CONCEPTUAL ERROR ON THE FUNDAMENTAL NATURE OF
LIGHT- PHENOMENON IN CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS,
LED TO THE COMPLEXITIES IN QUANTUM PHYSICS
Paramhamasa Tewari, B.Sc. Engg. *
1
Introduction
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) had theoretically concluded that the
oscillations of electric current in a straight conductor, or circulation in a loop of wire,
“radiates away” energy, which is “lost” from the oscillating charges constituting the
current. This concept, later, conflicted with the atom’s model of Rutherford in which
electrons moved around the nucleus in closed orbits; and the question arose that like any
other vibrating or revolving charge, the electrons should lose energy by emitting
electromagnetic waves as per the classical electrodynamics, eventually falling into the
nucleus. The quantum theory of light by Planck and Einstein had accepted the possibility
of “emission” and “absorption” of light by electron; the atomic model of Bohr attempted
partial solution to the aforesaid problem. However, it is shown in this paper through the
space-vortex structure of electron, which provides deeper insight into the basic nature of
mass, inertia, energy, electrical charge and light; that during vibration, or revolution
around a center , an electron does not lose either its structural or kinetic energy; though it
produces electromagnet field (light), which is shown to be created due to mere cyclic
changes in the magnitudes of its electrostatic and gravitational potentials in space; on
account of to-and-fro displacement of the electron’s center(discussed further). Thus, if
loss of energy from the orbital electrons in an atom can be shown to be non existent,
similar to the solar system in the Rutherford’s model of atom, the revolving electrons will
have stable elliptical orbits; and this would lead to the right course of development of the
atomic physics, provided an alternative explanation for the production of light from the
vibrating atoms (rather than the orbital electrons) is given. The physical aspects of the
process of electron’s creation and annihilation, wave length and frequency of light,
briefly outlined in this paper (from author’s earlier works), enable drawing comparison
with the corresponding ideas of quantum physics and, thereby, tracing down those
phenomena of quantum theory that led to digressions, one after the other, from reality in
the early years of this century.
2 Space-Vortex Structure of Electron
A hypothesis on the basic nature of the medium of space and the structure of
electron, namely “The Substantial Space and Void-nature of Elementary Material
Particles”, [1] was framed in mid seventies to introduce a new concept that the electron,
rather than being a point-mass or a point-charge according to the models of
contemporary physics has, at its center, a spherical void, which is field less and energy
less, that is, within which the fields are discontinuous as shown in Fig .1a. The medium
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Former Executive Director (Nuclear Projects), Nuclear Power Corporation, India
1
of space was postulated to be a dynamic fluid substratum with its properties totally
opposed to matter, that is, non material, where “non material” was defined as mass less,
non viscous, continuous, and incompressible. Basic equations establishing relationships
between the parameters of the space-vortex and mass, charge, and angular momentum of
electron were derived from its structure (fig.1a). The other postulated property of space
was, that its flow breaks down if its circulation around a point reaches a limiting velocity
gradient, that is, angular velocity , where  = c / re , c being the constant speed of light
(electromagnetic field) in vacuum (static space) and relative to it; and r e is the radius of
the above mentioned spherical void at electron’s center; this aspect of the limiting speed
of the flow of the fluid space (Figs.1a, 1b) was shown to be the process, and also the
cause, for creation of electron as an irrotational vortex in the medium of the non viscous
space .( In view of comprehensive explanations, at fundamental levels, for the basic and
hitherto unexplained phenomena covered under classical as well as quantum physics,
coming forth from the above works, the same was subsequently named as Space Vortex
Theory (SVT ) [2]. The actual motion of space is termed velocity field, abbreviated as
“vf”, which has opposite directions in the two vortices (fig.2a) identified as electron and
positron, due to which the concepts of positive and negative charges arise.
The radius of the void, determined [2] from the experimentally obtained value of
the electron’s charge and the charge- equation (fig.1a), comes to about 4x 10-11 cm. The
creation of the spherical void and its dynamic stability [2] leaves only one entity as the
sole reality in the universe – the dynamic and primordial plenum of space defined as the
most basic state of cosmic energy which existed prior to the creation of any matter in the
universe. The existence of the central void combined with the linear vf of the non viscous
and mass less medium of space impart a moving electron [2] with the properties of
inertia, momentum, and kinetic energy during its motion relative to space; the central
void, also enables its annihilation with positron , as discussed further.
The limiting speed of rotation of space around the electron center, endows it with
the behavior of the hardest, impenetrable particle, whereas, the fluid space- vortex
enclosing the electron, and extending through out space, results in wave- behavior during
its motion; the wave and particle aspects of electron are thus combined in its very
structure.
That an electron can possess some kind of void ness at its center, had been
speculated [4] earlier too. Around 1892, “ Sir J.Larmor suggested that gravitation
between electrons might be explained if the electrons are vacuous and have free periods
of vibration in the fluid ether, the explanation following the hydro dynamical pulsatory
theory of Bjerknes.” He had also imagined electric charge to be represented as an
intrinsic rotational aspect of ether. At that time, however, the mass and charge of electron
were not precisely known; nor was the phenomenon of annihilation (early 1930s) ever
imagined; and above all, the limiting aspect of the speed of light (that plays a crucial role
in the creation of electron in SVT) was postulated by Einstein in Special Theory of
Relativity (STR) only in 1905. Thus, it appears that the time was not ripe enough for a
compressive
unitary
theory
of
space
and
matter.
3 Generation of Fields associated with Electron
The process of creation of electron (fig.2b) takes place (within the stars and
galactic centers) with the circulation of the fluid space reaching the limiting angular
velocity , which is the maximum possible velocity gradient c/re in the non viscous (zero
rigidity) space. Due to the maximum possible outward acceleration field c2 /re , the space
breaks down (Fig.2b) into a dynamically stable spherical void [2]; and since there is an
2
absence of any energy within the void, the acceleration field reverses its direction, into an
inward acceleration field, thus exerting proportionate pressure from space on to the voidspace interface. This acceleration field is of the order of (2.25) .10 31 cm / s2, which is
the highest possible field in the universe, because c is the limiting velocity of space , and
re is the minimum possible void-radius. (It has been elsewhere [5] shown that similar
acceleration field leads to proportionate pressure from space on the surface of the
cosmic bodies like planets, stars, etc; it is produced on account of space circulation
around these bodies, and appears as the free fall acceleration; derivation of the free fall
acceleration for the earth and the other planets have provided decisive proof to the
existence of basic spatial reality as a non viscous fluid). The inward acceleration field
tends to crush the void which, however, maintains its size because any reduction in its
radius re, increases the velocity gradient c/re which, in turn, increases the outward
acceleration field, thus restoring the radius to its original value [2]. Consequent to the
creation of the void in the incompressible fluid space (Figs.2b,3a), a compressive
spherical front is transmitted out at speed c relative to space medium, and energizing it
gravitationally as well as creating electrostatic field in the whole universe. As shown in
fig.1a, mass of electron is defined proportional to c and the void-volume; whereas, charge
is defined proportional to the surface of the void-space interface and c. The gravitational
field (Fig.3a) at a distance r from the electron has been derived [2] as (1/4c) me / r 2, and
electrostatic field as (c/ 4 ) q e / r 2; these expressions show that the gravitational
constant for electron is 1/ 4 c, and Coulomb’ constant is c/ 4; both these constants are
seen to be proportional to c. Now, referring to the electron structure (fig.1a), it is
observed that its entire energy is located in space, in its velocity field, from which the
equations for above mentioned fields have been derived [2]; and that the fields originate
from the void-space interface, leaving the void field less. During the motion of the
electron, the electrostatic field at each point in space changes to magnetic field; there
exists cause-effect relation ship between them [2]. It is to be noted that the inward
acceleration field, and the spherical void in the above electron structure, remain
undetected both in classical as well as quantum physics, leading to speculative theories as
to why an electron does not split due to its own charge, or the self action of electron; also,
the difficulty of infinite energy in the integration for the electrostatic potential of a pointcharge, stands removed by the field less central void.
4 Annihilation Phenomenon and Fundamental nature of Light
In Fig.2a, between the two particles (space vortices of electron and positron) vf is
unidirectional; this causes an electrical attraction [2], due to which the particles are drawn
closer till their oppositely directed vf s are superposed. The space circulation around the
voids ceases, the voids collapse, the fluid space flows along the radii into the void at
speed c; and thus the particles are annihilated nullifying each other’s velocity fields
starting from the void-space interface of the particles. The duration of collapse of the
void will be re /c, since all the fields are postulated to be transmitted in space, and relative
to it, at speed c; during this period, a shell of radial width (re /c) c, that is re will be created
(fig.3b); the shell will transmit outwards at speed c, thus, de- energizing the whole
universal space in which the gravitational and electromagnetic fields were created at the
time following the electron’s creation. This spherical shell, that nullifies the already
existing fields of electron within it, during its motion relative to the medium of space, and
produced consequent to the annihilation of the electron and positron, is the fundamental
single pulse of light; the wave- length is equal to re, and is maintained constant through
out its transmission. Quite similar to the wave- model of light in classical physics, the
energy is uniformly distributed on the spherical shell.
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The angular momentum L of the electron (Fig.1a), arising due to the spinning of
the void-space interface, is calculated as (4/5) me c re . The annihilation of electron
reduces L to zero in time interval re /c, producing energy L / (re /c), that is, (4/5) me c re /
(re / c), or (4/5) me c2; this positive energy flows into the void as space motion.
The medium of space in a static condition is defined [2] as zero state of energy;
when it circulates around a point or flows linearly, it becomes a positive state of energy;
while the field- less void is a negative state of energy. According to these definitions, the
annihilation of electron results in the flow of positive energy (4/5) me c 2 into the
negative energy zone of the void, thus restoring the zero energy state at the center of the
now non- existent electron, since it has been derived elsewhere [2], that the energy
required to create the void is also (4/5) me c2 . The energy flowing into the void is
recovered from the collapsing fields at the space-void interface from within the first de
energizing shell; however, the field energy available there is a negligible fraction of the
requirement, (4/5) me c2, since the creation energy of the same magnitude was distributed
as fields in the whole universal space when the electron was created. The first shell of
light is, therefore, depleted of energy or rather negatively energized to an energy state of,
–(4/5) me c2, due to which, during its outward transmission, the fields of electron in space
continue to be erased, or reduced to zero in magnitude within the shell; the light shell
energy is thus made less and less negative as it traverses at constant speed c merely to
equalize potentials (of the now non existent electron) due to self action of the fluid
medium of space, requiring no energy for its transmission. The potential of space at
electron’s center, after annihilation, reduces to zero as stated earlier; and hence a
potential gradient appears across the shell of the light produced.
As earlier stated, during annihilation, on account of reduction of the angular
momentum of electron to zero, in a time interval re / c, the energy produced is
E = (4/5) me c re / (re/c) = (4/5) me c re (c/re ) .
(1)
Since re was defined as the wavelength of the light produced during annihilation, the
numbers of shells appearing in succession in unit time during the transmission in space
will be c/re which, numerically, is also the frequency fe of this light. It has elsewhere [2]
been derived (fig.1a) that the angular momentum of electron, (4/5) me c re , basically, is
the Planck’s constant he for electron and, also, that the value of the Planck’s constant
differs from atom to atom;
with these definitions (1) becomes,
E = he fe
(2)
The light-shell described above has an essential difference from the photon of the
quantum theory, if one is allowed to picture at all, at least the center of the photon for the
sake of comparison. The difference is this: The center of a photon changes its position
during its transmission in space; whereas, the center of the light-shell coincides with the
point of annihilation, or the center of an oscillating atom (that also produces light-shells,
discussed further). The association of frequency with the photon can, therefore, at best be
pictured in a form no different than that of transverse vibrations of the photon itself,
while moving linearly at velocity of light. For instance, the current quantum view of
radiation is best represented [6] in the statement: “Electromagnetic radiation oscillating f
times a second turns out to be made up of a whole number of packets of energy, each of
amount hf, where h is Planck’s celebrated constant”. The above statement defines f as the
nos. of oscillations per second; whereas, as per the earlier definition (of SVT), f is the
nos. of successive shells formed in a second. It is this haziness, on the physical aspects of
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the wavelength and frequency of photon, that has led to a serious error (discussed ahead
in Section-6) in the interpretation of the Planck’s energy equation, which defines “ hf ” as
the emitted and absorbed, indivisible “ energy quanta ”. In fact, the classical model as
per which light progresses through space by the propagation of electric (and magnetic)
field vectors, is closure to the shell-nature of annihilation light.
5 Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equation
The energy required to create an electron has been derived [2] as (4/5) me c2; the
coefficient 4/5 appears because the space-void vortex has axial symmetry (Fig.1a), rather
than having spherical symmetry; also, appearance of “c” in mass-energy equation is
precisely due to the circulation or spin of space at speed c; ( it also appears in massequation derived in fig.1a).It has been shown above that this energy flows into the void
towards electron’s center, rather than being emitted out as photons as believed by the
adherents of the photon theory; further, the light produced is a shell with negative energy
in it; it has a wave front ( due to the circular streamlines of the space vortex) that shows
wave property, and also a definite quantity of negative energy that at the start of the shell
is - (4/5) me c2, and can be likened to a circular energy quanta; an expanding shell rather
than some queer kind of particle. During annihilation, only one shell is produced and
transmitted out; at one instant (Fig.3b), the effect of light is only within the shell and no
where else. Therefore, in this sense, “f” in Eq.2 is not to be mistaken as the numbers of
successive shells produced in unit time from the point of annihilation of the electron;
here, in (2), “1/f “ means the time duration of the formation of the shell, which remains
constant in all the successive shells formed after the preceding ones are erased.
The mass- energy equation is applicable during the creation ( of electron ) and
annihilation processes only; during creation, it signifies the energy quantity from space
that goes in the structure and the fields of electron; whereas, in annihilation, the inflow of
energy from the fields to fill up the void of electron is quantified.
Another significant aspect of the light shell, formed during annihilation, is the
creation of radial acceleration field along the wavelength: The radial flow of space at
speed c, and in duration re / c, creates a radial acceleration field c2 / re . Since the lightshell expands spherically, though the quantity of the fluid- space flowing through the
shell’s surface along its radii will fall off in inverse proportion to the square of the radius,
the speed at which the equalization of potential takes place across the shell by the self
action of the non viscous continuous space is at speed of light, thereby maintaining the
above acceleration field constant in the shell through out its transmission. (In view of the
fact that there exists an acceleration field across the wavelength pointing towards the
center of the shell, and the fact that the acceleration field is directly proportional to
energy; though, light is a negative energy phenomenon as earlier stated, yet, in
subsequent pages, for clarity of the descriptions, the word “negative” will be dropped
while indicating energy of the light-shell). Running ahead, it is remarked that if from an
oscillating atom the wavelength of light produced is  , then the acceleration field in its
wavelength will be c2 /  -- a quantity independent of the distance from the source, unlike
the intensity of light that falls as inverse square of the distance from the source.
6 Planck’s Energy Equation
The production of light from an oscillating electron or atom has been shown [2]
to be due to their time varying potential (electromagnetic in case of electron, and
gravitational in case of neutral atom) in space consequent to the to-and-fro displacement
of the centers of these particles during oscillations (figs.4a, 4b). In the following section,
5
it has been shown that the orbiting electron in Hydrogen atom is carried round by the non
viscous atomic vortex, such that it has no acceleration with respect to space; it can not,
therefore, be the source of light from the atoms. The velocity fields in the vortices of the
orbital electrons and the atomic vortex, have opposite directions; consequently, an atom
behaves neutral to all out side interactions. The resultant field, outside the shield of the
orbital electrons in an atom, is only the gravity field. For an average atom, considering
gravitational potential on the surface of the nucleus, and its time variation due to
oscillations, Planck’s constant determined else where [2], briefly stated, is as follows:
The average period of atomic vibration t = 10 -15 s; mass of an average atom m a =
– 22
2 x 10
g ; average nuclear radius r n = 2 x 10 –9 cm; time duration of production of one
wave length of light is shown [2] to be (1/2) t. The gravitational potential at the nuclear
surface
P. E. = G m a2 / r n
(3)
where, G is the gravitational constant 6.67 x 10 – 8 g –1 cm 3 s –2. Substituting the above
values in (3), P. E. works out to 13.34 x 10 – 43 erg. The most fundamental value of
Planck’s constant was identified to be the angular momentum of electron, as given earlier
in Section-4; the average value of Planck’s constant was also derived [2] considering the
changing gravitational potential of an oscillating electron as:
h = (3 / k) d(P.E) / dt
(4)
where, k = 1 / s 2 in CGS unit. Applying the above basic relation also for atomic
oscillations , and substituting the calculated value of P.E. from (3), duration of the change
of this potential (1/2) t, as given above; the Planck’s constant for an average atom
calculated from (4) is : 8 x 10 –27 erg . s , which is close to the experimentally determined
value 6.67 x 10 –27 erg .s.
The frequency “f ” of light is defined as the numbers of shells produced in unit
time (fig.4b), which is the same as the vibrations of the atom in unit time. If the atom
makes N oscillations in unit time, say in one second, then from Planck Energy equation,
E= h f = h (N/s) = ( h /s ) N
Or,
E/N=h/s
(3)
which shows that the energy contained in one shell of light is h / s, that is 6.62 x 10 - 27
erg; this result is in contrast with the Planck’s concept that each photon possesses an
indivisible energy “hf”. Here is a misconception on the true nature of “h”, and the
physical aspects of “frequency”, made at the very founding level of the quantum theory,
that has led to an erroneous explanation of the photoelectric effect (discussed further);
which, in turn, substantiated photon nature of light, leading to a wrong conclusion that
light possesses an inherent dual behavior.
7 Space Vortex Structure of Hydrogen Atom
In SVT, the creation and stable existence of only one fundamental particle,
electron, follows from the postulates of the limiting speed of the non material fluid space.
The positron was earlier stated to be the oppositely spinning electron. The electrons
through the interactions of their vf, [2] will repel each other electrically and, when in
motion, will magnetically attract; also an electron will attract a positron electrically, and
6
repel magnetically when in motion. With such forces of interaction, electrons and
positrons in dynamic state (Fig.5) can assemble into a neutron, which as per SVT, is the
core of the Hydrogen atom. When this neutron core assembled out of 1836 nos. of
electrons (918 of them are positrons) is enclosed within a vortex of space circulation, it
develops an electric charge and is termed as a proton; the vf around the nucleus produces
an inward acceleration field which is: (c /12) 2 / 12 re , that is 12 3 times smaller than the
inward acceleration field on electron’s void-space interface. The vortex of proton attracts
an electron through the interaction between their vortices, thus building a Hydrogen atom
(fig.5).
The spacing between the centers of the orbiting electron and the proton is
determined by the common velocity field at the spinning surface of the proton; the vf of
electron being oppositely (relatively) oriented with the proton’s vf, the Hydrogen atom
behaves neutral to all outside interactions. The region around the nucleus is a vortex of
space with the speed of space rotation c /12 , falling off in the inverse ratio of the distance
from the nuclear center. The bond between the electron and the proton is provided by the
common vf between these particles which occurs at the inter spacing of 24 r e, the electron
will have electrical attraction with the proton and also a fixed orbit, with no possibility of
its falling on to the nucleus, since, the zero viscosity space forming the vortex does not
reduce its vf with time. With this vortex structure, the atom too like electron has no
possibility of either emitting or absorbing energy except for the kinetic energy [2] which
gets associated with it as linear velocity field when set in motion relative to space; this
velocity field also enables transfer of momentum when particles moving at different
speeds collide.
It has been worked out [2] that nuclei of atoms larger than Hydrogen are built out
of neutrons and protons that, as stated above, contain only electrons; however, the
neutrons and proton’s assembly in the nucleus is enclosed within the space circulation
that exerts inward force against the splitting force in the nucleus on account of the
presence of the protons there. Because quantum theory considers space (without fields) to
be a void extension, and the energy fields in the structure of the particles to be continuous
till their centers, it can not postulate generation of inward pressure on the nuclei from
space circulation. Further, the “ excited states ” of atoms, (described by some as the atom
in which the orbits of the electrons are increased), is an impossibility in the atomic
structure with space vortex; nor can the electrons change their orbits from outer to inner
and vice versa.
8 Constancy of the Speed of Light
Fig.6 shows a source S from which a single spherical shell of light, produced
consequent to the annihilation of electron, is transmitted at a constant speed c relative to
the static space. When the wave front of the shell meets the eye of an observer O, who is
stationary relative to the static space, let him record this instant assuming that his time is
the same as the universal time of any other observer who may be even in motion relative
to space. He also records the instant at the tail end of the light- shell. If  is the radial
width of the light- shell (wave length of this light is re ), then, from the ratio of  and the
time difference between the two instants, say t1, the observer can calculate the speed of
light from the relation:
Speed = wave length x frequency,
(4)
or
c =  / t1 ,
because light- effect is postulated to be transmitted within the wave length at speed c
relative to the static space. Let the source S produce similar shells in succession, such that
the tail-end of each shell coincides with the front of the following shell. If the nos. of
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shells received by O in unit time be f, he will calculate the distance covered by the f
shells as f  , and time duration as f t1.; with the ratio of these two quantities, he will get
the value of c same as before. It is seen that the measurement of light speed across one
wavelength is the same as across many wavelengths provided the successive shells are
similar and have no interruptions in between. Now, let O move with velocity v relative to
the static space towards S, and record his timings across only one shell. Because his
velocity relative to the light shell now is v + c, time duration across one wavelength will
be:
t2 =  / (c + v) ,
(5)
which is shorter than t1 as measured before. The moving observer’s eye interacts with the
light within the shell for a shorter duration now, and hence he sees the wavelength as:
 m = distance through which the light effect is transmitted in time t2.
= c  /( c + v ).
(6)
The nos. of shells meeting the eye of this observer in unit time will be, from (4),
fm = 1 / t2 = ( c + v) /  .
(7)
The moving observer can now determine the light speed from (5) and (6) as:
Speed of light = Wavelength x Frequency
= m x f m
= [c /(c + v )] ( c + v ) /  = c.
(8)
It is thus seen that the observer, in the moving as well as stationary states, finds
that the speed of light is constant; and he will reach this conclusion without sacrificing
the traditional concept of time.
The null result of Michelson-Morley experiment shows that around the surface of
earth, there is no relative motion of space. It is shown elsewhere that space circulates at
about 7.8 km /s at a height around the ionosphere, and reduces to zero on the earth’s
surface, thus producing gravitational field). In the well known Sagnac’s experiment, a
beam of light is split into two halves, that travel around closed identical paths reflected
through mirrors in opposite directions, and combined again in a detector to examine their
interference pattern . The rotation of the apparatus produces shift in the interference
fringes as a function of the angular velocity. As discussed during the derivation of (6) and
(7), the reflecting mirrors along one path, rotating opposite to the light beam, will ‘see’
shorter wavelengths and proportionately more of light- shells in unit time (frequency);
while, the mirrors rotating in the same direction as the beam in the other path, will ‘see’
longer wavelengths and lesser shells during the same period; on account of this, the wave
length as well as the frequency of the two beams reaching the detector will be different
and, consequently, a shift in the interference fringes will occur. The product of the
wavelength and the corresponding frequency for each path of the light beams remaining
the same, the mirrors as ‘observers’ will find the same value for the velocity of light. The
above conclusion is, however, based on the fact that light is transmitted across the shell at
constant speed relative to the fluid medium of space. The appearance of the interference
fringes should not be taken as an indication that the speeds of light of the two beams in
Sagnac experiment are different.
1. 0 The transmission of the annihilation- light is independent of the motion of the
electron and positron undergoing annihilation.
Consider an electron with its vortex structure. At any point in the vortex, the vf
and its radial distance from the vortex center will determine the magnitudes of the
electrostatic and gravitational potentials. A displacement of electron’s center will produce
changes in the potentials; such changes will occur during electron’s motion, either
8
uniform or accelerating. The equalization of potentials, due to self- action of space, will
take place at speed c relative to space; therefore, considering motion of an electron at
ordinary velocity, it can be assumed that the field structure retains its symmetrical
distribution around the electron as before.
Let an electron and positron, moving at ordinary speed, under go annihilation. As
discussed before, after collapse of the void of electron during annihilation, it loses mass,
charge and its existence; however, the light shell produced continues its transmission
relative to space, with the point of annihilation as its center , independent of the speed of
the particles prior to their annihilation; the point of annihilation and the field structure get
fixed in space after annihilation. On similar arguments, it will be seen that the light
produced (Figs.4a, 4b), during atomic vibrations, is transmitted at speed c relative to
space, by the self-action of space to achieve equalization of potentials. Further, since
photons or light shells are mass-less entities (pulsation of potential changes), not emitted
from within the electron (void interior), light can not carry the momentum of these
particles.( The vf that was associated with the particles imparting them momentum before
annihilation, if approaching c, will produce additional electrons).
In Sagnac’s experiment, the source of light, the mirrors and also the detector,
move relative to space; a pulse of light produced by the source transmits in the stationary
space at c, independent of the source’s motion, and reaches the reflecting mirrors that,
due to their motion relative to space, convert and reflect either shorter or longer
wavelengths as discussed earlier.
1.1 Time Dilation Phenomenon
The traditional concept of time was revised in STR. Though it has been shown
above that the speed of light measured by the observers in different frames of reference
will come out to be the same, and this is in support of the postulate of STR; the following
thought experiment reveals the fallacy in the relativistic arguments generally provided in
support of time dilation.
The Fig.7 shows a platform in uniform motion with two observers A and B on it,
and another stationary observer C on the ground. The relativist’s view is that “if the
observer A lights a match stick creating a flash, the observer B sitting opposite to him
will think that the flash has directly come to him along the route PQ, whereas, the
observer C will see the path of the flash along PQ1, since, during the time the flash has
reached him, the platform has moved to a new location P1 Q1 R1 S1.The path of the flash
does not look the same to the two observers, A and B. Since the flash is moving with A, it
seems to B taking a longer path; and if the speed of light is to remain the same, the longer
path must seem to take longer time: time must pass faster for C”. The crux of this issue
is: Is the flash of light really moving with the observer A? Let us suppose that A has with
him an electron and a positron that undergo annihilation at some instant. As described in
previous paragraph, the point of annihilation P will get fixed in space, while A and B will
move on. Assuming that B can ‘see’ the point of annihilation even before the light shell
has reached him, he will see that P is shifting towards his left due to his own motion
towards right; and by the time B reaches Q1, he will ‘see’ that the light shell has taken the
route PQ1 to reach him, which is the same as seen by C. The assumption of the relativist
that the flash of light is moving with A is erroneous; further, if C stands at D, such that
PQ1 = PD, the light shell will reach both B and C at the same instant. It is thus seen that
the new concepts of ‘time dilation’ and also ‘simultaneity’ are superfluous aspects in
STR.
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1. 2 Photo electric effect
In photo electric phenomenon, the energy equation from Einstein is:
hf = W + me v2 / 2
(9)
where hf is the energy of the incident photon, W is the work function (energy required to
remove an electron), and the kinetic energy of the ejected electron is me v2 / 2. It has been
earlier shown that the energy of a single photon is ‘h / unit time’, and also that ‘ hf ’ is the
energy of all the photons produced in unit time. Further, as shown in fig.6, the electron
vortex being held in the atomic vortex, and rotating around the nucleus requires that the
kinetic energy of the ejected electron in (9) should be derived from the vf in the vortex of
the atom , and not from the energy of the incident photon as presently believed. Since
Einstein in STR considered the medium of space to be a void extension, he could not
have postulated real circulation of space and presence of spatial vf around the nucleus to
supply kinetic energy to the ejected electron ; and, hence, under such a circumstance, he
would have been forced to imagine that the energy of a single photon should be large
enough to be comparable with the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons (9) as
experimentally observed. The following computation of the kinetic energy available to
the electron from the atomic vortex pinpoints the error in Einstein’s explanation of the
photoelectric effect.
The emission of photoelectrons occurs from the substances containing lighter as
well as heavier atoms (sodium chloride, thorium on tungsten, etc.). The radius of a
nucleus of average atomic weight is calculated [2] as 2 x 10 -9; the vf tangential to this
nucleus in the diametrical plane of the nuclear vortex, considering the fact that it falls in
the inverse proportion with the radial distance[2]; and the existence of the maximum vf (
3x 1010 cm /s) in electron vortex at a radial distance of 4x 10 -11 cm, will be,
v = c x re / nuclear radius
= ( 3 x 1010 ) x ( 4 x 10 -11 ) / 2 x 10 - 9 = 6 x 10 8 cm / s.
(10)
Therefore, if the innermost electron is released due to its interaction with the light shell, it
will possess the above speed. Since the average atomic radius is of the order of 10 –8 cm,
substituting this value for the nuclear radius in (10), the speed of rotation of the outer
orbital electrons is obtained as 1.2 x 10 8 cm / s. Thus, the photoelectrons released from
the outermost orbits will possess kinetic energy
E
k
= (1 / 2) m e v 2
= 0.5 x 9.108 x 10 –28 x (1.2 x 10 8 ) 2 = 6.56 x 10 -12 erg.
(11)
Supposing the average atomic vibration of the order of 10 15 / s, which is also the
frequency of the light emitted, energy contained as per Planck’s energy Equation, in f
nos. of light shells produced in unit time will be
E = h f = 6.625 x 10 –27 erg. s (10 15 / s) = 6.625 x 10 –12 erg.
(12)
The kinetic energy of the photo electrons as per (11), derived from the atomic- vortex, is
very close to the energy of light per unit time as per (12); it is on account of this
coincidental closeness, Einstein could explain quantitatively photoelectric effect The
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release of electrons in photo electric effect is almost instantaneous; it is not clear as to
why the electrons have to wait exactly for unit time to absorb energy as per (12). Thus,
the basic conception that “ hf ” is the quanta of energy of a single photon that remains
indivisible during emission and absorption, led to the belief that an electron in an atom
can absorb and emit energy, while the real dynamic source of the kinetic energy- the
atomic vortex –that ejects the photo electrons due to their interaction with light, lies
hidden till date.
1. 3 Photoelectric Threshold
It was shown in Section.5, that during the annihilation of electron and positron
(Fig.3b), the fluid space flowing into the void is accelerated in time r e / c, in which
period, the velocity of space changes from c to zero; thus creating a radial acceleration
field c / (re / c), that is c2 / re across and within the wavelength, pointing towards the point
of annihilation. On similar lines it can be shown that light from thermal radiation (or any
other source including X-rays) of wavelength  , will possess across it an acceleration
field equal to c2 /  which will remain constant through out its transmission. An orbital
electron in an atom is subjected to an inward acceleration v 2 /r as shown in fig.5 due to
the vf of the vortex; this acceleration is opposed by c2 /  in the light shell when it
interacts with the atom. Equating the two,
c2 /  = v 2 / r
Or
 = c2 r / v 2
(13)
Substituting the value for v and r in (13) applicable to the outer most electron in the orbit
given earlier as 1.2 x 10 8 cm / s, and 10 -8 respectively,
 m = (3 x 1010 cm / s) 2 10 –8 / (1.2 x 10 8 cm / s) 2 = 6.25 x 10 –4 cm. (14)
which gives the maximum value of the wavelength of light to enable cancellation of the
two opposite acceleration fields acting on the orbital electron and its release. Similarly,
for the inner electrons, substituting the value of v from (10), and the orbital radius given
earlier as 2 x 10 –9 cm (close to the average nuclear radius) in (13), the wavelength of
light for release of inner electrons should be less than
 o = ( 3 x 1010 cm / s ) 2 2 x 10-9 cm / ( 6 x 10 8 cm / s ) 2 = 5 x 10 –6 . (15)
The above results are approximate, intended only to show that during the interaction of
light with electrons, there is no absorption of energy. The pulses of light only loosen the
electrical bonds of the electrons with the atoms without any exchange of energy.
Another well known phenomenon that supports the above conclusion was
detected early this century (1910): The passage of X- rays through a gas ionize
it.W.H.Bragg had concluded [5] that “ the X- rays do not ionize the gas directly; they act
by ejecting, from a small proportion of the atoms of the gas , electrons (photo electrons)
of high speed, each of which acts as a beta- particle and ionizes the gas by detaching
electrons in a succession of collisions with the molecules along its path. The speed of the
ejected electron depends only on the hardness or penetrating power of the X-rays (which
was later shown to be, in effect, their frequency), and not at all on their intensity, or the
nature of the atom from which the electron is expelled. What Bragg emphasized as
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specially remarkable was that the energy of the electron was as great as that of an
electron in the beam of cathode rays by which the X-rays had been excited originally”.
The above effect shows that the X- ray pulse, as a light shell, keeps the acceleration field
in its wavelength constant (stated above), despite its spherical expansion from the point
where it was produced, to the point where it detached an electron; and the electron after
its release was ejected with the kinetic energy that it already possessed from the atomic
vortex.. Radically different is the conclusion when looked with the presupposition of the
energy exchange between the X- ray pulse and the ejected electron, photon nature of
light, and empty ness around the nuclei of atoms. Sir Edmund Whittaker further observed
on the above phenomenon [5]: “the X-ray pulse seemed to have the property of keeping
its energy together in a small bundle, without any of the spreading that might have been
expected on the wave theory, and to be able to transfer the whole of this energy to a
single electron”. Similar to the above was the argument used to justify Einstein’s energy
equation, which was shown to have erroneous meaning of energy quanta.
1. 4 Physical aspects of atomic interactions through light- pulses
Fig.8 shows a free atom A in oscillation, whereas, atom B is held at the surface S
of a metal plate [3]. The lines of action of the inward gravity field F A of the atom A, and
the inward gravity field FB of the atom B, are also shown. The atom B is held due to interatomic forces F of its neighboring atoms in the plate except on the surface S, where FA
interacts with the field FB of B. The resultant gravity field FB – FA , acts at B at the plate’s
surface S. With the oscillation of atom A, when it is displaced towards left, a light pulse,
described earlier starts from A, and after a time R/c, reaches S decreasing the strength of
the field FA , thereby increasing the magnitude of FB-FA , which results in a net force on B
arisen because of its own inward gravity field FB. During the next displacement towards
right, through a similar process as described above, the magnitude of FA increases ( as A
comes closer to B) , which decreases the magnitude of FB-FA , and leads to the reduction
of the force on the atom B. The intermittent pressure impulses on atom B, which is held
embedded in the surface S by the inter atomic forces F, set it under oscillation, creating
electromagnetic pulses also from B. It is thus seen that the atom A, without imparting
momentum to B with direct contact, sets it in oscillation through the light pulses
produced due to its mechanical oscillations.
1. 5 Energy Exchange
The energy exchange takes place through the transfer of momentum, when two
bodies moving relative to space at different velocities collide; the velocity field vectors
associated with the moving bodies (space- motion trailing the bodies)[2] combine to give
a resultant velocity and momentum as per the equations of classical mechanics; and in
this process, due to the changes in momentum, energy transfer takes place between the
bodies. Since a light pulse is mass less, it can not have momentum. As shown in the
earlier Section-14, a light pulse can oscillate a stationary atom, which is in equilibrium
under its own inward forces, by creating their imbalance; the oscillations are not caused
due to the reason that the light pulses impart momentum to the atom.
A body A, with its atoms under vibration, and therefore possessing kinetic
energy, sends light pulses (heat radiation) to another body B resulting into vibrations of
the atoms of B; The vibrating atoms of B will get associated with the changing vf or
acceleration field on account of their to-and-fro motion, generating kinetic energy in
space around the atoms itself. Thus, the body B now possesses kinetic energy (heat),
though the radiation pulses from A have not transferred their energy to the atoms of B.
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The atoms of B, in turn, will send radiation pulses back to A, such that these pulses from
B are out of phase to those of A, retarding the vibration of the atoms of A, due to which
the bodies reach equilibrium temperature. Thus, though the heat energy of A has not been
transported through the radiation pulses to B, yet the kinetic energy of its atoms has
reduced through the interaction of the pulses from B. Light radiation acts as a spatial link
among numerous cosmic bodies in the universe to bring the equality of their temperatures
by controlling the oscillations of their atoms, without itself becoming a means of energy
transfer.
Without the latent energy of space, matter can not be created; without matter, the
energy fields associated with matter are non existent; and in the absence of these fields
and their time varying changes, there can not be the phenomenon of light.
Conclusion
The classical physics requires conceptual shift on the nature of space and
matter: The property of inertness , ascribed by Newton to space, can not explain the
source of cosmic energy; neither can it explain the creation of matter. That matter
consists of dimension less material- points, postulated by Boscovich, who followed
Newton’s ideas, is again a faulty concept. Leibniz’s belief, that the medium of space is
not eternal, also requires revision. It is surprising to note that all the essential attributes of
space -- source of cosmic energy, ability to create matter, and its eternal existence -- are
contained in the postulates of Descartes ; and yet Newton vehemently opposed Cartesian
Philosophy.
The continuous energy variation of an oscillating pendulum, or that of a
moving body (kinetic energy), allowed by the classical mechanics, but ruled out by the
quantum theory, is still valid because the Planck’s energy equation, (subject to the
modification that Planck’s constant is proportional to the energy contained in one shell
only), applicable for different frequencies of light, is restricted to exclusively light
phenomenon, and not the kinetic motion of matter. Light shell, (presently termed as
photon), is a mass - less entity, and does not possess momentum, kinetic energy, or
inertia; hence its behavior can not be imagined to be akin to material particles.
In photoelectric or Compton’s effect, the kinetic energy of the ejected electron is
not derived from the incident photon; there is no energy exchange between a photon and
an electron.
The orbital electrons are tied to the atom with the interaction of their own
vortices and the atomic vortex under electrical attraction, and do not accelerate during
their motion; hence, any hypothesis on their motion in fixed orbits is superfluous.
So also, the source of production of light from the oscillating atoms, is due to their own
time- varying gravity potential in space; (the orbital electrons also make minor
contribution due to their weak gravity fields extending beyond the neutral atom). The
current belief in the emission and absorption of light by electron/ atom is erroneous.
Atom is not a force-free entity; a free atom will be in equilibrium under the
inward forces arisen in space due to its own structure; the nucleus of Hydrogen atom is
subjected to an inward acceleration field of about (1.3) x 10 28 cm / s 2, which maintains
its stability; all the atoms have inward forces on their nuclei that are in opposition to the
disruptive electrical forces within the nucleus.
Nature operates with only one kind of fundamental particle that is, electron; in its
structure all the fields are unified; its motion, relative to substantial space, produces
magnetic field.
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Planck’s constant is not a universal constant; it is a derived quantity; quantum
theory, that has Planck’s energy equation right at its foundation level, is based on the
misconception of the true nature of light.
It’s the reaction of the fluid- space against the high- speed motion of particles,
that gives rise to de Broglie’s waves and diffraction effect; a wrong interpretation arisen
due to point- mass and point- charge model of electron, and belief in the emptiness of
space, resulted in the acceptance of dual behavior of light, which led de Broglie to
conceive matter waves. Dirac’s quantum field theory unifying wave- particle behavior,
can have support from the void- vortex structure of electron, that fulfills this requirement.
Erwin Schrodinger,s equation, based on Planck’s and de Broglie’s erroneous concepts,
and Max Born,s probability waves, finally made quantum physics unintelligible [6 ].
“Need less to say the electron is not to be considered as encircling the nucleus in a
circular orbit but in stead it is spread out in a way that is totally unpicturable classically”.
No doubt, quantum theory, clinging on to some non existent phenomena like emission
and absorption of energy by electron, possession of mass and momentum by photon, and
fiercely opposing recognition to the existence of spatial reality, has been marching from
errors to blunders and thus, digressing from the real path in the pursuit of the true
scientific knowledge. However, not withstanding the superfluous ness of the time dilation
in STR, Einstein is vindicated for his postulates on the invariance of speed of light
measured by the observers in different frames of reference and, more specifically, on its
being the limiting speed in the universe; no wonder, he kept away from the tangles of the
quantum theories based on the principles of uncertainty, complementarity, indeterminacy,
and probability, for most of the period during the later years of his life. In mid thirties,
highly dissatisfied with the developing trend of the quantum theories, he expressed strong
resentment against renouncing strict causality; he said that in case the principles
supporting the renouncement of causality proved to be correct, “he would rather be a
cobbler, or even an employee in a gambling house, than a physicist”. To Max Born he
wrote that he did not believe that God played at dice.
References
1.Tewari, P. The Substantial Space and Void- Nature of Elementary Material Particles
(1977); Space Vortices of Energy and Matter (1978); The Origin of Electron’s Mass,
charge, Gravitational and Electromagnetic Field, from empty Space (1982).
2. Tewari, P.(1982) “Space is the Absolute Reality”. Proceedings of ICSTA, International
Publishers, East- West, Niederschocklstr,62, 8044 Graz, Austria; Beyond Matter (1984);
Beyond Matter_ A Comprehensive Theory of the Material Universe, Editor: Wolfram
Bahmann,Feyermuhler Str. 12, D-53894 Mechernich; Physics of Space Power Generation
(1996).
3.Tewari, P. “Limitation on the Law of Energy Conservation’, EXPLORE ! , Volume 7,
Number 2, 1996; “Genesis of Free Power Generation”, EXPLORE ! Volume 6, Number
3, 1995; P.O.Box 1508. Mt. Vernon,WA 98273.
4.Sir Edmund Whittaker (1951), A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, The
Classical Physics.
5. Tewari, P. (1998), “On Planetary Motion caused by Solar Space Vortex”. Journal of
New Energy, Vol.3, No.2/3, 1998, 3084 E, 3300 South Salt Lake City, Utah 84109-2154.
6. J.C. Pokinghorne, The Quantum World, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
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