move beating tiny hairs called cilia
 Plantlike Protists
 Characteristics: Algae
 Multicellular – made of more than one cell
 Photosynthetic – make their own food
 No roots, stems, or leaves
 Each has chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments
3. Fungus-like Protists
Characteristics in Common
 All form delicate, netlike structures on the surface of their food source
 Obtain energy by decomposing organic material
Ex: Mold, Mildew, slimes

What is genetics? “Genetics is the study of heredity, the process in which a parent passes certain
genes onto their children.”
Genetic Concepts:
 Heredity describes how some traits are passed from parents to their children.
 The traits are expressed by genes, which are small sections of DNA that are coded for specific traits.
 Genes are found on chromosomes.
 Humans have two sets of 23 chromosomes—one set from each parent.
Gregor Mendel:
Austrian Monk.
Considered the “Father of Genetics”
Experimented with “pea plants”.
Used pea plants because:
– They were available
– They reproduced quickly
– They showed obvious differences in the traits
Understood that there was something that carried traits from one generation to the next
Mendelian Inheritance:
 The inherited traits are determined by genes that are passed from parents to children.
 A child inherits two sets of genes—one from each parent.
 A trait may not be observable, but its gene can be passed to the next generation.
Mendelian Inheritance:
Each person has 2 copies of every gene—one copy from mom and a second copy from dad. These copies may come in different variations, known as alleles, that express different traits.
Example, 2 alleles in the gene for freckles are inherited from mom and dad: allele from mom = has freckles (F) allele from dad = no freckles (f) child has the inherited gene pair of alleles, Ff (F allele from mom and f allele from dad).
Mendelian Genetics Vocabulary:
– Dominant traits- traits that are expressed and are represented by a capital letter in the genotype(AA,Aa)
– Recessive traits- traits that are covered up and are represented by both lower case letters in the genotype (aa).
– Alleles- the different forms of a characteristic.
– Homozygous- two of the same alleles.
– Heterozygous- two different alleles.
– Genotype :
How the genes code for a specific trait.
If the trait is dominant it has atleast one or more capital letters
Example – Tall (Tt, TT)
If the trait is recessive has two lowercase letters
Example – short (tt)
Genotypes always have two letters – one for dad and one for mom

Types of genotype:
 Purebred (homozygous) dominant – the genes only have the dominant trait in its code. o Example – Dominant Tall -- TT
 Purebred (homozygous) recessive – the genes only have the recessive trait in its code. o Example – Recessive short – tt
 Hybrid (heterozygous) – the genes are mixed code for that trait. o Example – hybrid Tall -- Tt
– Phenotype
The outward appearance of the trait.
How an organism looks
How an organism acts
How an organism feels
Tricks to remembering the difference between Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype – deals with GENE CODE.
Phenotype – deals with looks you can take a PHOTO with.
Punnett Squares:
– The Punnett square is the standard way of working out what the possible offspring of two parents will be. It is a helpful tool to show allelic combinations and predict offspring ratios.
Example: A cross between 2 parents for height. Both Parents are heterozygous (Tt)
Tall(Dominant) = T, Short(Recessive) = t
Result ratios:
Dominant = ¾ = 75% chance
Recessive = ¼ = 25% chance

Levels of Structural Organization
6 Levels of Organization :
1. CHEMICAL LEVEL
Basic level
Atoms the smallest unit of matter
Essential atoms for life include carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S)
Molecules two or more atoms joined together
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Glucose
Levels of structural organization
2. CELLULAR LEVEL
Molecules combine to form cells
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of an organism
Examples: Muscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells, etc.
3. TISSUE LEVEL
Tissues are groups of cells and materials surrounding them
Four basic types of tissues:
A. Epithelial Tissue
 Covers the surfaces of the body inside (as lining and/or covering of internal organs) and outside (as layer of skin)
 Connective Tissue
 Connects all parts of the body and provides support.
 Ex: Tendons, ligaments, cartilage
B. Muscle Tissue
 Contracts and shortens, making body parts move.
 Types of muscle = cardiac, smooth, skeletal
C. Nerve Tissue
 Carries impulses back and forth to the brain from the body.
4. ORGAN LEVEL
 Structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues
 Specific functions and recognizable shapes
 Examples: Heart, lungs, kidneys
5. SYSTEM LEVEL
A system consists of related organs with a common function
Organ-system level
Example = Digestive system breaks down and absorbs food
It includes organs such as the mouth, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

Note: Eleven systems of the human body
6. ORGANISM LEVEL
An organism or any living individual
All systems of the body functioning together
***Characteristics of Living Human Organism
Basic Life Processes that distinguish living from non-living things:
 Metabolism
 Responsiveness
 Movement
 Growth
 Differentiation
 Reproduction
***Metabolism:
A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment

How many bones does the human skeleton contain?
206
Functions of the skeletal system
 Gives shape & support
 Protects internal organs
 Moves muscles
 Forms blood cells
 Stores calcium and phosphorous
Skeleton is divided into 2 parts:
1. Axial Skeleton
Skull (protects the brain).
Ribs ( protect lungs, and heart).
Spinal column (houses and protects the spinal cord).
2. Appendicular Skeleton
Legs
Pelvis (Protects digestive and reproductive organs)
Arms
Shoulders
Types of Joints
1. Immovable
Skull
Pelvis
2. Movable
Pivot
Ball & socket
Hinge
Gliding
Movable Joints:
1. Ball & Socket: Shoulders and Hips
Allows arms and hips to move in any direction
Can move in a full 360 degrees
2. Pivot Joints: First two neck vertebrae & joint beneath elbow
Moves in a semicircle motion by twisting against each other
3. Hinge: Elbows & Knees
Move like hinges on a door
Limited movement
Can only swing back and forth

4. Gliding Joints: Spine, Wrists, Ankles
Slide against each other in a gliding motion
Gives your wrists and ankles lots of freedom
Layers of the BONE: (outside to inside)
1.
Periosteum: soft, thin, covers and protects the bone
2.
Compact Bone: Hard, outer surface. Can heal itself when broken
3.
Spongy Bone: Porous, contains blood vessels, nerves
4.
Marrow: manufactures red blood cells

Functions of Muscles:
 Movement – both voluntary & involuntary
 Maintaining posture
 Supporting soft tissues within body cavities
 Guarding entrances & exits of the body
 Maintaining body temperature
Flexors vs Extendors:
1. Flexors
Flexors bend at the joint, decreasing the interior angle of the joint. EX: Bicep
2. Extendors
Opposites of flexors, extensors unbend at the joint, increasing the interior angle.
EX: Tricep
How Muscles Connect to Bones
** Muscles Pull on Tendons to Move Bones at Connections called Joints or Articulations
Tendons: structures that connect bone to muscle and are made up of tendon tissue
Ligaments: connect bone-to-bone or reinforce joints
Cartilage:
Cartilage is connective tissue. Main Function is to reduce friction.
****Muscles DO NOT PUSH. They can only CONTRACT and PULL. ****
Nerves cause the contractions

Functions:
 Ingest food
 Break down food
 Move food through digestive tract
 Absorb nutrients and water
 Eliminates waste materials
Organs that food passes through:
1. Mouth
 Breaks down food into small pieces
 Begins starch digestion (amylase)
 Saliva produces amylase and lubricates food
 Moves food into esophagus
 Epiglottis covers trachea so your food doesn’t go into your windpipe
2. Esophagus
 Pushes food to Stomach
 Peristalsis – The process by which food is moved through the esophagus by the contractions of smooth muscle that squeezes the food down
3. Stomach
 Muscles churn food – mechanical digestion.
 Glands produce gastric juice = pepsin + HCl
 Pepsin breaks down proteins (only at pH 2)
 Food leaves after 2-4 hrs
 Pushes food into small intestine
4. Small Intestine
 Digestion is finished here
 Peristalsis finishes mechanical digestion
 Pancreatic juice produces enzymes to finish chemical digestion of fats, proteins ( proteins that catalyze or increase the rates of chemical reactions ) and carbohydrates.
5. Large Intestine
 Main function is to absorb water
 Bacteria continues to break down waste/feces
Vocab:
1. Enzyme = Proteins that catalyze (or increase the rates of) chemical reactions
2. Proteins = They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs.
3. Carbohydrates = Molecules that consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. A major food source and a key form of energy for most organisms.
4. Amino Acids = Molecules that are the building blocks of proteins. (Make up 75% of the human body and are essential to nearly every bodily function. Every chemical reaction that takes place in your body depends on amino acids and the proteins that they build.)

Liver:
 Produces bile which is then stored in the gallbladder.
 Helps process food in the small intestine for use by body.
Bile = The greenish-yellow fluid (consisting of waste products, cholesterol, and bile salts) that is secreted by the liver cells to perform two primary
Functions:
 to carry away waste
 to break down fats during digestion

Primary Urinary Organs
1. Kidneys
 Two reddish organs just above the waist behind the stomach
 Filter the blood and removes waste
2. Ureters
 Tubes connecting the kidneys to the urinary bladder
3. Urinary Bladder
 Smooth muscle bag
 Stores waste solution - urine
4. Urethra
 Connects bladder to outside of the body
 Allows urine to pass out of the body
What does Urine contain:
 water
 urea, a waste product that forms when proteins are broken down
 urochrome, a pigmented blood product that gives urine its yellowish color
 salts
 creatinine, a waste product that forms with the normal breakdown of muscle
 byproducts of bile from the liver
 ammonia
***Nephrons***
 Filtering unit of the kidney
 Blood enters full of waste and leaves filtered
Some Causes of Kidney Failure
 Diabetes
 High Blood Pressure
 Physical Trauma/Impact
What if your Kidneys Fail?
 Dialysis
 Kidney Transplant

The Closed Circulatory System:
Humans have a closed circulatory system, typical of all vertebrates, in which blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid. The heart pumps blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones leading into the organs. Materials are exchanged by diffusion between the blood and the interstitial fluid bathing the cells.
Three Major Parts of the System – Heart, Blood Vessels, & Blood
1.
The Heart-
 cardiac muscle tissue
 highly interconnected cells
 Four chambers:
– Right atrium
– Right ventricle
– Left atrium
– Left ventricle
2.
Blood Vessels -A network of tubes that carry blood throughout the body.
Types of: (largest to smallest)
– Arteries  carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
Elastic Fibers
Circular Smooth Muscle
– Veins  carry Deoxygenated blood back to the heart
How blood is helped back to the heart:
Skeletal Muscles contract to force blood back from legs
One way valves prevent backflow
When they break - varicose veins form
– Capillaries – where gas exchange takes place through diffusion.
– One cell thick
– Serves the Respiratory System by surrounding the lungs and exchanging the oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the blood stream
3.
The Blood –
Composition:
 Plasma
– Liquid portion of the blood. Contains clotting factors, hormones, antibodies, dissolved gases, nutrients and waste
 Red Blood Cells
– Carry hemoglobin and oxygen. Do not have a nucleus and live only about 120 days.
– Cannot repair themselves.
 White Blood cells
– Fight infection and are formed in the bone marrow.
 Platelets.
– These are cell fragments that are formed in the bone marrow
– Clot Blood by sticking together – via protein fibers called fibrin.

Circuits
1. Pulmonary circuit
The blood pathway between the right side of the heart, to the lungs, and back to the left side of the heart. (basically the highways that connect the heart to the lungs)
2. Systemic circuit
The blood pathway between the left and right sides of the heart and out to the body.
(basically the highways connecting the heart to the rest of the body)
Disorders of the Circulatory System
– Anemia - lack of iron in the blood, low RBC count
– Leukemia - white blood cells proliferate wildly, causing anemia
– Hemophilia - bleeder’s disease, due to lack of fibrinogen in thrombocytes
– Heart Murmur - abnormal heart beat, caused by valve problems
– Heart attack - blood vessels around the heart become blocked with plaque, also called
myocardial infarction
Functions of the Heart
– Generating blood pressure
– Routing blood o Heart separates pulmonary and systemic circulations
– Ensuring one-way blood flow o Heart valves ensure one-way flow
– Regulating blood supply o Changes in contraction rate and force match blood delivery to changing metabolic needs
Size, Shape, Location of the Heart
• Size of a closed fist
• Shape
– Apex: Blunt rounded point of cone
– Base: Flat part at opposite of end of cone
• Located in thoracic cavity (chest)
Cardiac Cycle
– Heart is two pumps that work together, right and left half
– Repetitive contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of heart chambers
– Blood moves through circulatory system from areas of higher to lower pressure. o Contraction of heart produces the pressure
Heart Sounds
– First heart sound or “lubb” o Atrioventricular valves and surrounding fluid vibrations as valves close at beginning of ventricular systole
– Second heart sound or “dubb” o Results from closure of aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves at beginning of ventricular diastole, lasts longer

Functions:
Respiratory system is the system that helps you breath in and out, so oxygen (0
2
) can be pumped through your body and carbon dioxide (CO
2
) can be removed from the blood stream.
Organs of:
1.
Nose and Mouth:
 When the air comes into your nose it gets filtered by tiny hairs and it is moistened by the mucus that is in your nose
 Your sinuses also help out with your Respiratory System. They help to moisten and heat the air that you breath.
 Air can also get into your body through your mouth/oral cavity but air is not filtered as much when it enters in through your mouth.
2.
Pharynx and Trachea
 Your pharynx (throat) gathers air after it passes through your nose and then the air is passed down to your trachea.
 Your trachea(windpipe) is held open by “incomplete rings of cartilage.” Without these rings your
trachea might close off and air would not be able to get to and from your lungs.
3.
The Bronchi Tubes and Bronchiole:
 Your trachea (windpipe) splits up into two bronchi tubes. These two tubes keep splitting up and form your bronchiole.
 These bronchi tubes split up, like tree branches, and get smaller and smaller inside your lungs.
 The air flows past your bronchi tubes and into your bronchiole. These tubes keep getting smaller and smaller until they finally end with small air sacs (called alveoli)
4.
The Alveoli and Capillary Network:
 Your alveoli are tiny air sacs that fill up with air/oxygen when you breath in.
 Your alveoli are surrounded by many tiny blood vessels called capillaries.
 The walls of your alveoli (and capillaries) are so thin that the oxygen or carbon dioxide can pass through them by “diffusion”, traveling right into, or out of your blood stream.
5.
Diaghram:
 The Diaphragm is an important factor in breathing. It is a muscle that changes the pressure in the chest cavity to allow the lungs to contract and expand.
Fun Facts:
* At rest, the body takes in and breathes out about 10 liters of air each minute.
* The right lung is slightly larger than the left.
* The highest recorded "sneeze speed" is 165 km per hour.
* The surface area of the lungs is roughly the same size as a tennis court.
* The capillaries in the lungs would extend 1,600 kilometers if placed end to end.
* We lose half a liter of water a day through breathing. This is the water vapor we see when we breathe onto glass.

* A person at rest usually breathes between 12 and 15 times a minute.
.

Functions of the Nervous System:
1. Communication and coordination
– Adapt and respond to changes from both inside and outside the body
2. Site of reasoning- your brain
Two main divisions:
– Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord
– Peripheral nervous system- the nerves branching out from spinal cord out to your body.
Transports signals to and from the central nervous system and the rest of the body.
Vocabulary:
Neuron- basic structural unit of the nervous system
Dendrites- carry impulses towards the cell
Axon-carry impulses away from the cell
Myelin sheath- insulates nerves allowing for fast impulses.
Synapse-bridge connecting neurons that signal passes over
Types of Nerves:
Nerves are made of many nerve cells
– Afferent-sensory nerves carry message to brain
– Efferent-motor neurons carry message from brain to muscle
– Associate- do both
Different Parts of the Brain:
1. Cerebrum-largest part of brain. Responsible for reasoning, thought, memory, speech, sensation, etc.
2. Cerebellum-responsible for muscle coordination/balance
3. Brain stem- most basic functions; respiration, swallowing, blood pressure.

Disorders of the nervous system:
Meningitis- inflammation of the linings of the brain and spinal cord
Epilepsy-seizure disorder. Excessive discharge from neurons. 1 in 200 suffer. Grand mal or petit mal seizures
Cerebral palsy- disturbance in voluntary muscular action
Parkinson ’ s – decreased neurotransmitter
MS/Multiple Sclerosis- autoimmune system attacks and destroys sheathing/insulation around nerves

• The body’s defense against disease causing organisms, malfunctioning cells, and foreign particles
The First Line of Defense
1.
Skin
2.
Mucus and Cilia
3.
Stomach Acid
The Second Line of Defense
1.
White Blood Cells
-
If invaders actually get within the body, then your white blood cells (WBCs) begin their attack
-
WBCs normally circulate throughout the blood, but will enter the body’s tissues if invaders are detected
2.
Phagocytes
-
These white blood cells are responsible for eating foreign particles by engulfing them
-
Once engulfed, the phagocyte breaks the foreign particles apart in organelles called lysosomes
3.
Interferon
-
Virus-infected body cells release interferon when an invasion occurs
-
Interferon – chemical that interferes with the ability to viruses to attack other body cells
Viruses enter body cells, hijack their organelles, and turn the cell into a virus making-factory. The cell will eventually burst, releasing thousands of viruses to infect new cells.
4.
T-Cells
-
T-Cells, often called “natural killer” cells, recognize infected human cells and cancer cells
-
T-cells will attack these infected cells, quickly kill them, and then continue to search for more cells to kill
The Inflammatory Response (911 call to your immune system)
-
Injured body cells release chemicals called histamines, which begin inflammatory response
-
Capillaries dilate (redness/swelling)
-
Pyrogens released, reach hypothalamus, and temperature rises (heat/burning)
-
Pain receptors activate
-
WBCs flock to infected area like sharks to blood
The Third Line of Defense
1.
Antibodies:
-
Most infections never make it past the first and second levels of defense
-
Those that do trigger the production and release of antibodies
-
Proteins that latch onto, damage, clump, and slow foreign particles
-
Each antibody binds only to one specific binding site, known as an antigen

What is immunity?
-
“Resistance” to a disease causing organism or harmful substance
Types of Immunity:
1.
Active Immunity
You produce the antibodies. Your body has been exposed to the antigen in the past either through:
• Exposure to the actual disease causing antigen – You fought it, you won, you remember it
• Vaccine: Planned exposure to a form of the antigen that has been killed or weakened – You detected it, eliminated it, and remember it.
(
Because the bacteria has been killed or weakened, minimal symptoms occur)
2.
Passive Immunity
-You don’t produce the antibodies a.
A mother will pass immunities on to her baby during pregnancy
These antibodies will protect the baby for a short period of time following birth while its immune system develops
Immune Disorders:
1.
Allergies:
-
-Immune system mistakenly recognizes harmless foreign particles as serious threats
-
Launches immune response, which causes sneezing, runny nose, and watery eyes
-
Anti-histamines block effect of histamines and bring relief to allergy sufferers
2.
Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
-
Caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
-
Discovered in 1983
-
Specifically targets and kills T-cells
-
Because normal body cells are unaffected, immune response is not launched
-
Note: AIDS doesn’t kill you. It only cripples your immune system
-
With your immune system shut down, common diseases that your immune system normally could defeat become life-threatening

What is Matter?
–
Anything that takes up space and has mass.
–
Composed of atoms which are the smallest part of an element.
– Just about everything that is around you!!!!!!
Pure Substances: A sample of matter that has definite chemical and physical properties.
Examples:
ATOMS:
– Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter that make up everyday objects. A desk, the air, even you are made up of atoms!
–
There are 90 naturally occurring kinds of atoms. Scientists in labs have been able to make about 25 more.
– Made up of 3 basic particles:
Protons (positive charge)
Neutrons (no charge)
Electrons (negative charge)
Elements:
– Pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substance by physical or chemical means.
Compounds:
– Pure substance composed of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds.
–
Made of elements in a specific ratio that is always the same
–
Has a chemical formula
–
Can only be separated by chemical means, not physically
Example

H2O Combination of 2 Hydrogen atoms “chemically bonded” to 1 Oxygen atom.
Difference between Molecules and Compounds:
A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join together chemically. A compound is a molecule that contains at least two different elements. As a result, all compounds are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds.
Mixtures:
A combination of two or more pure substances that are combined “ physically”
– No chemical change takes place
–
Each item retains its properties in the mixture
–
They can be separated physically

Types of Mixtures:
1. Homogeneous Mixtures:
–
Have the same uniform appearance and composition throughout
– You CAN’T see the different parts of the mixture
SOLUTIONS are homogeneous mixtures.
A solution has 2 Parts:
A. The substance in the smallest amount and the one that DISSOLVES is called the SOLUTE
B. The larger substance that does the dissolving is called the SOLVENT
Note: Water is known as the “universal solvent”
Examples of solutions
–
Salt water
–
Clean Air
–
Vinegar
2. Heterogeneous Mixtures :
– A heterogeneous mixture consists of visibly different substances or phases
–
You CAN see the different parts of the mixture
A SUSPENSION is a heterogeneous mixture of large particles
These particles are visible and will settle out on standing
Examples of suspensions are: fine sand or silt in water or Italian salad dressing
Examples of Heterogeneous Mixtures:
–
Pizza
– Sandwich
–
Chex Mix

– properties of a substance that can only be observed during a reaction. It always results in a new substance being formed. (very important to remember.)
A.
Flammability – does the substance burn
(react with oxygen to release heat)?
B.
Reactivity – does the substance chemically combine with other chemicals, such as acids & bases?
C.
Rusting – does the substance react with oxygen.
Signs that a chemical change has happened:
•
Energy released (a change in temperature heats up or cools down/light) ex: match burns, cold packs cool
• gas or bubbles form ex: vinegar + baking soda

CO
2
• permanent unexpected color change ex: burning wood changes its color
• odor released ex: baking bread creates new gases
More Evidence of a chemical change:
 difficult to reverse ex: can’t turn a cookie back into dough
•
Production of a gas ex: vinegar and baking soda produces CO
2
•
Formation of a precipitate ex: vinegar and milk forms curds (cheese)
- Characteristics of Matter that can be easily seen through direct observation.
A new substance is NOT created.
1. Elasticity-ability to return to its original shape or size after stretching
2. Malleable-ability to be hammered into sheets
3. Brittle-easily broken into pieces.
4. Transparency-ability to allow light to pass through it
5. Ductility-ability to bend without breaking

6. Density-Mass per Volume
7. Boiling/Freezing/Melting point (A change in the state of matter is only a physical change!)
Physical Changes – DO NOT result in a new substance being formed. (changes in size,
shape, or state of matter).
Ex: cut, smash, stretch, freeze, melt, boil

pH
 The pH scale is a way to measure how acidic or basic a solution is.
 The pH range of a solution is between 0 and 14.
 The pH of pure water is 7. Any solution with a pH of 7 is neutral solution. It is not an acid or a base.
 The pH of an acidic solution is less than 7; the lower the number, the more acidic the solution.
 The pH of a basic solution is greater than 7; the higher the number, the more basic the solution.
Acids

Acids can be identified by their sour taste (for example lemons and oranges contain acids); by their reaction with some metals such as zinc, and by their reaction with bases to form a neutral pH solution (for example, vinegar reacting with limestone).
Base
 Bases can be identified by their bitter taste (for example, unsweetened cocoa has a bitter taste); by its slippery feel (for example, dish detergent) and by its reaction with acids to form a neutral pH solution
(for example, an antacid to soothe an acid stomach).
Neutral Solution
 It is neither an acid nor a base.
 For example, pure water is a neutral solution and has a pH of 7.
Ways to test for pH:
1. Litmus paper
 Has a special dye on it that changes colors in the presence of an acid or base.
 Blue litmus paper turns red in an acid, and stays blue in a base.
 Red litmus paper turns blue in a base, and stays red in an acid.
 Both red and blue litmus paper turn violet in a solution that is neutral (neither an acid nor a base).
2. Phenolphthalein
 Is used to test for the presence of a base.
 It is a colorless chemical that turns magenta (bright pink) in a base, and stays colorless in neutral or acidic solutions.
3. pH paper
 Has a range of colors depending on the pH of the solution.
 The color of the paper is compared to the chart on the vial to determine the pH.

How the P.T. is organized:
Period - A horizontal row on the periodic table
Families - also called groups, are vertical columns of elements on the periodic table; they are usually numbered 1-18. Elements in the same family have similar properties.
 Every periodic table will have a square for each element with the atomic number, atomic mass, element name, and the element symbol.
 The elements on the periodic table are arranged numerically by atomic numbers.
On the periodic table there is a zigzag line on the right side of the table. There are two sections of elements on the periodic table, metals and nonmetals.
Metals
 A major classification of elements generally located on the left side of the zigzag line on the periodic table.
 Examples of metals are: Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca), Iron (Fe), and Aluminum (Al). The majority of elements are metals.
Nonmetals
 A major classification of elements generally located on the right side of the zigzag line on the periodic table.
 Examples of nonmetals are: Chlorine (Cl), Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), and Iodine (I).

Element Symbol
Sodium Na
Chlorine Cl
Hydrogen H
Oxygen
Carbon
O
C
Nitrogen N
 Elements are made up of one kind of atom and the symbol for each element is unique.
 Compounds are composed of more than one element and their formulas have more than one type of symbol showing the different elements that compose the compound.
Chemical formulas - constructed from the symbols of the elements composing the substances.
 In a chemical formula, the numbers as subscripts show how many of each kind of atom are in the compound.
 The subscript is written to the lower right of the element symbol.
 If no subscript is written, only one atom of that element is part of the compound. For example, in H
2
O, the number 2 is the subscript for hydrogen and means that there are 2 atoms of hydrogen in the compound of water; since there is no subscript for oxygen it is assumed to be one atom of oxygen.
A = Coefficient
B = Subscript
C = Compound
D = Element
E = Reactants
F = Products

Levels of Organization of the Living World:
include the individual organism, populations, communities, ecosystems, and biomes. Each level is defined by the type and number of organisms or the abiotic factors present.
Populations
 All of the individuals of a given species in a specific area or region at a certain time.
 Members of a population compete for food, water, space, and mates; for example, all of the loblolly pines in South Carolina.
Communities
 All the different populations in a specific area or region at a certain time.
 For example, all of the crabs, seagulls, and sea grass at the beach are part of the same community.
 Communities involve many types of interactions among the populations.
 Some of these interactions involve the obtaining and use of food, space, or other environmental resources.
Ecosystems
 One or more communities in an area and the abiotic factors, including water, sunlight, oxygen, temperature, and soil.
Biomes
 Individual ecosystems grouped together according to the climate and the predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment.
Within an ecosystem, organisms have specific places where their needs are met and specific roles within the ecosystem.
 The place where an organism lives in order to obtain its food, water, shelter and other things needed for survival is called its habitat.
 The particular role of an organism in its environment including type of food it eats, how it obtains its food and how it interacts with other organisms is called its niche. For example, the niche of a bee is to pollinate flowers as it gathers nectar for its food.
Types of Energy Flow Models in an Ecosystem:
1. Food chains
 Use pictures or words and arrows to show the movement of energy through the trophic levels of organisms.
 The trophic level of an organism indicates the position that the organism occupies in the food chain— what it eats and what eats it.
 The levels are numbered according to how far the particular organism is along the chain from the primary producer at Level 1, to herbivores (Level 2), to predators (Level 3), to carnivores or top carnivores (Levels 4 or 5).

2. Food webs
 Describe the organisms found in interconnecting food chains using pictures or words and arrows.
 Food webs describe the complex patterns of energy flow in an ecosystem by modeling who consumes whom or what.

3.
Energy pyramids
 Show the amount of energy that moves from one trophic level to another in a food chain.
 The most energy is available at the producer level of the pyramid.
 Energy availability decreases as it moves up the energy pyramid.

Changes in the environment can occur due to natural hazards.
1. Landslides
 Landslides are large areas of ground movement of rock, earth, or debris that fall, slide, or flow on slopes due to gravity.
 They can occur in any environment given the right conditions of soil, moisture, and the angle of slope.
 Landslides can be caused by rains, floods, earthquakes, and other natural causes, as well as humanmade causes such as excessive development or clear-cutting for lumber.
 Some examples of ways that landslides can effect the environment are blocking roads, damaging or destroying homes, destroying habitats, or disrupting power lines.
2. Wildfires
 Fire is a natural event in most grassland and forest ecosystems.
 Fires can be beneficial to the ecosystem and are an essential component in the life cycle of some trees.
 Generally, fires are neither good nor bad. They occur naturally through lightning strikes or when humans start them accidentally or intentionally.
 Some examples of the effects of wildfires on the environment are: ability of some seeds to break open so they can germinate, an increase in air pollution, habitat destruction, or destroying homes or property.
3. Floods
 A flood is an unusually high water stage in which water overflows its natural or artificial banks onto normally dry land.
 There are two basic types of floods. o In a regular river flood, water slowly climbs over the edges of a river. o The more dangerous type, a flash flood, occurs when a wall of water quickly sweeps over an area.
Some examples of factors that contribute to flooding are
 heavy, intense rainfall
 over-saturated soil (when the ground cannot hold anymore water)
 high river, stream or reservoir levels caused by unusually large amounts of rain
 urbanization, or lots of buildings and parking lots
 Some examples of the effects of floods on the environment may include damaging property, endangering humans and animals, or causing soil erosion and deposition of sediment and nutrients and creation of fertile soil.
Changes in the environment can occur due to changes in populations. Changes in populations can occur when new members enter a population or when members leave a population. This will have an effect on the population density (the number of organisms in the given amount of space) for a particular area.
Births and Deaths
 New births are the main way that organisms are added to a population.
 The number of births in a population during a certain amount of time is called the birth rate.
 Deaths are the main way that organisms leave a population.
 The number of deaths in a population during a certain amount of time is called the death rate.

Immigration & Emigration
 The size of the population can change when members move into or out of the population.
 Immigration is when organisms move in from another environment.
 When part of the population leaves the environment, this is known as emigration.
Changes in the environment can occur due to limiting factors. These limiting factors can affect the number of organisms an environment can support. The maximum number of organisms that can survive in a particular ecosystem is known as the carrying capacity.
Climate
 Climate refers to the temperature and amount of rainfall in a particular environment. Changes in temperature and the amount of rainfall from what is normal for that area can change an environment, which will have an effect on the populations in the area.
Availability of food, water, space, and shelter
 Organisms require a certain amount of food water, space, and shelter in order to survive and reproduce.
 When the availability of the amount of any of these resources in a given area is less than what the various populations need, it becomes a limiting factor.
 When plants and animals compete for these resources, some will get them and some will not.
 Those that get the resources survive. Those that do not, will move to where the resources are available or die.

Soil Properties:
1. Soil profile
 Soils form in layers, or horizons, and all the layers make up the soil profile.
 A mature soil profile consists of three layers – topsoil, subsoil, and parent material above bedrock.
 Topsoil that is nutrient rich, containing a mixture of humus, clay, and minerals, is most suitable for plant growth.
 Most animals live in the topsoil horizon.
2. Composition
 Soil is a mixture of rock particles, minerals, decayed organic material, air, and water.
 The decayed organic matter in soil is humus.
 The sand, silt, and clay portion of soil comes from weathered bedrock material.
 The combination of these materials in soil determines the soil type and affects the types of plants that can grow in it or animals that can live in it.
 Factors that may affect soil type are the types of plants, climate, time, and slope of the land.
3. Texture
 Soil texture depends on the size of individual soil particles and is determined by the relative proportions of particle sizes that make up the soil.
 Texture names may include loam, sandy clay loam, silt loam, or clay depending upon the percent of sand, silt, and clay in the soil sample.
 The texture affects the amount of water that can be absorbed for use by plants and animals.
4. Particle size
 Soil particles are classified by size ranging from coarse sand to very fine sand to silt, and finally to the smallest particle, clay.
 Soil particles that are larger than 2mm are called gravel.
 Particle size also affects the amount of water that can be absorbed and used by plants and animals.
Soil quality is also based on properties that can be measured, such as permeability and pH.
5. Permeability
 Soil particles have open spaces (pores) between them that let water flow through.
 How freely that water flows is the permeability of the soil.
 The closer the particles pack together because of particle size, the less permeable the soil is.
 Measuring permeability involves calculating the rate of drainage.
6. pH
 Soils can be basic or acidic and usually measure 4-10 on the pH scale.
 Indicators can be used to measure the pH of soils.
 Most plants grow best in soils with a pH of between 5 and 7.
 Regardless of the nutrients present in the soil, if the pH is not suitable those nutrients will be inaccessible to the organisms.
 Lime is a kind of fertilizer that alters pH and making the soil nutrients more accessible.

When water falls to Earth, some water soaks into the ground becoming part of groundwater. Gravity causes some of it to flow downhill as surface water instead of soaking into the ground; this is called
runoff.
Groundwater
 Water that soaks into the ground. Soil and rock that allow the water to pass through is called
permeable.
 The water enters into the zone of aeration, which is unsaturated. Groundwater will keep moving deeper into Earth until it reaches a layer of rock that is not permeable.
 The area where the water has filled all the space in the soil is called the zone of saturation; the top of this zone is the water table.
 Groundwater can also flow slowly through the underground rock or be stored in underground layers called aquifers.
 Groundwater is naturally purified as it soaks through the soil layers.
Surface-water
 Runoff that has not soaked into the ground. As runoff travels downhill, it forms the water in streams and rivers.
 An area that is drained by a river and all the streams that empty into it, the tributaries, is called a
drainage basin or watershed.
 A divide is the high ground between two drainage basins.
 By studying a map that contains rivers and marking all the tributaries of that river, the watershed area can be identified.
The availability of water as groundwater or surface-water is important to the ecosystems in that area. Some examples are:

Flowing water can erode the land in one location and deposit the sediments in another.

The floodplain of a river may deposit sediment after heavy rains enriching the area with new soil needed for growing vegetation. This new soil is nutrient rich. Crops or natural vegetation grow well in it.

The drainage basin provides the needed water for animal life also.

Deltas may form where the river ends its journey into a still body of water like a lake or the ocean. A unique ecosystem forms in delta regions, like the Santee delta in South Carolina or the Mississippi delta in
Louisiana.
Water is also important to human activities. Some examples are:
 Human beings are dependent upon water for survival, not only for drinking but for agriculture and industry as well.
 Dams have been placed along some rivers in order to produce hydroelectric power and to offer recreation in the lakes that form behind the dams.
 Lakes, rivers, and the ocean contain sources of food and minerals.
 Earth is 71% water with 3% freshwater. Since much of the freshwater is in the form of ice, very little is left as “usable” freshwater for humans.

Earth supplies a variety of natural resources that living things use, change, and reuse. Some resources can be replaced and reused by nature; these are renewable resources. Natural resources that cannot be replaced by nature are nonrenewable.
Examples of Renewable:
Renewable resources are replaced through natural processes at a rate that is equal to or greater than the rate at which they are being used. Air, freshwater, soil, living things, and sunlight are renewable resources.
 Air can be cleaned and purified by plants during the process of photosynthesis as they remove carbon dioxide from the air and replace it with oxygen.
 The water cycle allows Earth’s water to be used over and over within the environment.
 Topsoil is formed to replace soil that has been carried away by wind and water (although new soil forms very slowly).
 Trees and other new plants grow to replace those that have been cut down or died.
 Animals are born to replace animals that have died.
 Sunlight, or solar energy, is considered a renewable resource because it will continue to be available for billions of years. It provides a source of energy for all processes on Earth.
Examples of Nonrenewable:
Nonrenewable resources are exhaustible because they are being extracted and used at a much faster rate than the rate at which they were formed.
 Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), diamonds, metals, and other minerals are nonrenewable.
 They exist in a fixed amount and can only be replaced by processes that take millions of years.
Natural resources can be depleted or used to the point that they are no longer available. Conservation measures are necessary for nonrenewable resources because they are known to be in a non-replenishing supply. If renewable resources are used at an increasing rate so that they cannot be naturally replaced fast enough, they too can be depleted.
 Soil that is lost because it is left bare of vegetation and allowed to erode depletes the land of the fertile topsoil needed for plant growth in that area.
 Depletion of freshwater in an area caused by increased demand by the population living there, by wasteful use of the water, or by pollution, can result in water not being available in needed quantities or being unfit for natural use.
 Depletion of a living resource, such as trees being removed without being replanted, can contribute to environmental changes in the land, air, and water in that area.

As the number of people on Earth gets larger, the need for natural resources increases. The terms reduce, reuse, recycle and protect are important ways that people can be involved in conservation of natural resources.
 Reducing involves making a decision to not use a resource when there is an alternative, such as walking or riding a bicycle rather than traveling in a car.
 Reusing involves finding a way to use a resource (or product from a resource) again without changing it or reprocessing it, such as washing a drinking glass rather than throwing away plastic or Styrofoam.
 Recycling involves reprocessing a resource (or product from a resource) so that the materials can be used again as another item, such as metals, glass or plastics being remade into new metal or glass products or into fibers.
 Protecting involves preventing the loss of a resource, usually living things, by managing their environment to increase the chances of survival, such as providing wildlife preserves for endangered animals.