URBAN GROWTH DYNAMICS (1956-1998) IN
MEDITERRANEAN COASTAL REGIONS: THE
CASE OF ALICANTE, SPAIN
Juan A. Pascual Aguilar1, Carlos Añó, Antonio Valera & Juan Sánchez
Land Use Planning Department. Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificación -CIDE
(CSIC-Universitat de València-GV).
Camí de la Marjal s/n. 46470 Albal, Valencia (Spain).
Telf. +34 96 1220540.
Fax: +34 96 1270967.
E-mail: juan.a.pascual@uv.es
1Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
Among factors causing soil degradation one of the most important, although less
studied in Mediterranean environments, is the irreversible loss of soil due to urbanisation
processes, inserted into the more general concept of soil sealing. In coastal Mediterranean
regions, such as the Valencia Region, Spain, land cover transformations are mainly produced by
contemporary socio-economic changes that have produced a drift from traditional agriculture to
industrial and tourism economies, reinforced by population’s trends to concentrate in cities or
larger urban regions. Evaluation of soil sealing is then a key element to understand soil
degradation and the disappearance, in most cases, of highly productive soils.
This work, inserted within a major study on land use-cover change and soil
degradation of metropolitan areas in the Valencia Region, presents the preliminary results on
the urban-non urban (open agrarian and natural spaces) dynamics in the municipality of
Alicante, the second largest city in the region. Three sets of panchromatic air photos for the
years 1956, 1985 and 1998 have been used. After air photo scanning, on screen digitising
using a base digital topographic map at scale 1:10,000, was applied to extract two major
types of soil cover: agrarian and urban. A Geographical Information System vector structure
has been implemented for cartographic comparison. Finally, to identify spatial and temporal
changes maps and overlays together with synthetic tables were produced in order to assess
soil degradation.
Results show that there has been a substantial loss of soil devoted mainly to
agriculture. Urban growth can be differentiated into three distinct spatial patterns: 1) edge
compact enlargement of the city boundaries, including growth following the main road
network; 2) compact new urbanisation alongside the coast and 3) the colonisation by groups
of individual residences mainly over continental open spaces. One of the main impacts of
such new urban pattern has been the loss of the most fertile soils distributed over the alluvial
plains around the city, which has been mainly occupied by the tourist and residential
buildings.
Keywords: Mediterranean environments, Urban dynamics, Desertification,
degradation, Soil sealing, Aerial photograph, Geographical information Systems.
Land
INTRODUCTION
The expansion of cities has been a relevant feature of the second half
of the last century almost in all areas of the planet. Using population
concentration as an indicator of urban growth, in 1950 less than 1 billion
people, 30 per cent of the population, lived in urban areas; whereas in 2003 the
world’s urban population was estimated at 3 billion (43 per cent) and is
expected to reach 5 billion by 2030, which would be some 61 per cent of the
planet’s total population (United Nations, 2004).
Although there is a strong relationship between urban population
increase and urban expansion, in developed countries the growth of urban
areas has to be understood not only by means of population but also as
fundamental instruments of modern social and economic trends
(globalisation). Such trends concentrate in urban regions labour forces,
industrial, commercial and service activities and the required human, physical
and technological infrastructures. People grouping in cities are tightly related
with modern trends of global economies; although these transforming cities
would represent the engines of growth for their respective societies, they are
also becoming sources of instability (Van Vliet, 2002).
In some areas, the globalisation phenomenon shows a certain
component of social insecurity, because, up to now, the process is basically
economical, based on seeking consumers (Environment and Urbanization,
2002), rather than in the setting of equilibrium among resources distribution
between consumers and producers and the increase of population’s welfare.
Instability that is also highlighted by the fact that in the last decades together with the rapid urban population rise- there has been an even more
dramatic increase of urban population with lower incomes (Cohen, 2004).
In such case, urban development becomes a crucial agent in the land
use-land cover dynamics of any territory (López et al., 2001; Mendoza and
Etter, 2002). The process signifies a radical land use-cover transformation
from other uses (normally agriculture or more natural open spaces) that
commonly implies the soil degradation (Lambin, 1997). In addition to this,
recent studies (e.g., Morello et al., 2000; Fazal, 2000; Nizeyimana et al.,
2001; Hathout, 2002; Hasse and Lathrop, 2003) show that urban
development consumes highly productive soils.
The urbanizing process consumes land resources, reducing the
possibility to develop other traditional and more sustainable land uses. Or
even affecting the ecological properties of the areas were urbanization
expands. In most Mediterranean countries, urban spread has been done in
flat coastal plains, where initially most attempts has been made to strike the
most beneficial balance between development and preservation of natural
and agricultural lands (Van Teeffelen, 1984). Although yet it is valid the
hypothesis that the continued degradation and mismanagement of many
coastal areas continues (European Comission, 1999).
In the last decades, soil degradation induced by urban growth has
become one of the most environmental threats in Mediterranean countries,
mainly in coastal environments (Leontidou et al., 1998; Plan Bleu, 2003). Soil
loss through surface sealing under housing and transport infrastructures it’s a
critical environmental issue leading to desertification, an advanced stage of
land degradation. As a consequence the soil, a non-renewable resource, loss its
multifunctional role (Blum, 1998) and therefore, the process of urban growth
finally lead in much of these areas to the total and irreversible disappearance of
soils dedicated to non urban uses.
One of the main driving forces of land use and land cover changes is
caused by urbanisation (Hubacek and Vazquez, 2002), that modify and
fragment the structure and organisation of rural landscape attributes and create
new ones (Poudevigne et al., 1997; Antrop, 2000; Milesi et al., 2003).
According to various researchers (e.g., Coccossis, 1991; Weber and Puissant,
2003) urbanisation processes, including residential, industrial and
infrastructure development, seems to have been the single most instrumental
process of change for the European Mediterranean regions. In recent years
land use-cover in Mediterranean environments, mainly in coastal areas, is
changing at a high rate.
Contemporary socio-economic history of coastal Mediterranean
regions, such us the Valencia Region (Spain), has led to considerable land useland cover transformations causing, in some cases, the irreversible loss of
prime farmland. Evaluation of soil sealing by urbanisation is then a key
element to understand soil degradation and the disappearance of agriculture or
forestry land. Therefore loss of soil by urban growth constitutes an indicator
for assessing land degradation (Hoobler, et al. 2003; Tullock, et al. 2003) and
desertification in the Mediterranean basin (Sommer et al., 1998).
This work inserted within a study on land use-land-cover and soil
degradation of metropolitan areas in the Valencia Region, presents the
preliminary results on the urban-non urban dynamics since 1956 to 1998 in
the municipality of Alicante, the second largest city in the region.
STUDY AREA
The municipality of Alicante is located in the centre, by the eastern
littoral band, of the province of Alicante in the Spanish Valencia region.
Together with nine more municipalities conforms a higher order territorial
unit, known as the Comarca del Alicantí (Figure 1). Alicante lays on the
eastern most extreme of the Betica Mountains. From there to the
Mediterranean shores the relief is descending gradually, according to three
mountain belt systems, in an intricate of dissected substructures of small
mountain ranges, “sierras”, and valleys that conform a typical littoral
eastern Iberian Mediterranean shores.
The topography of the municipality of Alicante is resumed
according to its slope distribution. Most of its territory has slopes above 5%.
Further, almost one third is above 7% of slope; being the western and
northern most part of it above 15% or even lying on steeper slopes (Padilla,
1998). Within this topographic structure fluvial lower plains of recent
formation are found. From the northern mountain ranges the fluvial
dissection is responsible for the ephemeral stream (barranco) and
ephemeral river (rambla) systems that contribute to the final formation of
the alluvial plains.
The study area has a typical dry semiarid Mediterranean climate
with an annual average temperature about 17ºC and an annual rainfall of
300 mm, very irregularly distributed through out the year and with a major
peak of high intensity rainfalls usually recorded during autumn. A second
minor rainfall season is also registered in spring. The shortage of rainfall
and its concentration in few days over the year gives a considerable amount
of clear sunny days, with almost 3000 hours of sun per year (Pérez Cueva,
1994).
From the environmental point of view, both climate and topography
constitute the two main elements that can determine the model and pattern
of urban expansion, reinforced by the attractiveness of the see facing eastern
part of the municipality.
SPAIN
A
B
A. Valencia Region
B. Alicante Province
9
10
1
4
5
2
6
8
7
3
City of
Alicante
Municipality
1. Agost
2. Aigües
3. Alicante
4. Busot
5. El Campello
6. Mutxamel
7. San Juan de Alicante
8. Sant Vicent del Raspeig
9. La Torre de les Maçanes
10. Xixona
N
0
5
10
15
Study Area
Alicantí Comarca (County)
Kilometers
Figure 1. Location of the study area
METHODOLOGY
The analysis of urban growth has been implemented into a vector
Geographic Information System (GIS) structure (Burrough and McDonnell,
1998) according to a three major step approach (Figure 2).
First, data sources for feature extraction where identified. Although
there exist alternative data sources that could allow the task of soil sealing
feature extraction such as maps and satellite imagery, in this work aerial
photographs have been used. With respect to satellite data, it is true that
nowadays products with very detailed resolution are already available
(Neubert, 2001). Nonetheless the high cost of such images together with the
inexistence of the same sources for historical dates, and the necessity of
harmonisation to improve data consistency and comparability, make
feasible the use of aerial photographs that has been proved effective in
studies of similar nature (e.g., Taylor et al., 2000; Fricke and Wolff, 2002;
Hathout, 2002; Cheng and Masse, 2003). Thus, three sets of panchromatic
aerial photographs for the years 1956, 1985 and 1998 at scales 1:33 000
(1956), 1:30 000 (1985) and 1:25 000 (1998) constituted the main data
sources for mapping land use-cover changes.
The data input and database construction phase and management,
consisted on high resolution scanning with sufficient detail for delimitation
of small urban features such as isolated new housing and narrow (around 2
m of width) streets and roads. After scanning, all aerial photographs were
georeferenced and a single composite mosaic made for each year.
Georefencing was the result of combining the scanned photographs, a
common set of control points and a base digital topographic map at scale
1:10 000.
Finally geometric (polygon) and semantic databases (tables with
attributes) were constructed for each layer of information, or year, by aerial
photograph interpretation technique (Bird et al., 2000) and on screen
digitising. Information from the 1998 aerial photographs were digitised as
the reference urban growth data layer, allowing on one hand feature
recognition and visual training of the panchromatic sources, and on the
other a support for polygon delimitation of the rest of historical sets.
Attribute definition for polygon assignation where defined according to two
major classes: urban (that where subdivided into low density when buildings
where no compacted, high density such as residential blocks in cities) and
non-urban.
...
1956
1998
1985
1985
1956
1998
Class 1.
Density
Class
2.
Density
DATA SOURCES
Urban.
High
Urban.
Low
Class 3.DATA
NonINPUT
Urban
&
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT
SPATIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSIS
Figure 2. Methodological structure for the study of soil sealing by urban growth in the municipality of Alicante
Once both semantic and geometric data bases where constructed, it
was possible to proceed with the third phase of the methodology, which
consists on the spatial and temporal analysis. Two main criteria where taken
into account: a synchronic (at one date) spatial analysis where undertaken
for each year followed by a diachronic map comparison to define spatiotemporal trends. To assess and illustrate the results of the spatial and
temporal changes of soil loss by urban growth maps and overlays together
with synthetic tables were produced as GIS outputs.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Factors affecting the growth of urban spaces are related to both
environmental and socio-economic variables. The former could be
restrictive (such as very steep relief, flooding areas, etc.) or prone to urban
growth expansion (such as littoral position, or even good weather -dry and
worm- conditions). On the other hand, socio-economic factors would
reinforce urban growing; for example, the recent tourist industry
development, the political and administrative provincial capital status and
the progressive population increase are factors that would increase urban
expansion potentials.
From an environmental perspective, the municipality is structured
by a dense ephemeral streams and ephemeral rivers descending from the
highest western steeper slopes (Figure 3).
Such topographic distribution is very limiting for urban
dissemination in the inner and central mountain formations, or at least will
determine an urban structure of low density urbanisation. While over the flat
lands, where the original city of Alicante settlement is found, the urban
growth is related to a high density expansion model. Other aspects such as
climate and see facing slopes will reinforced the low density pattern of the
steeper areas.
In fact such two major types of urban growth dynamics have been
developed since 1956 in Alicante. One should have to be related with a type
of dispersed settlement that nowadays could be explained by the tourism
and second residence expansion. This low density urban growth had a
higher moment of expansion in the period 1956-1985 when there was an
increase equivalent to 5% of the total municipal area (Table 1).
14
B
A
12
11
9
10
13
8
C
6
5
7
D
1
4
E
City of A licante
3
2
N
0
2
4
6
8 Kilometers
0 - 150
150 - 3 00
300 - 4 50
450 - 6 00
600 - 7 50
750 - 9 00
900 - 1 05 0
Altitude distribution
16
15
EA
AN
RR
E
IT
ED
M
N
A
SE
1. S i e rr a G r o ssa
2. S i e rr a d e ls C o lm e n a rs
3. S i e rr a d e l S a n xo
4. S i e rr a d e Fo n tca l en t
5. S e r r eta N e g ra
6. S i e rr a M itja n a
7. S i e rr a d e la s Á g u i la s
8. S i e rr a d e l C a ste ll a r
9. S i e rr a d e B o na l b a
10 . S i e rr a d e l a B a ll es te ra
11 . S i e rr a d e L l o fri u
12 . S i e rr a d el V e n to s
13 . S i e rr a d el C id
14 . S i e rr a d el M a ig m ó
15 . S i e rr a d e l a P e n ya rr o ja
16 . S i e rr a d el C ab e ç ó d 'O r
A . B a rr a n co Ho n d o
B . B a rr a n co d e V e rc he r e t
C. R ío S e co
D. R a m b la d 'O r gé g i a
E . B a rr a n co d e le s O ve ll es
105 0 - 12 00
120 0 - 13 50
135 0 - 16 00
Alic a nte M un ic ip ality
Slop e
dist ribu tion
Figure 3. Relief distribution of Alicante municipality and surroundings
< 10%
> 10%
Table 1. Urban growth types and synthetic dynamics of the municipality of Alicante
1956
TYPE OF LAND
COVER
Ha
%
High density
618
3.1
Urban
Low density
371
1.8
Total
989
4.9
Non urban
19,088 95.1
Total
20,077 100
1985
Ha
%
1,738
8.6
1,399
7.0
3,137 15.6
16,940 84.4
20,077 100
1998
Ha
%
2,325 11.6
1,789
8.9
4,114 20.5
15,963 79.5
20,077 100
This period is coincident with the intensive decades of the constitution and
consolidation of the tourism industry of the area. From 1985 to 1998 the low density urban
growth has signified an additional 1% (1,553 Ha). This type of settlement has occurred in the
inner continental part of the municipality, with two different foci of expansion: one in the west
and a second, closer to the Mediterranean, in the north (Figure 4).
Attending the spatio-temporal distribution of the process, in 1956 most of the urban
spaces were of high density, being concentrate around the original city of Alicante. It can be
found a very little high density area by the east on the shore line that will be a second element of
expansion in coming years. The low density urban spatial distribution in 1956 is scarce. Its
major area of representation is located between the two high density elements above mentioned.
The rest of low density surfaces are scattered over the study area.
In 1985 the spatial trends of soil sealing distribution by urban expansion is highly
different. The major area around Alicante city is now growing assuming a crescent shape. Also
there is an increment of such features alongside the shore line (north and south) and towards the
confluence with the second spot of high density identified in 1956. The low density pattern is
now more evident due to the fact of its important increase in surface. The original trend to
connect the city of Alicante with the coast line by the northeast is now consolidated; while it can
also be found a larger concentration by the northwest of the municipality.
In 1998, the trends described for the image of 1985 are now well consolidated:
expansion and compaction according to the crescent shape of the city of Alicante, occupation of
the shore line by high density buildings, concentration of low density areas between the city and
the second point of high density on the coast line and enlargement of the low density residential
surfaces on the west of the area.
1985
1956
N
N
Non urban
Non urban
0
5 Km
HIGH-DENSITY URBAN
Urban: highURBAN
density
LOW-DENSITY
Urban: low density
0
5 Km
HIGH-DENSITY
Urban: highURBAN
density
LOW-DENSITY URBAN
Urban: low density
1956-1998
1998
N
0
N
5 Km
Non urban
HIGH-DENSITY URBAN
Urban: highURBAN
density
LOW-DENSITY
Urban: low density
0
5 Km
1956
1985
1998
Figure 4. Spatio-temporal distribution of urban expansion in Alicante
In all, the model of urban growth of Alicante is synthesised by the 1956-1998 image
(Figure 4). Nowadays the municipality has a semi-polynuclear high density settlement with at
least two differentiated points of expansion: the city of Alicante and the eastern area. On the
other hand the low density enlargement has been done mainly in the inner parts of the
municipality, being with the time a scattered pattern of residences well identified over the
western hills. For the period analysed, constant population increase seems to be a synthetic
expression of the socio-economic forces behind the urban sprawl experienced in the
municipality (Figure 5). This is so for the first 20 years analysed. Since 1980, there must be
other reasons (urban cultural changes in the housing demand, financial investments for the
development of commercial, leisure and sport areas, etc.) that explain the steady rising of urban
surface while population growth stops or even decrease.
1. Alicante
2. Agost
3.Aigües
5. El Campello
6. Mutxamel
7. San Juan de Alicante
9. La Torre de les Maçanes
10. Xixona
11. County totals
4. Busot
8. San Vicente del Raspeig
Figure 5. Population trends for the Alicantí Comarca
For the county, the topography restriction will explained the differential population
growth in mountain municipalities (Agost, Busot, Aigües, La Torre de les Maçanes and
Xixona), with very low population increase rates. On the contrary the littoral less steep
municipalities (Alicante, San Vicent del Raspeig and San Juan de Alicante) present high rates of
population growth. Then it could be suggested that population trends -associated with the
topographic argument- will prevent massive urbanization. Therefore the urban growth model,
apart from traditional settlements, would be more of the low density type.
In this way it can not be forgotten that Alicante is the province capital city,
characterised by it’s political, administrative and services role. It is also the main destination of
international charter flights (mostly from northern UE countries) because its strategic location in
one of the largest tourist areas of Spain (Costa Blanca) based on the sun and beach binomial.
Consequently, the city of Alicante has experienced, since its original settlement, an expansion
based on the population increase and its particular socio-economic features.
CONCLUSIONS
Land degradation processes resulting from human activities constitute the most
important environmental threat in the Mediterranean countries. The final phase of the process
leads to desertification. Among factors causing soil degradation one of the most important,
although less studied in Mediterranean environments, mainly in coastal areas, is soil loss
through urban development and construction of transport infrastructure, phenomenon known as
soil sealing.
The urban land transformation experienced by the municipality of Alicante since the
1950s have produced the irreversible loss of considerable part of its surface. The intensity of
expansion had a major step between 1956 and 1985, while since that date until 1998, the trends
were consolidated. In all it has extended from 5% of its territory in 1956 to 20.5% in 1998.
Results show that there has been a substantial loss of soils devoted to both agricultural land uses
and natural open spaces. Urban growth can be differentiated into three distinct spatial patterns:
1. Edge compact enlargement of the city boundaries including growth following the
main road network.
2. Compact new urbanisation of alongside the coast.
3. Colonisation by groups of individual residences (low density urban growth)
mainly over both continental open spaces.
The process, although it is similar to other main municipalities of the Valencia Region
such as Valencia city (Pascual Aguilar, 2002; Pascual Aguilar et al., 2002), has its own
characteristics; being the low density development the most important. Topography is the most
relevant force behind restrictions to a denser urbanisation. While in the municipality of
Valencia, located in a very flat alluvial plain, the only restriction is the existence of the Albufera
Lagoon, declared as a Natural Park. In the rest of the municipality rates of urban growth are
always related with high density urbanisation, and the proportion of land covered by artificial
surfaces is then higher than in Alicante municipality.
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