NAME: __________________________________
Scientific Revolution – PARADIGM SHIFT
Before the Scientific Revolution
During the Middle Ages laws of motion were
thought to be different for objects on Earth than
those in the Heavens because heavenly objects
and earthly objects were thought to be made of
different substances. Heavenly objects, such as
the moon and the stars were shiny, pure, and holy.
After the Scientific Revolution
Sir Issac Newton, a mathematician and scientist,
had some important ideas about motion, gravity,
and inertia. Newton used mathematical reasoning
to discover his laws. Newton believed that nature
followed orderly natural laws.
Laws of Motion: were the same for Earth and all
other parts of the universe. He stated all motion
in the universe could be measured mathematically
Aristotle believed there were four elements earth,
water, fire, and air and he believed that some
were “heavy elements” and some were “light
elements”. Objects made of the elements earth
and water fell to the ground because they were
heavy. But air and fire rose upward because the
sky was their rightful place in the universe.
The Law of Gravity causes objects to fall to earth;
gravity also causes planets to revolve around the
sun instead of flying off into space.
The Law of Inertia:
a) an object will remain in the same place until
a force causes it to move.
b) a moving object will continue to move until a
force causes it to stop.
Andreas Vesalius studied anatomy – the structure
of the body – by dissecting animals and later
human beings. His experiments showed that much
of what Galen had written was incorrect. Vesalius
made numerous discoveries about the functions of
muscles, joints, and internal organs. He is called
the “father of anatomy”. His detailed drawings
how different human anatomy is from animals. He
articulated 200+ anatomical differences between
humans and apes.
Some people were sure that objects moved
because angels pushed them along. Medieval
scholars accepted Aristotle’s beliefs about the laws
of motion.
Doctors and university scholars knew little about
the workings of the human body. They depended
for most of their knowledge on the writings of
others, especially the ancient Greek doctor, Galen.
Galen never dissected a human body and based all
his research on working as a surgeon in Rome to
gladiators which gave him glimpses of human
anatomy via sword wounds and wounds from
animal clawing. He also studied anatomy by
conducting dissections of sheep, pigs, goats and
apes. He focused when he could on apes that he
assumed were anatomically identical to humans.
(Galen has his shortcomings, but you have to give
him props for finding apes in ancient Rome to
dissect… probably not that easy).
William Harvey studied the heart and “circulation”
– the movement of blood through the body. His
experiments showed that blood leaves the heart,
is pumped to other parts of body, and then returns
again to the heart.
Galen did get many things right, but also many
things wrong. Galen’s theory of blood circulation
was that blood was pumped out of the liver, which
was accepted by medieval scholars. His drawings
showed livers with five lobes and hearts with three
ventricles.
1
NAME: __________________________________
Scientific Revolution – PARADIGM SHIFT
Before the Scientific Revolution
After the Scientific Revolution
Ptolemy, an ancient Greek astronomer, said that the
Earth was the center of the universe. This belief was
also held by Aristotle, a highly respected Greek
philosopher and scientist. The views of Ptolemy and
Aristotle were supported by the church and medieval
scholars.
Nicolaus Copernicus published Concerning the
Revolution of the Celestial Spheres in 1543. His work
stated the Earth was not the center of the universe.
Planets, including Earth, revolved around the sun in this
heliocentric (helio =sun) theory. Due to fear of
persecution he waited until after his death to publish
his work.
It was believed that God put man on Earth and placed
Earth at the center of the universe. The sun, planets,
and stars all revolved around the earth. This was a
geocentric theory (geo=Earth). Man’s location in the
center of the universe showed his close relationship to
God. The sun, planets, and stars were God’s kingdom.
They were believed to be made up shiny materials that
were not found on Earth. Heaven, which was located
beyond the stars, was where man would be united with
God after death.
Later Galileo Galilei announced the same findings as
Copernicus and others (Tycho Brahe and Joannes
Kepler) that confirmed the sun was the center of the
universe. Galileo created a telescope to observe the
solar system and noticed that the materials which
formed the mood and other heavenly bodies were
similar to materials found on earth and not smooth and
perfect. Galileo urged that mathematics and
experimentation be used to study the laws of nature.
The church cited the Bible for evidence of a geocentric
theory and interpreted the scripture to mean that once
formed the Earth could not move. The church
interpreted many sections to support the geocentric
theory such as:
Galileo found that falling objects accelerate at fixed and
predictable speeds. He also tested Aristotle’s theory
that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones and
found Aristotle to be wrong. According to legend he
tested this by dropping stones of different weights off
of the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
1 Chronicles 16:30 –(King James Version) Fear before
him, all the earth: the world also shall be stable, that it
be not moved.
Galileo also used the telescope he created to impress
Venetian officials by showing them it could be used to
spot ships 50 miles away (this resulted in a big raise).
Psalms 96:10 (King James version)- Say among the
heathen that the LORD reigns: the world also shall be
established that it shall not be moved: he shall judge
the people righteously.
Both Copernicus and Galileo were criticized by the
church (protestant and Catholics). The church refused
to accept their beliefs because they contradicted church
teachings and the Bible. Jesuit leaders said that his
ideas could do more harm than “Luther and Calvin put
together”.
But Copernicus and Galileo said that it moved around
the sun. Galileo was tried by the inquisition and
recanted his beliefs under threat of execution. He
spent the remainder of his life under house arrest.
Galileo was especially vulnerable to the Inquisition
because he was in Italy.
Johannes Kepler, a great German astronomer,
eventually discovered the Laws of Planetary Motion.
He used mathematics to show, among other things,
that planets have an oval-shaped rather than circular
shaped orbit around the sun.
Before the Scientific Revolution
After the Scientific Revolution
2
NAME: __________________________________
Scientific Revolution – PARADIGM SHIFT
Medieval science did not conduct studies to solve
problems by using experiments and the scientific
method.
Francis Bacon wrote about experimental science.
He urged scientists to regard old beliefs –
especially beliefs of the middle ages – as false. He
encouraged the use of carefully organized
investigation to find the truth. He challenged the
medieval desire to make science fit with the
teachings of the church despite evidence to the
contrary.
Although Aristotle and the other early Greeks used
observation and method there was no specific
structure to their inquiry which is different from
the scientific method. The scientific process began
with the Muslim scholars of the Golden Age of
Islam but was improved by the scientific
revolution.
The scientific method would be refined by Bacon
and Rene Descartes, but the modern method used
today was most closely developed by Isaac
Newton.
Very little was known about the world of
microscopic life.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY wun hohk) became
the “father of microbiology” as a result of his work
in perfecting the microscope and studying
microorganisms. Using lens he made himself, he
could magnify objects up to 270X’s normal size.
He examined teeth scrapings, blood cells, and
muscle fibers. He found that a single drop of
water contains hundreds of “microorganisms” –
tiny animals swimming about that are not visible
to the naked eye.
Aristotle and other ancients often derived their
theories by thinking and observation but not with
careful scientific methodology.
Just as scientists of the scientific revolution did not
have access to the modern tools of today, the
scientists of the classical world did not have access
to the technology of the scientific revolution.
Microscope: first invented in 1590 by a Dutch
eyeglass worker it was later used by Anton van
Leeuwenhoek to study bacteria in saliva and red
blood cells.
Thermometer: the earliest was made by Galileo
(1603) and used alcohol. The German physicist,
Gabriel Fahrenheit created one with mercury that
showed 32 ̊ as freezing for water and 212 ̊ as
boiling. Later the Swedish scientist Anders Celsius
created a thermometer using mercury that
showed freezing of water at 0 ̊ and boiling at 100 ̊.
Barometer: a mercury based tool to measure
atmospheric pressure to predict weather was
invented by Evangelista Torricelli (a student of
Galileo) in 1655.
3
NAME: __________________________________
Scientific Revolution – PARADIGM SHIFT
4
NAME: __________________________________
Scientific Revolution – PARADIGM SHIFT
Questions for Understanding
1. How did Newton’s concept of motion and gravity differ from that of the ancients?
2. Why did the church consider Galileo’s ideas heresy?
3. What historical event that affected the church happened just before Galileo’s discoveries that may
have intensified the church’s reaction?
4. Which ancient Greek doctor were the beliefs of medieval anatomy based on?
How did he do his research?
5. Which ideas of accepted anatomy did Andreas Vesalius refute?
How did he do his research?
6. What medieval medical theory did William Harvey refute?
5
NAME: __________________________________
Scientific Revolution – PARADIGM SHIFT
7. Name four pieces of improved technology which aided in the scientific revolution.
a.
b.
c.
d.
8. How did Galileo disagree with the ancient and medieval concept of what the heavens were made of?
How did Galileo prove this?
What theory of motion of Aristotle’s did he disprove?
9. Why did the church support a geocentric theory of the universe?
10. How did Anton van Leeuwenhoek contribute to the Scientific Revolution?
11. List three ways in which advances in science today come in conflict with religious or moral values.
Be prepared to discuss your answers.
a.
b.
c.
6