Rhetoric on the Paper Level
Beginner
Description
- describes feelings and/or offers
‘general’ descriptions of sources
and/or subject.
Developing
- includes one or two passages of
description of subject or sources.
- Tends to describe subjects in the way
they most commonly described.
Practitioner
- uses description periodically throughout the paper to
engage the reader’s senses. Imagery is reasonably
inferred and/or from primary experiences.
- tries out a few different versions of descriptions before
settling on the “just right” one
Narration
- summarizes personal
experiences or information
- puts personal narration at the center
of the paper rather than using it to help
develop ideas about the subject (more
memoir than creative non-fiction)
- uses narration to set up ideas or
exemplify ideas already discussed.
- uses compelling personal narration and/or fact-based
narration to introduce new ideas, to exemplify ideas
already discussed, to transition to new ideas, and/or
complicate previous ideas.
Exposition
- explains the general subject
- uses exposition to explain some of the
key terminology and ideas used by the
source
Argument
- makes an either/or argument
based on personal opinion
- makes an argument that may
not follow from the information
that precedes it.
- makes an argument about the subject
that emerges toward the end of the
paper. Begins with a simple question
and ends with a simple, but supportable
answer.
- is argumentative from the beginning of
the paper, making it difficult for the
audience to understand the nuances of
the debate.
Development
- offers personal opinions and
ideas about the subject.
- makes cursory references to
secondary sources.
- works with multiple sources that are
timely, relevant, and trust-worthy.
- demonstrates good understanding of
the sources.
Concession /
Acknowledgment
of CounterArguments
- writes on one side of the issue
- infers courter-arguments and
summarizes them briefly
- uses exposition appropriate for a general audience,
translating technical terminology and filling in “blanks,”
while still clearly maintaining a sense of “ethos” (academic
respectability)
- demonstrates clear, nuanced understanding of sources
and subject matter
- anticipates audience’s questions/confusions and works
to clear them up proactively
- makes a complex argument about the subject that
emerges toward the end of the paper. Forwards one of the
following possible claims: a claim about cause and effect, a
claim about solutions/policies, a claim about values, or a
claim about definitions.
- begins with a simple question, ends with a complex
answer.
- argument arises out of source work presented in the
paper, synthesizing the most important take-aways from
what has been presented.
- works with high quality sources to provide statistical and
theoretical research into the subject.
- Sources offer substantially differing points of view on the
subject
- sources that are timely, relevant, trust-worthy, and add
to your and a general audience’s understanding of the
subject. Ideally, one of the sources comes from an
academic journal or government study.
- Offers a broad view of the subject that a general audience
would not have fully understood prior to reading the
essay.
- intermingles source work with narration, description,
argument, and exposition.
- fully develops relevant counter-arguments without
judgment and offers key concessions to demonstrate
ethos.
Expert
All of practitioner plus…
- uses visual research (looking up photographs
of the subject, etc.) to help create powerful
imagery.
- works with figurative imagery, sound effects
(alliteration, assonance), or syntax variation to
add additional ‘punch’ to descriptions
All of practitioner plus…
- completes additional research, consulting
multiple sources, to tell stories in a rich,
detailed way.
- uses a master-narration to pull together the
whole essay, returning to that story throughout
the piece.
All of practitioner plus…
- tests out exposition on different readers
(younger brother, parent, teacher, etc.) to make
sure it makes sense.
- adds “pop” to exposition through description,
figurative language, or syntax variation.
All of practitioner plus…
- contextualizes his/her argument in relation to
other contemporary arguments made on the
subject.
All of practitioner plus…
- works with a source that at first seems
unrelated to the main subject but makes a
surprising, interesting connection.
- uses a “bad” source used in an interesting way
- uses primary research to supplement
secondary research.
- contacts one of the secondary sources and
asks them follow-up questions related to your
particular study.
All of practitioner plus…
- contacts counter-argument sources to
continue the conversation.
Rhetoric, on the sentence level
Beginner
Syntax (sentence
- uses appositives for background
structure)
information
Developing
- uses appositives after the noun
- uses other non-restrictive phrases or
clauses
- uses participle phrases
- may struggle with figuring out what
information belongs in the
“background” vs. the “foreground”
- a few comma errors
Artistic
Restatement
- restates key ideas more than
once.
- restates important ideas more than
once to draw attention to their
importance – experiments with
alliteration, assonance, parallelism, or
figurative language.
1 – 2 Sentence
Variation Punch
creates a long sentence followed
by a short sentence with some
mechanical inconsistencies in the
first sentence.
- uses a long sentence followed by a
short sentence for variation.
Transitions
- uses SLIDER transition words
- uses SLIDER words/phrases
- makes some connections between
sources
Practitioner
- uses appositives for background information. Uses
appositives both before and after the noun.
- uses other non-restrictive phrases for background
information/exposition. Uses non-restrictive phrases both
before and after the noun.
- uses participle phrases, both past and present, without any
dangling modifiers. Uses participle phrases both before and
after the noun.
- uses non-restrictive clauses for background
information/exposition
- uses non-restrictive “which” and restrictive “that” to
correctly to modify nouns
- uses commas to consistently and correctly indicate nonrestrictive and restrictive elements
- draws readers attention to important ideas by restating
them twice, with the second statement including at least one
of the following: assonance, alliteration, simple parallelism,
figurative language (metaphor, simile, hyperbole,
synecdoche, etc.).
- The rhetorical technique makes the paraphrased idea
clearer as well as making it stand out.
- at a key moment in the paper, uses a long sentence followed
by a short, simple sentence. Creates powerful emphasis of a
position or idea.
- the second sentence is short but packed with meaning
- first sentence sets up the punch-line of the second sentence.
- each source/subject is connected to the one that precedes it
- uses a range of S.L.I.D.E.R. words/phrases.
- uses recursive transitions to begin a number of paragraphs.
- guides the reader carefully through the paper, always
keeping the central topic clearly at the forefront.
Expert
All of practitioner, plus…
* uses the cumulative and periodic sentence
for effect.
* experiments with at least one sentence
that includes at least five phrasal
interrupters but is still mechanically sound.
All of practitioner plus…
* the wow factor. Some of the restatements
are original and end up complicating the
original idea.
All of practitioner plus…
* the wow factor. The syntax is used to
mirror an idea being worked with in the
sentences.
All of practitioner plus…
- uses anchor words to create transitions
- uses at least one jump cut
- uses of parallel construction to hint at
connections.
- uses “extent” transitions
Source Work
Source Set-up
Beginner
- mentions source’s name
Developing
- sets up some background about
sources, often in a separate sentence
Practitioner
- sets up sources’ ethos (or lack thereof)
- employs different syntaxes to introduce source
- sets up a source within a source with information about
both
Source
Paraphrasing
- offers a general opinion about
the source’s perceived ideas.
- summarizes key ideas from the
source’s article in a way that will be
clear to a general audience.
- quotes directly from the source.
Source
exemplification,
expansion,
examination, or
experimentation
(The Four E’s)
- explains the sources’ main
ideas.
- experiments with the four e’s in
his/her writing, with the result being
that sometimes the general audience
will understand the topic more clearly.
- reads deeply into the source (doesn’t just work with the
abstract or first page)
- summarizes clearly source’s major ideas/arguments
- paraphrases and points out important nuances
- in addition to paraphrasing quotes directly from the
source where the language is particularly potent and/or
interesting. Takes the “just right amount” from sources
when quoting.
- demonstrates an in-depth knowledge of the source and
makes the source’s ideas/arguments understandable for a
general audience.
- creates “revealing” examples that explain a source’s
argument/idea.
- chooses examples that will speak to the “general
audience” the paper is written for
- expand on the source’s argument/idea by connecting it to
other sources/ideas/information or applying it to
circumstances not originally looked at by the source.
- examines some of the unspoken assumptions being made
by the source, limitations to the source, the impact of the
source’s context, or the specific language used by the
source.
- experiments with the source’s ideas by conducting your
own informal research based on what you have read and
connecting what you found back to the source.
- uses a range of the four e’s where appropriate to fully
develop the sources. Considers carefully how and when to
employ each of the e’s.
Expert
All of practitioner plus…
* points out interesting
connections between sources
* uses description to bring the
source to life
* scatters background throughout
the paraphrase, considering
careful when and how to offer
background information and for
what purpose
* considers the relevance of some
of the background to
understanding the source’s
arguments
All of the practitioner plus…
* works on the most difficult parts
of an academic source with friend
or teacher.
* contacts source to ask follow-up
questions about ideas that are
unclear or need further
elucidation.
All of the practitioner plus…
* develops a single source over
multiple paragraphs that build in
intrigue.