Major armed groups in South Sudan
SPLM/A- Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/ Army
The SPLM/A, formed in 1983 after the Bor mutiny, was engaged in more
than two decades of civil war against the Khartoum regime. John Garang
was the leader of the movement, until he was killed in a helicopter clash in
July 2005. As part of its official rhetoric of the “New Sudan”, the SPLM/A
called for a secular and democratically reformed state. It initially received
support from the Ethiopian Mengistu regime until its collapse in 1991. The
same year tensions in the leadership saw the creation of the breakaway
SPLA-Nasir faction led by Riek Machar, Lam Akol and Gordon Kong (Machar
re-joined the SPLM/A in 2002). Tensions within the SPLM leadership in 2013
prompted President Kiir to dismiss Riek Machar from his position of Vice
President, and later Pagan Amum was removed from his post of SPLM
Secretary General. These tensions came to a boil in late 2013 after top
politicians walked out of a SPLM meeting, after which violence broke out
within the Presidential guards in Juba, escalating into a nation wide
conflict.
Anyanya and Anyanya II
Anyanya was the name of the Southern rebel movement involved in the first
civil war between 1955 and 1972.
The Anyanya II uprising started in the late 1970s, and was initially made up
of a number of independent Nuer groups pushing for independence from
Sudan. Support from the Mengistu regime (Ethiopia) in 1982 helped organize
the movement, but Mengistu later decided to support Garang and the newly
formed SPLA in 1983. Clashes occurred between the SPLA and Anyanya II in
the years that followed. The Anyanya II forces were largely integrated into
the SPLA between 1988 and 1990, although not all- the most significant
exception being Paulino Matiep. Despite joining forces with the SPLA, many
of the Nuer Anyanya II stayed in their areas of origin, and then joined the
side of the SPLA-Nasir faction after the 1991 split.
SSDF- South Sudan Defense Force
The South Sudan Defense Force was the name given to the southern rebel
groups who signed the 1997 Khartoum Peace Agreement with the
government in Khartoum. These groups included Riek Machar’s forces (SSIM)
and other independent commanders. Machar left in 2000 to form the SPDF
and the SSDF was then led by Gatluak Deng until late 2002 and afterwards
Paulino Matiep.
SSDM/A- South Sudan Democratic Movement/Army
Former SPLA General George Athor began SSDM/A after losing the election
for governor of Upper Nile in 2010. See the post-2005 insurgency section for
more.
SSLM/A- South Sudan Liberation Movement/Army
Peter Gadet began the SSLM/A in 2011 when he defected from the SPLA.
After a few attacks he signed a ceasefire later that year, but other splinter
factions who disagreed with his decision to sign a ceasefire continued to use
the name.The SSDM/A and SSLM/A later joined into one movement around
2012, which can lead to confusion as the acronyms are often interchanged
when speaking of movements such as Yau Yau’s.
SSIM/A- South Sudan Independence Movement
The South Sudan Independence Movement was the name taken by Machar’s
faction in late 1994 (the earlier names being SPLA-Nasir and SPLA-United).
The name was taken to highlight the group’s political goal of southern
independence from Sudan, which was different from the official rhetoric of
the SPLA. SSIM/A was a signatory to the Khartoum Peace Agreement in 1997
and it became part of the newly formed SSDF. Machar later left in 2000 to
form the anti-government SPDF.
SPLA-United
The name SPLA-United has been used by two different groups, neither which
exists today, which leads to confusion. Initially it was the new name for Riek
Machar’s SPLA-Nasir faction between March 1993 and 1994. The addition of
new individuals in the leadership led to a name change, and SPLA-United
was selected to replace SPLA-Nasir. However, in 1994 the name changed
again to SSIM/A.
The second usage of SPLA-United was for the Shilluk movement of Lam Akol.
Akol was expelled from the original SPLA-United by Machar in February
1994. When Machar changed the name of his movement to SSIM/A, Lam Akol
took on the SPLA-United moniker for his own movement. The Lam Akol
SPLA-United later joined the government in 1997 as part of the Khartoum
Peace Agreement.
SPDF- Sudan People’s Democratic Front/Defense Forces
The Sudan People’s Democratic Front or Sudan People’s Defense Forces (the
political branch and the military branch) were a rebel movement formed by
Riek Machar in 2000. It later merged with the SPLM/A in January 2002.
SPLA-Nasir
The faction that split from the SPLA, led by Riek Machar, Gordon Kong and
Lam Akol, in 1991 was initially called SPLA-Nasir, from the town in Upper
Nile where they had their main base. This group later changed its name to
SPLA-United in 1993, and then Riek Machar changed it to SSIM/A in 1994.
SPLA-Torit/Mainstream
After the 1991 split, those who remained loyal to John Garang came to be
called SPLA Mainstream, to differentiate them from those who were loyal to
the new faction(s). They were also called SPLA-Torit, as the town of Torit in
Eastern Equatoria was the main base of Garang´s faction at the time.
Red Army
The Red Army, or Jesh Amer, was part of a military unit within SPLA,
consisting of boys from many parts of the country. The boys received
military training by the SPLA in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This
occurred in refugee camps in Ethiopia, where only boys were placed, as well
as schools within South Sudan - both of which were administered by the
SPLA. (see Child Soldiers section for more details)
White Army
The White Army, or dec bor in Nuer (alternatively dech bor or dech en bor),
is the term used to describe armed Nuer civilians who mobilize for defense
and aggression. The White Army is primarily made up of untrained fighters,
and is led and coordinated by youth leaders from within the community
structures. The White Army first gained notoriety as a proxy militia in the
wars within the SPLA in the 1990s on the side of the SPLA Nasir faction. In
recent years it has been used as a means of defense and aggression in interethnic clashes between the Nuer and Murle ethnic groups in Jonglei.
Currently it has sided with Riek Machar’s SPLA-in-Opposition due to the
perceived threat towards Nuer, but once again it is largely independent and
has its own parallel leadership structures.
Titweng/Gelweng
The titweng, or gelweng, literally translate as “cattle guards” in Dinka.
After SPLA-Nasir raids into Dinka territory in the early 1990s the community
demanded protection or weapons for self-protection. They received the
weapons and training in how to use them. What began as a community
defense structure turned into a proxy militia for SPLA-Torit/Mainstream.
The group fought alongside the SPLA in 1997 in its push to capture Bahr al
Ghazal. After the Wunlit Peace agreement between the Nuer and Dinka in
1999, the gelweng began to use the guns to fight amongst themselves,
which led to a consequent SPLA disarmament in 2000.
SSUM/A- South Sudan Unity Movement/Army
The South Sudan Unity Movement/Army was started by Paulino Matiep in
1998. It included his earlier Anyanya II and SSDF forces and was supported
by the Sudanese government. It was based in Mayom and was primarily
made up of Bul Nuer.
Smaller militia groups:
Gabriel Tanginya, Gordon Kong and Simon Gatwich all had individual armed
movements. They were supported by Khartoum and were made up of
different Nuer sections. Tanginya’s militia was primarily Lak Nuer and was
based in Fangak, Kong’s was primarily Jikany Nuer and was based in Nasir,
and Gatwich’s was primarily Lou Nuer and was based in Waat.
Johnson, Douglas. 2003. Root Causes of Sudan’s Civil Wars. Oxford: Currey.
Human Rights Watch. 2003. Sudan, Oil and Human Rights.
(https://www.dropbox.com/s/6wctp9hmacqksq1/Sudan%20Oil%20and%20Hu
man%20Rights.pdf?dl=0)
Small Arms Survey (www.smallarmssurvey.org)
Key People
John Garang de Mabior- Garang was the head of the SPLM and Commanderin-chief of the SPLA. He was shortly a member of Anyanya I but then was
integrated into the Sudanese army at the end of the first civil war (1972).
He rose to the rank of colonel and was initially sent to put down the Bor
mutiny but then joined them. He was one of the founders of the SPLA in
1983 and received support from the Ethiopian Mengistu Regime over his
southern rivals Anyanya II. Garang called for a secular and united Sudan, in
contrast to Anyanya II’s demands for independence. He tragically died in
July 2005 in a helicopter crash and Salva Kiir took over as the head of the
SPLM and First Vice President of Sudan.
Salva Kiir- Kiir was the chief of military operations for SPLATorit/Mainstream after the 1991 split and escorted thousands of children,
and those accompanying them, to Kenya. Later Kiir was commander for Bahr
al Ghazal in 1999 and strongly supported the Wunlit Peace agreement
between the Dinka and Nuer. He was made SPLA Chief of Staff in late 1999
and then took over in 2005 as the head of the SPLM and commander-in-chief
of the SPLA after Garang’s death. He won the first election for president
and has held the position ever since. In December 2013 he accused his
former Vice President Riek Machar, and others, of an attempted coup. The
consequent violence in Juba escalated into the current conflict.
Riek Machar- the first Vice President in South Sudan, but was dismissed by
Salva Kiir in July 2013. Machar has historically had a tumultuous relationship
with the SPLM/A and has been behind a number of factions over the years.
Machar has been involved in SPLA-Nasir (which became SPLA-United and
then SSIM/A), SSDF, SPDF and SPLA-IO. See the Nuer profile section for more
details.
Kuol Manyang- previously Manyang was the Governor of Jonglei state until
his appointment in July 2013 as the Minister of Defense. As with many high
level SPLM politicians Kuol Manyang was previously a high ranking official in
the SPLA and was at one time in charge of the Bahr al Ghazal region.
Gordon Kong- Kong was a veteran of Anyanya from the first civil war and
was an original founder of the SPLM/A. He then joined the Anyanya II
movement calling for independence between 1983 and 1988. He was central
in the reconciliation of Anyanya II and the SPLA in the late 1980s when most
of Anyanya II was integrated. He left the SPLA in 1991 as a leader of the
SPLA-Nasir faction. After the 1997 agreement he was made a commander in
the SSDF movement (pro-government umbrella group) and was based in
Nasir.
Lam Akol- Lam Akol was one of the leaders of the SPLA-Nasir faction in 1991
along with Gordon Kong and Riek Machar. He was expelled from the
movement by Machar in 1994, after which he created his own SPLA-United
group made up of Shilluk forces. His SPLA-United was a signatory to the
1997 Fashoda peace agreement. In 2009 he formed the SPLM-Democratic
Change (DC) political party and ran against Salva Kiir for the presidency. See
Shilluk profile section for more.
Kerubino Kuanyin Bol- Kerubino was an Anyanya officer who was integrated
into the Sudanese army after the 1972 agreement. He led the Bor mutiny
and was part of the formation of the SPLA in 1983. He was put in prison by
Garang in 1987 but escaped in 1992 and joined the SPLA-Nasir faction of
Machar in 1993. Kerubino had a Dinka militia group under him that was
supported by the Khartoum government from 1994. He later joined the SPLA
in 1998 but then defected again later the same year and fled to Matiep’s
SSUM/A in Mankien for safety. He was killed in September 1999 by Gadet’s
forces who captured Mankien after defecting from Matiep that month.
Peter Gadet- Gadet was originally a member of the Sudanese Army and was
sent to fight on behalf of Saddam Hussein’s Iraq regime against the Iranians
in the 1980s. He later joined the SPLA but joined the SPLA-Nasir faction
after the 1991 split. He was then given an officer’s post under Paulino
Matiep’s Bul Nuer forces. After the Khartoum Peace Agreement in 1997
Gadet became a key commander in Paulino Matiep’s SSUM/A militia. He
then left the SSUM/A in September 1999 and fought against the Sudanese
government. In early 2000 he joined the SPLA and then began to fight the
SPDF forces under Machar later that year. In 2002 he then rejoined the
government. Gadet was slow in accepting the Juba Declaration in 2006
which created suspicion when he began integration later. His brutal
reputation while fighting with Paulino Matiep, then with the SPLA, and later
with the SSDF also preceded him. Civilian populations were devastated in
some of his attacks and many Bahr al Ghazal Dinka and Nuer in Unity hold
significant grievances towards him to this day. Small Arms Survey believes
his defection is related to the perception that former militia leaders were
being overlooked for promotions, instead given to younger Dinka SPLA
loyalists. He left the SPLA in March 2011 and started the SSLM/A movement.
After attacks on Mayom and Mankien, in which more than 250 people were
killed, he signed a ceasefire and later joined the government in August
2011. Gadet was one of the first to defect in December 2013 to the SPLA-IO
and has been the commander for Jonglei, and more recently Unity state.
Paulo Matiep- Matiep is unusual as he was never a member of the SPLA.
Originally a member of Anyanya in the first civil war, Matiep was not
integrated into the Sudanese Army after 1972, as many others were. He
rebelled again in 1975 and went to Ethiopia and returned in 1985-1986 as
Anyanya II. The reconciliation in the late 1980s between the SPLA and
Anyanya II by Gordon Kong did not include Matiep, presumably due to
attacks by the SPLA on Anyanya II in 1983. Matiep was supported by the
government and fought alongside Omar Bashir (before the 1989 military
coup that would put him in power until today) while recapturing Mayom in
1989 from the SPLA. He joined the SPLA-Nasir faction in 1991 and was
integrated into the SSDF after the 1997 agreement. However, he fought
against Machar´s SSDF forces from 1997 over the governorship of Unity,
which was won by Taban Deng Gai. In 1998 he started the SSUM/A which
was again supported by Khartoum. He then expelled Taban Deng from Unity
in 1999.
Taban Deng Gai- Twice governor of Unity, under both Sudan (1997-1999) and
South Sudan (2005-2013). Taban Deng joined the SPLA in the 1980s but
joined the SPLA-Nasir breakaway faction in 1991. He is related by marriage
to Riek Machar. After the 1997 agreement with Khartoum, he became the
leader of the new UDSF political party. He won an election to be governor
of Unity in 1997 but was expelled in 1999 by Paulino Matiep. In 2000 he
joined Machar’s new movement which then reunited with the SPLA in 2002.
He was appointed as the governor of Unity again in 2005 and was seen as
President Salva Kiir´s close ally. He won the contested elections in Unity
state in 2010 against Angelina Teny, the wife of Riek Machar. However, over
the last years he had a fall-out with the President who dismissed him from
the governorship in 2013. Since December 2013 he has been a member of
the SPLA-IO and represents them in the Addis peace talks.
Ismael Konyi- Former governor of Jonglei and ally of Sudan as head of the
Pibor Defense Forces (PDF) during the second civil war. Signed an
agreement in 2006 with the GOSS and became a peace and reconciliation
adviser to the president.
David Yau Yau- After losing the 2010 parliamentary elections (state
assembly) David Yau Yau began a rebellion in his home county of Pibor.
Unlike many of the other movement leaders, Yau Yau had no previous
military experience. He signed a peace agreement in 2011, but defected in
2012 after the brutal SPLA disarmament of the Murle at the beginning of the
year. This time he received much more support from the youth, and his
movement changed its name to SSLA- Cobra Faction. Interestingly, Gadet
was the commander sent to lead the counter-insurgency operation against
David Yau Yau in 2013 and captured the main base (in Boma?), but failed to
kill Yau Yau himself. Yau Yau signed a new peace agreement with the
government in 2014 providing for a newly created Greater Pibor
Administrative Area (GPAA)1 that does not report to the state governor in
1
The new GPAA has seen two counties (Pibor and Pochalla) divided into seven new
counties.
Jonglei but to the president’s office instead. Yau Yau has been made the
head of the GPAA.
Johnson, Douglas. 2003. Root Causes of Sudan’s Civil Wars. Oxford: Currey.
Human Rights Watch. 2003. Sudan, Oil and Human Rights.
(https://www.dropbox.com/s/6wctp9hmacqksq1/Sudan%20Oil%20and%20Hu
man%20Rights.pdf?dl=0)
Small Arms Survey (www.smallarmssurvey.org)