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Issue 358, 23 January 2013
Science for Environment Policy
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In this issue
The value of acknowledging societal costs of N2O emissions
Calculating the costs of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions to society as well as business is vital to
understand the true economic gains of reducing N2O emissions, new research suggests.
Increasing nitrogen use efficiency by 20% by 2020 could bring global annual benefits to the
climate, health and environment worth US $160 (€¬118) billion, the researchers conclude.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
Commuting study reveals the factors affecting sustainable transport use
Factors influencing people's decisions about how they travel to work are highlighted in a new
study on commuting in Europe. Key findings include: cycling rates increase with the length of
a city's bicycle network and public transport use rises with a city's population and GDP per
capita. Based on the findings, the researchers propose policy measures for reducing the
number of car journeys.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
The public value of including scientific information in groundwater protection
policies
The public places a high value on the use of scientific information, especially regarding
climate change, in the management of groundwater resources, a case study in Finland
indicates. This suggests that incorporating scientific research into management policies is
likely to have the support of stakeholders in the region.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
Nutrients in streams can mask toxic effects of pesticides on aquatic life
Moderate levels of nitrogen in streams and rivers can make it difficult to assess the effects of
pesticides on aquatic wildlife, because nutrients mask the pesticides' impacts, according to
recent research. This highlights the importance of considering nutrient levels when
developing measures to protect aquatic ecosystems.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
A vegetarian diet can help reduce water consumption across Europe
Different European regions have very different diets and environmental conditions, meaning
their water consumption varies widely. Despite this, switching to vegetarian diets in keeping
with regional variation would substantially reduce water consumption in all areas, a new
study concludes. Where people choose to eat meat, adopting a healthy diet low in oils and
sugar will also reduce water consumption, although to a lesser degree.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
'Chemical footprint' in development
A measure of 'chemical footprint' is being developed by researchers to assess the
environmental impacts of the toxic chemicals released by the production and consumption of
goods. The methodology, based on life cycle and risk assessment, is also designed to be
linked to the resilience of ecosystems to chemical exposure.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
The contents and views included in this News Alert are based on independent,
peer-reviewed research and do not necessarily reflect the position of the European
Commission.
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Full articles
The value of acknowledging societal costs of N2O emissions
Calculating the costs of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions to society as well as business is vital to
understand the true economic gains of reducing N2O emissions, new research suggests.
Increasing nitrogen use efficiency by 20% by 2020 could bring global annual benefits to the
climate, health and environment worth US $160 (€118) billion, the researchers conclude.
N2O is a major greenhouse gas emitted as a result of human activities such as agriculture,
industry and fuel combustion. Measures to reduce its emissions through more efficient use of
nitrogen can help mitigate climate change and lessen nitrogen losses from agriculture. The
latter leads to improved food production as well as a reduction in nitrogen pollution.
Estimations of the financial gains of these co-benefits could make a good economic case to
motivate reductions in N2O emissions.
This study, partly supported by the EU ÉCLAIRE1 and NitroEurope2 projects in cooperation
with the United Nations Environment Programme, makes a distinction between two
perspectives of the issue: the sector and societal views. The sector view considers that
actions to reduce N2O emissions should not come at any extra cost for the sectors
responsible for the emissions. The societal view considers that in addition to business
profitability, the benefits of reduced N2O emissions to climate, human health and biodiversity
need to be quantified and taken into account in order to better evaluate the net societal
benefit as a driver for policy development in this field. Currently the sector view tends to
dominate policy-making efforts, mainly because agriculture and industry experience only a
small share of the costs of N2O emissions (such as health costs) while the gains (such as
improved fertilisation) are comparatively large.
The researchers therefore suggest that there is a need for policy to take a more societal view
of N2O emissions. To illustrate this, the study's authors investigate methods of improving
nitrogen use efficiency–the amount of nitrogen in a product divided byy the amount used in
its production. In agriculture this can be calculated by dividing the amount of nitrogen
exported from the fields as crops by the amount of applied nitrogen fertiliser. The authors
also highlight the need to consider what they term 'full-chain nitrogen use efficiency', which
allows the benefit of improvements at all stages of nitrogen use to be counted (e.g. before
and after the application of fertilisers).
There are many actions that could improve overall nitrogen use efficiency, such as improving
the efficiency of fertiliser use, recycling nitrogen from wastewater systems and lowering the
amount of animal protein in the diet. It is estimated that improving the nitrogen use
efficiency by 20% between 2008 and 2020 would save 23 million tonnes of nitrogen,
resulting in a financial saving of about US $23 (€17) billion per year. In addition, the annual
benefits to the climate, health and environment could amount to US $160 (€118) billion,
highlighting the pottential monetary benefits of considering the societal view in policy
measures.
The researchers suggest that policy measures should foster innovative techniques to improve
nitrogen use efficiency and aim to improve communication to promote their market benefits,
including direct benefits for the agriculture sector. In particular they recommend that
environmentally damaging nitrogen subsidies be avoided. Overall, they conclude that
incorporating both sector and societal views into policy packages can highlight the true
economic gains of reducing N2O emissions and encourage the employment of these
techniques.
1.
Effects of Climate Change on Air Pollution and Response Strategies for European Ecosystems (ÉCLAIRE) is
supported by the European Commission under the Seventh Framework Programme. See: http://www.eclairefp7.eu
2.
NitroEurope (NEU) was supported by the European Commission under the Sixth Framework Programme. See:
http://www.nitroeurope.eu
Source: Sutton, M.A., Skiba, U.M., vans Grinsven, H. et al. (2013) Green Economy thinking and the control of nitrous oxide
emissions. Environmental Development. DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2013.10.002.
Contact: ms@ceh.ac.uk
Read more about: Agriculture, Climate change, Environment and health
Commuting study reveals the factors affecting sustainable transport use
Factors influencing people's decisions about how they travel to work are highlighted in a new
study on commuting in Europe. Key findings include: cycling rates increase with the length of
a city's bicycle network and public transport use rises with a city's population and GDP per
capita. Based on the findings, the researchers propose policy measures for reducing the
number of car journeys.
Journeys to work are a major source of pollution and traffic congestion. In this study,
researchers used data from 112 European cities with populations of between 100 000 to
500000 to examine factors influencing how people travel to work.
The authors used a mathematical model that allowed them to calculate the probability of
commuters choosing certain modes of transport, based on different factors. For instance,
they considered petrol prices and the length of the cycling network in the city. The five
modes of transport they considered were bicycle, motorcycle, car, walking and public
transport.
Some of the key findings from the study were:
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Public transport is used more often in cities with larger populations and higher
numbers of buses.
Public transport is used less often in cities where monthly bus tickets are more
expensive, where there are more days of rain annually and where there are higher
proportions of elderly residents and families with children.
Wealthier cities had higher proportions of people driving but also walking to work and
taking public transport.
In cities with larger student populations, people use public transport more, and are
more likely to cycle and walk.
Commuting by car and motorcycle was more common in cities where more individuals
owned such vehicles.
Motorcycles were more likely to be used when petrol prices were low.
The likelihood of commuters cycling to work increased with the length of the cycling
network (calculated as the combined length of cycle lanes and separate cycle paths).
Based on these findings, the researchers propose that policies discouraging car ownership,
for example, through high registration fees, could reduce the numbers of people commuting
by car and that subsidised fares could increase use of public transport. They also suggest
that reallocating road space from motorised transport to bicycles, for example by designating
or building cycle lanes, would be an inexpensive and effective way to increase the number of
people cycling. However, the study does not consider how making cycling safer, for instance
by increasing the length of separate cycle paths versus cycle lanes, would alter travel
behaviour.
These results seem to confirm findings from previous, smaller studies. However, the authors
are careful to point out that there are a number of factors which may influence commuting
decisions which were not accounted for, such as average distance between home and work,
and road and parking charges. They also suggest it might be useful for future research to
consider commuting that extends beyond city boundaries.
Source: Santos, G., Maoh, H., Potoglou, D. et al. (2013). Factors influencing modal split of commuting journeys in mediumsize European cities. Journal of Transport Geography. 30: 127-137. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.04.005.
Contact: SantosG@Cardiff.ac.uk, thomasvb@gmx.ch, MaohHF@uwindsor.ca, PotoglouD@Cardiff.ac.uk
Read more about: Sustainable mobility, Urban environment
The public value of including scientific information in groundwater protection
policies
The public places a high value on the use of scientific information, especially regarding
climate change, in the management of groundwater resources, a case study in Finland
indicates. This suggests that incorporating scientific research into management policies is
likely to have the support of stakeholders in the region.
The Rokua esker region in Northern Finland, which covers about 90 km 2, is a popular area for
tourism and recreation, as well as forestry. In the last few decades, water levels in local
lakes, which are fed by groundwater, have been dropping. The reasons for this are unclear,
although land use impacts (particularly draining peat land for forestry), climate change and
the natural variability of the water system could all play a part. To date, there has been
insufficient research to understand what long-term environmental damage could be caused
by failing to act to combat declining groundwater levels or what environmental
improvements could be achieved by revising management plans for the area.
In this study, funded by the EU GENESIS1 project, researchers interviewed 171 residents and
visitors to investigate how they value different management options of water resources in
this area. In particular researchers were interested in whether respondents felt scientific
knowledge should be used to reduce the uncertainties associated with climate change and to
improve understanding of the interactions between human impacts and water resources.
Experts decided on three management options to address the problems that included: (i)
limiting peat land drainage in the groundwater area, (ii) increasing the conservation area and
(iii) using technical solutions to restore water levels in peat lands, groundwater and lakes. If
implemented, these are all expected to meet requirements of the EU's Water Framework
Directive and Groundwater Directive, as well as supporting local ecosystems.
The management options were based on the following attributes: water quality; recreation;
total land income (e.g. from logging, peat harvesting or tourism); investment in research;
and a one-off payment by households to implement the policy measures. Once respondents
had been given a description of the problems in the area, they were asked to choose
between a series of different scenarios listing different levels of management interventions
for each attribute.
Analysis revealed that respondents placed the highest value on scientific research, especially
in relation to reducing climate change uncertainty. Households would be willing to pay
between €33-337 for this attribute in water resource management. Respondents also valued
improving the quantity of groundwater and increasing recreation highly and were willing to
pay an average of €23 and €11, respectivelyely, for these attributes. Far less value was
attached to management plans offering opportunities for income from land use activities,
such as forestry or peat harvesting.
The researchers conclude that understanding how the public value different management
options is vital for developing future plans for the region that will be acceptable to all
stakeholders.
1. The GENESIS project (Groundwater and Dependent Ecosystems: New Scientific and Technological Basis for
Assessing Climate Change and Land-use Impacts on Groundwater) is supported by the European Commission under the
Seventh Framework Programme. See: www.thegenesisproject.eu
Source: Koundouri, P., Kougea, E., Stithou, M. et al. (2012). The value of scientific information on climate change: a choice
experiment on Rokua esker, Finland. Journal of Environmental Economics and Policy. 1(1): 85-102.
DOI:10.1080/21606544.2011.647450.
Contact: pkoundouri@aueb.gr
Read more about: Water Envirionmental information services, Envirionmental economics
Nutrients in streams can mask toxic effects of pesticides on aquatic life
Moderate levels of nitrogen in streams and rivers can make it difficult to assess the effects of
pesticides on aquatic wildlife, because nutrients mask the pesticides' impacts, according to
recent research. This highlights the importance of considering nutrient levels when
developing measures to protect aquatic ecosystems.
Freshwater organisms are exposed to a number of natural and non-natural stressors,
including agricultural pollution. Pesticides, for example, have been found to be highly toxic to
aquatic species that are not the target of the applications, and more than one pesticide is
typically found in monitored waters.
Although previous research has shown that pesticides and nutrients can affect the structure
and function of aquatic communities, the combined effects of these inputs are not well
known. This study examined how the presence of added nutrients in streams could modify
the effects of a mixture of three insecticides used to protect food crops: chlorpyrifos,
dimethoate and imidacloprid. All are toxic to non-target species.
The researchers evaluated the responses of bottom-dwelling macroinvertebrate
communities, including e.g. non-biting midges (Chironomus species), to exposure from the
insecticide mixture in oligotrophic water (containing low nutrient levels) and mesotrophic
water (containing moderate amounts of nutrients).
Over 20 days, the creatures, collected from a river in Canada, were exposed to a range of
insecticide mixture doses in 80 outdoor artificial streams. The streams mimicked the
invertebrates' natural habitats with beds of stone and gravel coated in an algae film and
were fed with natural groundwater from the area. Two natural predator species, dragonflies
(Gomphus species) and stoneflies (Agnetina species) were also added to the artificial
streams to act as additional stressors for the invertebrates.
The researchers tested the effects of different doses of the insecticides in water enriched
with nitrate (representing mesotrophic conditions) and unenriched water (representing
oligotrophic conditions).
When the insecticide mixture was absent or at low (sublethal) levels, moderate levels of
added nitrate in the artificial streams increased macroinvertebrate numbers compared with
those in the unenriched streams. This suggests that the added nutrients promoted algal
growth which increased the supply of food at the bottom of the food webs within the
macrobenthic communities. This masked the impact of the sublethal doses of the insecticide
mixture on species in the macroinvertebrate community.
However, moderate to high doses of the insecticides had a more toxic effect in nutrientenriched than in oligotrophic waters, reducing the numbers and diversity of
macroinvertebrates. Furthermore, the effects on different species varied according to the
dose of insecticides. The impact of the dragonfly and stonefly predators was significant only
in the oligotrophic waters.
These results suggest that it is difficult to predict the effects on aquatic organisms of
complex mixtures of pesticides, commonly used in agriculture, particularly when streams and
rivers are moderately enriched with nutrient inputs from the surrounding landscape.
Source: Alexander, A.C., Luis, A.T., Culp, J.M., et al. (2013). Can nutrients mask community responses to insecticide
mixtures? Ecotoxicology. 22:1085-1100. DOI:10.1007/s10646-013-1096-3.
Contact: alexa.alexander@unb.ca
Read more about: Chemicals, Risk assessment, Water
A vegetarian diet can help reduce water consumption across Europe
Different European regions have very different diets and environmental conditions, meaning
their water consumption varies widely. Despite this, switching to vegetarian diets in keeping
with regional variation would substantially reduce water consumption in all areas, a new
study concludes. Where people choose to eat meat, adopting a healthy diet low in oils and
sugar will also reduce water consumption, although to a lesser degree.
There is increasing pressure on global water resources, with demand rising and the effects of
climate change causing concern. Water use efficiency is therefore a key issue. In the EU, the
consumption of agricultural products represents 89% of the water 'footprint', accounting for
4265 lcd (litres per person per day) out of a total of 4815 lcd. Diet is therefore thought to
have a substantial influence on water consumption.
In this study, researchers examine the effects of diet on water footprint, taking into account
the differences in regional diets. The four regions were those geographical regions defined by
the UN for the compilation of statistics. They included the north (Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Sweden and the UK); the east (the Czech Republic, Bulgaria,
Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia); the west (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany,
Luxembourg and the Netherlands); and the south (Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Malta,
Portugal, Slovenia and Spain).
The researchers calculated the different water footprints of three different diets for each
region: 1. the current diet in the region (based on national food consumption statistics for
1996-2005); 2. a healthy diet, based on regional guidelines; and 3. a vegetarian diet, which
was based on the healthy diet, but with the meat substituted with other sources of protein,
such as pulses and nuts, etc.
The results demonstrate that vegetarian diets achieve the greatest reduction in water
consumption across all four regions. The two lowest footprints of the current diets were in
the north and west. In the north, the current water footprint is calculated as 3197 lcd and
this dropped by 3% to 3091 lcd under the healthy diet and by 32% to 2166 lcd under the
vegetarian diet. In the west, the total of 3761 lcd was reduced by 26% as a result of the
healthy diet and 41% for the vegetarian.
In the south, the current water footprint was largest, as expected for hotter countries where,
for example, irrigation may be required for crop production. However, consumption of meat
was also high, with the current consumption of 58.9 kg per person per year almost three
times the regional recommendation of 20.8 kg. The southern total of 5875 lcd dropped by
30% under the healthy diet and 41% under the vegetarian diet. Countries in the east eat the
least meat and current water consumption of 4053 lcd dropped by 11% for the healthy diet
and by 27% for the vegetarian diet.
This study shows that reducing the amount of meat, sugar and oils in a diet can have a
significant effect on the water footprint, even when regional differences are taken into
consideration. The researchers do note one important limitation: water footprint estimates
for fish are not available and could not be included; however, they note that this will in fact
result in underestimation of current water footprint.
Source: Vanham, D., Hoekstra, A. Y. & Bidoglio, G. (2013). Potential water saving through changes in European diets.
Environment International. 61: 45–56. DOI: 100.1016/j.envint.2013.09.011.
Contact: davy.vanham@jrc.ec.europa.eu or davy.vanham@yahoo.de
Read more about: Water, Sustainable consumption and production
'Chemical footprint' in development
A measure of 'chemical footprint' is being developed by researchers to assess the
environmental impacts of the toxic chemicals released by the production and consumption of
goods. The methodology, based on life cycle and risk assessment, is also designed to be
linked to the resilience of ecosystems to chemical exposure.
Environmental 'footprints', from carbon emissions to water use, are increasingly being used
to assess the impact of human pressures on the environment. However, despite the
widespread use of toxic chemicals in many products and services, no method of assessing a
'chemical' footprint has yet been designed.
In this study, researchers from the European Commission's Joint Research Centre 1,
developed a conceptual framework for assessing chemical footprints that combines three
concepts in sustainable chemical management: life cycle assessment (LCA), risk assessment
for human and ecological exposure, and the precautionary principle that addresses
uncertainties associated with the impacts of chemical pollution.
Based on these concepts, the researchers suggest there could be at least two steps to
determining chemical footprint. The first step, based on LCA, assesses emissions of
chemicals released directly and indirectly into the environment as well as the potential harm
of these to the environment, as determined by a risk assessment.
The second step links the chemicals released into the environment with the capacity of
affected ecosystems to recover from the harm caused (the 'carrying capacity' of the
ecosystem). This capability is linked to the planetary or 'safe' boundaries for chemical
pollution, although no targets have yet been set.
To illustrate the development of a chemical footprint, the researchers used the first step to
assess the impacts on freshwater ecosystems in the EU-27, as a case study. This can be
calculated using LCA from the perspective of production or consumption of a product. The
assessment considers the domestic chemical emissions, as well as those related to the
products imported to and exported from a single country.
Analysis revealed that impacts on freshwater ecosystems from domestic consumption in the
EU-27 were mainly caused by pesticide emissions, in particular, endosulfan emitted to the
water and air, and cyhalothrin and a―cypermethrin emitted to water. Metal emissions
(e.g. copper and vanadium emitted to the air) were responsible for the majority of impacts
on freshwater ecosystems from import and export-related consumption in the EU-27. Work
on resolving uncertainties associated with step one and linking step one with the carrying
capacity of ecosystems (step two) is on-going.
The study highlights a number of issues that must be resolved to further develop the
chemical footprint concept. These include identification of which source types (e.g. point or
diffuse sources) to evaluate; identifying priority chemicals and dealing with new
contaminants.
1. http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/
Source: Sala, S. & Goralczyky, M. (2013). Chemical Footprint: A Methodological Framework for Bridging Life Cycle
Assessment and Planetary Boundaries for Chemical Pollution. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 9
(4): 623–632.. DOI: 10.1002/ieam.1471.
Contact: Serenella.sala@jrc.ec.europa.eu
Read more about: Chemicals, Environmental information services ,Water