PGCE Primary (Humanities)
Exeter University
Semi-specialist assignment
Part 2: The Role of Enquiry in Humanities Teaching
Angharad Forbes
June 2006
The National Curriculum states that there are six key skills which are embedded
throughout the curriculum subjects and are essential to effective learning. These key skills
include: communication, application of number, information technology, working with
others, improving own learning and performance, and problem solving. Scoffham (2002)
suggests that these skills, which are crucial to meaningful learning, can be developed and
enhanced through the humanities. There are also five thinking skills which complement
these key skills: information-processing, reasoning, creative thinking, evaluation and
enquiry skills (DfEE/QCA, 1999). Garner (2002) provides evidence that the notion of
'enquiry' is interpreted very differently by individual teachers, groups and schools, thus
needs to be clarified.
According to the National Curriculum, enquiry skills
'. ..enable pupils to ask relevant questions, to pose and define problems, to plan what to
do and how to research, to predict outcomes and anticipate consequences, and to test
conclusions and improve ideas.’ (DfEE, 1999:22)
The humanities lend themselves particularly well to the enquiry approach as history and
geography offer more opportunities than many subjects do. Nevertheless, enquiry is a skill
that can be extended into the rest of the curriculum, notably in science and Religious
Education. The National Curriculum explicitly states that geography and history should be
taught through enquiry, at both key stage 1 and 2 (DfEE/QCA, 1999). Enquiry- based
learning is an excellent way of acquiring subject knowledge and building on values and
skills at all levels of study, as well as being an effective learning strategy to access the
subject. The process of enquiry links in well with research on how children learn,
'Enquiry is taught, not just caught, and needs to be modelled carefully by the teacher'
(Owen and Ryan, 2001)
One strength of enquiry is that it develops the use of thinking skills, enhancing children's
learning as it increases child freedom, enables them to generate ideas more easily and
engages them with the topic at a greater level. Due to the prescriptive nature of the
National Curriculum, National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies, children are used to
learning which is tightly planned and controlled by the teacher. Hence, through enquiry
children can escape from the rigidity of the core subjects and develop ownership of their
learning. Children build on their previous knowledge and understanding, develop enquiring
minds and are encouraged to make sense of the world for themselves (Claire, 2005;
Martin and Matthews, 2002).
Thinking skills need to be developed within good practice to ensure that they are used
effectively by all children. Therefore, Martin and Matthews (2002) suggest: thinking skills
should be developed within an overall framework across the curriculum as far as possible;
they are best developed through collaborative learning approaches; they need to be
taught explicitly in order that children become better thinkers; and teachers must ensure
that learning transfers beyond the context in which it is taught. Therefore the enquiry
approach needs to be modelled by teachers so that children get as much out of the
humanities as they can (Bage, 2000). 'Teaching thinking' achieves a balance between
teaching subject content in the curriculum and emphasising the process of learning to help
children become more effective learners (Higgins, 2002).
Another strength of the enquiry approach is the enhancing of communication skills
between children, a vital skill within geography and history. There are many advantages of
this: the approach often encourages children to work in pairs or groups, thus giving
children opportunities to talk and discuss to clarify their ideas; children hear each other's
ideas thus may alter their own thinking; and children are learning through interacting with
each other, rather than the teacher dominating the learning. Therefore, the humanities
provide endless language opportunities (Brereton, 1999; Higgins, 2002). An additional
benefit of implementing an enquiry approach within the humanities is that it meets the
needs of a mixed-ability class, where each child's contributions are valued.
Enquiry should be developed as early as possible, within the foundation stage, where
children are naturally inquisitive and want to find out more about the world around them.
Enquiry can give them the means to do this and enable them to make sense of the world.
It also encourages the development of the positive attitudes and skills that are needed for
them to become responsible and open-minded citizens (Stanton, 2005).
Garner (2002) identifies seven characteristics which constitute an ideal enquiry-based
learning task:
1) Involves children in active learning where questions are generated and researched by
children, with increasing independence.
2) Activities supported by high quality resources.
3) Activities relevant and meaningful to the child and focused on real issues.
4) Children develop thinking skills.
5) Children work collaboratively where process often characterised by dialogue.
6) Children develop specific enquiry skills and research techniques.
7) Activities are interesting and motivating, offering opportunities for creativity.
One of the main ways of using enquiry is to look for clues, thus asking questions. The
humanities lend themselves particularly well to the enquiry approach because naturally we
want to ask questions about the past and the world around us. Firstly, looking at history,
The National Curriculum states that through historical enquiry children are taught how to
find out about the past, and are encouraged to ask and answer questions (DfEE/QCA,
1999). However, there are several opinions regarding the meaning of historical enquiry.
According to Hughes et al. (2000) historical enquiry involves a number of teaching
strategies: questioning, hypothesising, planning investigations, researching, information
handling and study skills.
'In history, pupils find evidence, weigh it up and reach their own conclusion. To do this
they need to be able to research, sift through evidence, and argue for their point of view skills that are prized in adult life.’
(Hughes et al. 2000)
Hoodless et al. (2003) suggest that historical enquiry requires children to learn how to use
historical sources, including artefacts, pictures and museums, along with ICT -based
sources, such as CD-Roms. Bage (2000) argues that educational history begins with
questions, rather than content. Each topic studied in the primary years needs opening
through questioning. Using questions and concepts, activities can be transformed into
historical understanding.
Questions fuel history. One of the key principles of good practice, defined by the Nuffield
Primary History Project, is questioning, which drives the process of learning. Children
need to generate the questions themselves, rather than the teacher, as good history
teaching will encourage children ton pose their own questions and hypotheses (Bage,
2000). One way of doing this, notably in key stage 1, is through a collection of objects
which can be used to encourage children to develop their own questions and to piece
together the information to create a fuller picture of the past. For example,
'A teacher filled a school satchel with objects which she had kept as souvenirs other own
primary school days...Children were encouraged to talk about the different objects and to
describe them. ..Gradually the children were able to assemble the different objects to draw
some conclusions about the satchel's owner and they finally reached the decision that the
owner was their teacher!'
(Lomas, 2000)
A key skill that all children must acquire is being able to question a source of information
to find historical information from it. However teachers must model ways of carrying out
source questioning and analysis, in order that they develop good historical enquiry skills of
their own (Hoodless et al. 2003). Teachers' questions are important, but only so much as
to provide a model for children to follow. Children's questions are much more valuable for
a number of reasons: they provide children with a personal view, and they help the
teacher to construct the basis of a topic. Hence, children ask their questions, and together
with the help of teachers they can begin to answer them (Fines and Nichol, 1997 in Bage,
2000). There needs to be a balance of closed questions seeking factual information, and
open questions extending conceptual and skills dimensions such as problem-solving or
decision-making (Lomas, 2000). Historical enquiry also requires the teacher to allow for a
range of answers and to teach children that no one answer is 'right'. Such an approach
gives children confidence to develop their own ideas, without the teacher always in control
(Mann, 1997 in Bage, 2000). Cooper (1998, in Bage, 2000) argues that historical enquiry
develops children's speaking, listening and writing, particularly where supported by
different resources and experiences. Through stimulating and motivating historical enquiry
children are able to develop more than the learning of historical skills. History develops the
asking and answering of the same sort of questions which underpin critical literacy,
citizenship and thinking skills, hence enquiry emphasises cross-curricular links (Bage,
2000).
Drama and role-play can also be incorporated into historical enquiry, where children are
presented with a real purpose for their learning. For example, hot- seating a character in
role provides the opportunity for participants to explain their views in role to a wider
audience, whilst the rest of the class can ask questions. A real purpose for historical
enquiries can be created as children research different aspects of the past to be used in
their drama and play. There is an emphasis on authenticity, where children have to look at
the evidence, which characterises successful historical role-play and drama (Lomas,
2000).
A history topic can be introduced using a number of resources as a stimulus to capture the
interest and imagination of the children, from which children pose a set of questions. For
example, through the use of an artefact, or a historical document. It is important also for
children to understand the difference between the source and evidence, and to be taught
that they as historians turn a source into evidence for a particular question, through asking
a range of questions about the source. Thus thinking historically means questioning the
purposes of a source through interpretation. Children need to be reminded that they are all
historians, and that through questioning sources, they are doing what historians have
always done (Lomas, 2000).
History and citizenship are closely related, through which history can develop some of the
critical concepts and personal skills of citizenship. History can contribute to citizenship
education through teaching and giving children opportunities to practise critical thinking
skills (Claire, 2005). It also develops the skills of empathy with others. For example, as a
starter to a lesson on Britain during World War Two children were presented with a basket
of food items which had to be sorted into groupings of foods available during the war and
foods not available. From here, children were able to discuss their opinions on rationing,
food availability and what it would have been like to have lived in Britain during the war.
'The emphasis in History on the use of evidence and processes of enquiry can help pupils
to discuss and reach informed judgements about topical and contemporary issues which
are the lifeblood of citizenship, and to develop the confidence to take informed action.’
(Crick in Claire, 2005:25)
Secondly, regarding geography, geographers use geographical skills to enquire about the
world around them. Geographical enquiry can be interpreted in several ways. The
National Curriculum states that in undertaking geographical enquiry, pupils should be
taught to ask geographical questions; collect and record evidence; analyse evidence and
draw conclusions; identify and explain different views that people, including themselves,
hold about topical geographical issues; and communicate in ways appropriate to the task
and audience (DfEE/QCA, 1999). Simco and Rowley (1999) argue that critical thinking,
questioning and comparison skills are all essential to geographical enquiry. As Hoodless
et al. (2003) suggest, in order to develop an integrated understanding of geography,
children should use enquiry to develop their geographical knowledge and understanding.
However, as Owen and Ryan (2001) state, there is mounting evidence that the stages of
geographical enquiry should be modelled and taught. Thus, children need learning
activities that develop their ability to become independent enquirers.
Enquiry can be developed through a wide range of resources and experiences: using
maps, photographs, visitors, ICT, fieldwork, play and role- play, physical modelling and
stories (Owen and Ryan, 2001). One example is to use photographs as a stimulus for a
unit of work. Children can then be encouraged to develop a number of questions they
would like to investigate. Children can work independently or in small groups to study the
picture to generate a series of questions they want to find out about the features of the
photograph. With the help of the children, questions can be grouped into categories which
form the basis for the unit of work, and children can indicate the type of resource that
might help them find the answers. For example, when looking at the distant locality of
Peru, children came up with questions based on the following topics: locality, toys, food
and homes, after studying a range of photographs. They are ideal for use within a mixedability class because all children can equally participate, notably within key stage 1 where
children are at different abilities regarding language (Catling, 2002).
However, it is fundamental that children are taught how to 'read' photographs, in order to
develop their evidence-questioning skills. Children need to realise that a set of
photographs of a locality can only ever be one perspective, as the reliance on only one
text results in a partial representation. Hence children need to be taught to question
secondary sources with a critical and open- minded view (Mackintosh, 1999).
Questioning can be guided using an exemplar of 'key' questions:
What is it like?
Where is it?
Why is it like it is?
What would you like to find out about this place?
How and why is it changing?
What would it be like to be there?
How is it similar/different to. ..?
Does the photograph tell the whole story about a place?
These questions can be adapted to any age group, and children should be encouraged to
think of their own questions. They encourage different types of thinking, investigation and
the use of geographical language. They become the basis for any geographical enquiry.
Key stage 2 children could be encouraged to generate a range of enquiry questions
individually.
'Enquiry questions draw children into a problem so that they relate new learning to
previous knowledge and understanding'
(Scoffham, 2002:6)
Martin (2005) provides another way of using photographs with enquiry. Children can be
asked to identify what is going on in a photo by asking them to say what they think people
in a photo might be thinking. Such an activity develops empathy and understanding with
the people in the photographs and brings the people within them to life, through using their
own experiences to interpret them. Developing such language educates children to
become more open-minded and non-judgemental global citizens of the future. Bridge
(2002) suggests that enquiry can be developed in the immediate environment, for
example the classroom, where concept-directed questions can be devised, and then this
approach can be extended to the local community, or a distant locality in the same way.
Owen and Ryan (2001) give other interpretations including the identification of particular
enquiry skills, for example graphicacy or mapping skills, or planning for specific
investigations. The main focus of enquiry is that the children take an active role both
individually and working with others to make sense of the world around them. Geography
in the foundation stage and primary school should be based around enquiry focused on
questioning and evidence-based approaches (Owen and Ryan, 2001). Catling (2002)
gives example of enquiry skills with a geographical focus. These include examining maps,
photographs, sketches, diagrams and charts to generate questions; selecting appropriate
graphical resources to find out information; creating drawings and sketches to show the
processes used in an investigation; and drawing maps, pictures or diagrams to show a
prediction. Enquiry should feature the use of as many different resources and experiences
as possible, therefore it can aid in developing graphicacy skills. Dinkele (1998:155) breaks
the geographical enquiry into six stages:
Stage One
a) Awareness raising
b) Generating enabling questions -key and subsidiary questions
Stage Two
Collecting and recording information
Stage Three
Processing the gathered information
Stage Four
Drawing conclusions from the processed data
Stage Five
Sharing the learning and effective outcomes
Stage Six
Evaluation by all concerned
Bridge (2002) states that we should take the view 'What can geography do for a child?'
rather than 'What does a child have to learn to become a geographer?' Through this we
should encourage children to use 'new eyes' in order to think critically about the world
around them. Critical thinking is a concept that underpins geographical enquiry,
encouraging children to use geographical thought as opposed to taught facts and
processes. This can be done in many ways, one example being through drama. Within the
'Peru as a distant locality' topic, one idea to consolidate learning of the similarities and
differences between Peru and the UK was to 'hot-seat' as a child from Peru and a child
from the UK. The rest of the class asks the two children questions, of which they must
answer in character.
From a citizenship stance, enquiry skills can be developed through teaching using the
news media, for example looking at famine in Africa on a global scale, or plans for a new
supermarket in the local news. Children will naturally have a huge wealth of questions that
they will want to ask, hence the area lends itself well to an enquiry approach. The QCA
Geography scheme of work 'What's in the news?' for key stages 1 and 2 links closely to
many topics. This also links to history, where children can learn about the cause of such
conflicts from the past. Such issues require sensitive teaching, and if tackled carefully can
ensure children grow as global citizens, learning to empathise with children of their own
ages in difficult situations (Asquith, 1999). My resource pack unit of work focuses on
geography as a source of enquiry in Rome, using graphicacy skills from secondary
sources such as maps and photographs, where children are continuously encouraged to
use questioning skills.
In conclusion, the humanities naturally lend themselves to an enquiry-based approach. In
its simplest form, enquiry should involve the generating of questions. Effective geography
and history teaching should always begin with enquiry, where children have ownership of
their learning. As Hoodless et al. (2003) suggest, in order to develop an integrated
understanding of the humanities, children should be taught through enquiry to develop
their knowledge and understanding. However, it is fundamental that enquiry skills are
taught and modelled by the teacher in order for the approach to be effective (Owen and
Ryan, 2001 ).
References
Asquith, S. (1999) 'Questioning Kosovo' Primary Geographer Vol 39 pp4-7
Bage, G. (2000) Thinking History 4-14: Teaching, learning, curricula and communities,
London, Routledge/Falmer
Breretan, S. (1999) 'Lost Luggage' Primary Geographer Vol 39 pp8-10
Bridge, C. (2002) 'Geothink 8: A question of critical thinking' Primary Geographer
Vol 47 pp9-10
Catling, S. (2002) 'Thinking Geographically' Primary Geographer Vol47 pp7-9
Claire, H. (2005) 'Learning and teaching about citizenship through history in the primary
years' Leading Primary History pp24-43
DfEE/QCA (1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Primary Teachers in England,
London, DfEE and QCA
Garner, W. (2002) 'Questioning enquiry' Primary Geographer Vol48 pp35
Higgins, S. (2002) 'Learning to learn' Primary Geographer Vol 47 pp22-23
Hoodless, P., Bermingham, s., McCreeery, E. and Bawden, P. (2003) Teaching
Humanities in Primary Schools, Exeter, Learning Matters
Hughes, P., Cox, K. and Gaddard, G. (2000) Primary History Curriculum Guide, London,
David Fulton
Lomas, T. (2000) 'Effective practice in the primary history curriculum 2000' Primary History
Vol 25
Martin, F. and Matthews, C. (2002) 'Thinking through units' Primary Geographer
Vol 47 pp12-14
Owen, D. and Ryan, A. (2001) Teaching Geography 3-11: The Essential Guide, London,
Continuum
Scoffham, S. (2002) 'Neuro-geography' Primary GeographerVol47 pp4-6
Simco, N. and Rowley, C. (1999) 'Assessing understanding' Primary Geographer
Vol 39 pp26-27
Stanton, L. (2005) 'Enquiry in the early years' Primary Geographer Vol 56 pp22-24