1
COURSE PACK
TCORE 101- INTRODUCTION
TO
COMPOSITION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
introduction
argument, analysis, and evidence in academic writing in
the Humanities
terms & definitions
1
7
rhetorical components of writing
the rhetorical triangle
writing & rhetoric
9
12
close reading
summary guide
annotated bibliography
13
15
17
Toulmin’s ideas about argument
low down on academic argument conventions
recognizing warrants
notes to remember for arguing a position
making concessions & counterarguments
thesis statements vs. arguable claims
coming up with a juicy & arguable claim
top 6 myths about claims for argument papers
generating a claim
how to tell a strong claim from a weak one
20
21
21
22
23
25
27
29
30
31
better use of textual evidence
evaluation of effective quoting
3-step quotation analysis
32
33
34
writing effective introductions & conclusions
organization and cohesion
35
38
writing about reading
academic argument
evidence
organization & style
2
using transitions effectively
common transitional words and phrases
collocation sets
writing good titles
Peer review- providing feedback
faulty logic- fun with fallacies
39
40
40
41
42
43
technological components of writing
formatting your academic essay
mla documentation
sample works cited page
45
46
50
daily participation
response papers
annotated bibliography
summary
draft evaluation- essays
essay checklist
understanding your final grade
51
52
53
54
55
57
58
evaluating your work
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COURSE PACK
TCORE 101- INTRODUCTION
TO
COMPOSITION
Updated on 10/12/2008
You will find handouts and rubrics for evaluation in this packet.
Use the “find” option to search for concepts and terms.
I will periodically add handouts to the end of this packet as needed.
Argument, Analysis, and Evidence in Academic Writing in the Humanities
Section excerpted from a handout written by Dr. Cathy McDonald (WWU).
Academics are known for always analyzing everything. It’s true: they have a habit of asking
probing questions, a practice that is sometimes called “the spirit of inquiry.” One of the biggest
differences between college literate practices and other discourses is that asking why—digging
into the deeper meaning of things and questioning traditional knowledge—is a story frame prized
by scholars. An analysis is an explanation of meaning beneath the surface. People who have been
conditioned by academic inquiry use it to make sense of reality.
I want to offer a word of praise for academic argument. The spirit of inquiry that analysis
demands teaches us to expect proof from all the competing voices in life that vie for our
acceptance. There are countless people/systems trying to get us to buy into their ideologies.
Whether they are commercials trying to get us to buy their products, salespeople trying to get us
to buy their programs, in-laws trying to get us to do things their way, politicians trying to justify
their actions, or preachers/teachers trying to get us to buy their ideas, they all want to sell us their
beliefs. But the price we pay may be too expensive, because we must give them not only our
money, but our minds (and sometimes our lives). If we don’t know how to listen with an open
mind but still read in-between the lines and think for ourselves, we will always need others to
think for us. Critical thinking—listening with an open mind but thinking for ourselves—is
probably the best benefit we gain from habits of academic analysis.
What is Academic Argument?
Because academic thinkers are used to finding reasons why, they are also used to working with
new and controversial ideas. Consequently, they are aware that their findings are open to debate,
their claims will be read by a skeptical audience. Academic readers expect a writer to
demonstrate an understanding of diversity of human experience and ideology, and to use logical
explanations and substantial data to support an assertion. I always say that good writing has three
E’s. It’s explicit, elaborated, and has exigency (an urgency or need to be said—the writer is
engaged with the topic so that the message matters).
In a verbal conversation, you might call your argument just your opinion and leave it at that. In
academic writing, your “opinion” is more than your preference, it’s your theory or your
interpretation, backed up with credible evidence, the kind that constitutes academic proof.
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Often the terms analysis and argument are used synonymously, but they are slightly different.
Your “argument” is your theory (claim, thesis, interpretation, assertion), backed up by credible
evidence (proof, support, analysis). In order to be credible to an academic audience, convincing
evidence is usually some kind of detailed analysis that looks for meaning beneath the surface. An
analysis is a break down of an issue’s parts that helps us understand the meaning beneath: an
analysis examines causes, the answer to the question why. Remember that just announcing or
declaring your claim does not constitute evidence that supports it. Also, telling
similarities/differences (compare/ contrast) rather than arguing reasons why is not an analysis of
meaning (telling is a kind of “obvious claim” that is not good argument).
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What good academic argument is NOT:
 An undebatable opinion or preference that “just is” (“I believe college athletes should get
paid.” Or “I like college sports.”—No one can debate that you believe it or what you like.)
 A statement of fact or obvious claim that “just is” (“College athletes do not get paid beyond
their scholarship assistance.” Or “College athletics brings in millions of dollars of revenue
for the university.”—No new knowledge here; the data is a verifiable report from public
records)
 A quarrel. This implies the winner has the right answer, the loser the wrong viewpoint. In
academic argument, opposing viewpoints are both assertable, given credible evidence for
support.
 Written to people who agree with you and who are like you (“Everybody loves college
sports.”—This is not true for everybody.)
 Automatically controversial. Some argumentative essays do try to convince readers to agree
with the author on a controversial issue (often called a “position paper”), such as a prolife/anti-abortion essay, but those kinds of essays are rare in college writing. Better to think
of it this way: An argument = your theory + credible evidence to back it up.
What counts as valid evidence?
That depends on the discipline, but for the humanities, here are kinds of good evidence:
1. Reader-based writing rather than writer-based writing. “Reader-based” means that the
reader does not have to do the work to figure out the meaning, why topics were brought up,
how ideas connect to each other, etc. because the writer has done all the work in composing
meaning and clarity. “Writer-based” means that the text seems to have been written for the
writer’s use (like a diary entry, a grocery list, notes taken in class, etc.) and the reader has to
do more work to figure it out.
2. Elaborated development. Credible writing has ideas elaborated enough to thoroughly prove
both the thesis claim and each single paragraph that discusses it. Imagine me at your elbow
as you write every sentence, asking about each idea: “Why?” “What causes that?” “So
What? What’s the significance of that?” “What evidence can you offer to prove it?” “How
does this fit in with others have already written on your subject?” “Who is this not true for?”
“Doesn’t your audience already know this?” “Why do those who oppose this view point
think you’re wrong?” “What else is this connected to?” (The length of elaborated
development makes humanities writing different from business writing or typical verbal
discourse, both of which prefer a short, concise use of words.)
3. Precise, exact wording; concrete and specific assertions; explicit claims. This is a factor of
Western writing’s love for direct, up-front assertions instead of anything that makes the text
indirect or vague.
4. An essay body consisting of a strong chain of reasoning: the flow of paragraph topics that
coherently follow each other and progressively develop the thesis.
5. Logic and reasons that conform to accepted values of a discipline (physical sciences, social
sciences, or the humanities). A good way to check for logical integrity is by the pneumonic
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STAR: the evidence has to be sufficient, typical of the subject it represents, accurate, and
relevant. Beware logical fallacies here like the “post hoc fallacy,” which is a faulty cause and
effect argument. Just because you tell two things next to each other does not mean the first
caused the second (“When ice cream sales go up in New York City, so does the crime rate;
therefore, ice cream causes crime” is a post hoc fallacy). Be careful not to be “preachy,” but
show understanding of the diversity of other perspectives
6. Examples, data, statistics. Depending on what discipline you are writing in, this
quantification is more or less crucial. Charts, numbers, etc. are most expected in the natural
and social sciences. But just reporting quantifiable information is still not enough to
articulate a compelling argument because you must go one step further to also express what
the statistics mean. Merely stating some data, for instance that twenty-five percent of today’s
population are college graduates, does not speak for itself; you must push and interpret what
that percentage means and how it connects to your topic.
7. The authority of experts (quotes, paraphrases, summaries), which I call credible textual
support, well-chosen and smoothly integrated. A tricky way to smoothly work somebody
else’s ideas into your writing is to make a “quote sandwich”—a three part package that
introduces the author you’re referring to, then paraphrases or quotes the expert, and is
followed by your explanation of what the reference means (or how it demonstrates your
point). For example: “Genre scholar Frances Christie explains that language generates
meaning. She argues for ‘a view of language as something with which we construct the thing
which is experience or reality’ (23). This view of the way words work sees language as not
some neutral, natural reflection of meaning but a force that makes meaning itself.” Textual
authority is probably the most important form of academic evidence, so always plan on using
strong textual support. It usually requires some research to find relevant support, either in
our assigned readings or from the library. A note of caution is in order, however, because
even an article in a scholarly journal does not in itself constitute irrefutable proof because
good evidence is plural. (We belong to a library system with hundreds of thousands of
contradictory reports; finding one study that backs up your point may not convince
supporters of the opposing viewpoint.)
Just to explain textual authority further, let me tell you how not to use it.
 Quotes, paraphrases, summaries that don’t fit into your argument for any apparent
reason (other than teacher said I had to quote someone, so I’ll throw one in).
Nothing will prove you don’t know what you’re doing faster than using research that you
don’t understand to discuss an issue that you’re clueless about in the first place.
 Quotes, paraphrases, summaries taken out of context of what the author really meant
 Quotes, paraphrases, summaries of questionable authors or sources (such as suspicious
Web sites as opposed to scholarly journals, etc.)
8. Concessions. Scholars from the humanities privilege a plural perspective, so they prefer
writers to show thoughtful consideration of multiple sides of a topic rather than pretend
certainty, which might be viewed as simplistic thinking. Further ideas that complicate the
argument, acknowledge ambiguities, and make concessions when necessary are valued as
evidence of intellectual rigor.
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9. The personal touch of (infrequently used) personal experience or narrative can be
appropriate, too, as long as you don’t imply that your story represents everyone’s; a story can
be an example. Often your experience makes you a “local expert” on your topic. This means
that the word I can be useful in some college writing, despite what you may have been told in
high school. (Note: this is true for humanities writing more than other disciplines.)
10. Close reading. Many of the assignment prompts in humanities classes ask for some kind of
interpretation, some kind of critical thinking, some kind of original analysis. Usually this
comes in response to some “text” in the broad sense of the word, be it written (either literary
or a non-fiction writing) or cultural (such as a movie, advertisement, etc.). Since this
interpretation is a response to the text being analyzed, the process is often called “doing a
close reading.” Evidence must come directly from many places in the text under
investigation.
11. Qualified wording rather than absolute statements. Words such as all, none, every are
absolutes. All it takes is one example to the contrary to disprove an absolute claim. Some,
many, most are qualifiers and make your idea seem more reasonable. “Leading scholars such
as Schryer and Miller argue that…” instead of “Science has proven that…”
12. Warrant. Explicit warrants are clear statements that explain why the sentence(s) immediately
before make sense. In Craft of Research, the author says a warrant is an explanation that tells
why the evidence counts. Think of a warrant as a piggy-back rider, a sentence that follows
something and tells why the thing it follows is justified. Not surprisingly, warrants often
contain the words therefore, because of, or since, etc.
Use a warrant to show 1) why the paragraph topic does indeed prove the thesis, 2) why the
evidence in the middle of a paragraph does indeed prove the paragraph topic, and 3) what the
unspoken assumptions are behind any single claim. For instance, the unwarranted claim “The
color white in the ad suggests that the people are young” rests on the author’s
presuppositions, and must have an explanation to warrant its logic. “Because white
symbolizes purity and innocence, and youth is associated with innocence, the color white in
the ad suggests that the people are young.”
If you are addressing people who already agree with your thesis, the reasons your claim
makes sense are already apparent, but readers who differ from you do not share common
beliefs and your very task is to convince them of your argument. (That’s why “preachy”
writing fails in college essays: preachy statements rely on unspoken beliefs that you assume
readers already agree with.) The more controversial your assertion, the more you need a
warrant.
Think of argument this way:
Argument- “Not a disagreement, but the reasons, evidence, and explanations used in an attempt
to encourage readers to agree with the theory of the writer.” This is similar to what a lawyer does
in a courtroom because the lawyer knows that he or she must convince the jury in the presence of
the opposing lawyer’s arguments.
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Here is a chart that divides academic writing from how we often use words in other contexts.
Academic Audience Expectations
Non-Academic Audience Allowances
Direct/assertive/point driven
Indirect/rambling
Logic-based/ objective/
Emotion-based/ intuitive/ subjective/ personal
Personal used carefully as example
used indiscriminately
Explicit/all topics are fully explained
Implied/asks the reader to read in-between the
lines
Assumed audience is skeptical
Assumed audience already agrees with writer
Formal diction/ Standard Written English/ no
Informal diction/ conversational tone/ slang ok
slang
Elaborated development/in-depth analysis with Superficial development/reductive discussion
specific support
with sketchy support
Analytic approach/ expressive style only used
Descriptive narrative/ stories told to show
to clarify meaning
personal experience or opinion
Organized and structured on purpose
Random / shot-gun structure
Error free in order to be credible
Errors allowed (can be corrected in speech)
Different Disciplines= Different Expectations
Not all college writing is argument, but much is. The difference, however—and this is what
makes undergraduate writing difficult—is that what constitutes good evidence in one discipline
is not the same for all disciplines. In Pat Currie’s article “What Counts as ‘Good’ Writing?” her
research shows that different professors hold different expectations for evidence. And papers in
the natural sciences are not usually argument essays. In expository writing for instance, such as
scientific reporting, you do not assert your own interpretation of the meaning beneath the facts.
(Note the beginning of the word “expose” in expository.) Your job there is to expose or reveal
the facts, not analyze them. It is as if you imply to the readers: “Here’s a combination of data for
you, but I’m just the reporter.” It is important for students to recognize that what makes sense in
one discipline in the university may not work in a different discipline. A good essay for your
engineering professor will not work for English courses. What you did in high school will not
work in college. We will study these differences when we talk about “disciplinarity.” The big
point that you can learn in this writing class is that in order to write well, first you must analyze
the writing scene and situation, and then employ the genre conventions that best suit the need to
write.
Sometimes students have trouble seeing the connection between argument papers assigned in a
writing class and the tasks other professors ask them to write about. Why do composition courses
assign argument and analysis? While a whole paper devoted to one central argument may be
more common in English classes, the skill of argumentation, analysis, and presenting credible
evidence is expected in many other courses. A point-driven assertion backed up by evidence
convincing to a particular discourse community is a very common rhetorical expectation in
multiple writing assignments across the academy, even though it takes various forms in different
disciplines.
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Terms & Definitions
Rhetoric: I define rhetoric as “using communication (language, form, visuals, signs) in such a
way as to influence listeners to hear your side, favor you, agree to your position, or understand
you.” One textbook says: “Rhetoric is the use of language to accomplish something.” Rhetoric,
which used to be thought of as “the art of persuasion,” is more appropriately seen as the practices
that we all use to make meaning, which usually involves words in some way or another. If you
think about it, it’s hard—if not impossible—to NOT use words rhetorically; rhetoric is how we
make meaning with words.
Discourse: Communication (language, form, visuals, signs)
2 aspects: linguistic and social. Linguistic = types of communication such as verbal discourse,
electronic discourse, classroom discourse, courtroom discourse; Social = more than just talk, but
the way something gets talked about and the eventual social forces that control the way of
thinking about it, such as the discourse of femininity, the discourse of war, etc. James Gee says
that “a Discourse is a sort of ‘identity kit’ which comes complete with the appropriate costume
and instructions on how to act, talk, and often write, so as to take on a particular role that others
will recognize.”
Discourse Community: A group of people who use discourse in a common way: they have
shared aims of communication, social concerns, rules of language, etc. Examples are users on a
discussion board, professors of the same discipline, journalists, employees of one workplace, etc.
TCORE 101 is another example of a discourse community.
Genres: Genres are typical rhetorical ways of responding to a repeated situation. Genres are the
structured patterns that start in our mental maps of what makes sense to do, and they are also
what we do with those mental ideas. Genres are socially constructed “shapes of meaning” shared
by people living and communicating in the same discourse community. Scholars utilize
academic discourse to communicate within their discourse community, utilizing generic ways of
writing such as the academic argument, to respond to situations in recognizable ways.
Text(s): Some coded message that gets “read” or interpreted. Usually texts are written, but they
can be anything that communicates a message, such as a movie, an ad, a party, a sign, a
classroom, a handshake.
Ideology: Your whole system of beliefs, ideals, and values. Although they start out as ideas,
these beliefs and values go down to our subconscious and become part of our emotions and
identity. Ideology performs the function to tell us 1) what exists/what is real, 2) what is good and
right, 3) what is possible.
Claim: The claim is the main idea, or thesis, that is being focused on and examined in an
academic argument.
Evidence: The details that support your claim. Appropriate evidence in an academic argument
ranges from, but is not restricted to, facts, data, expert opinion, personal experience, and
evidence from other texts or sources.
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Warrants: Explicitly worded statements that follow either a claim or evidence; they tell why the
information they follow is valid or why the evidence they follow counts as proof for the claim.
Signposts: Markers within a text that help guide the reader through the chain of reasoning. Ex.
“Although teasing is affectionate when used by my immediate family, the same teasing is not
affectionate but disrespectful when used by my cousin.” The repeated words guide the reader.
Wild Claims: Broad generalizations asserted with insufficient proof used to back them up.
Remember that just announcing or declaring your claim does not constitute giving evidence to
support it. You will see this term used in the sections “Argument, Analysis, and Evidence in
Academic Writing in the Humanities.”
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The Rhetorical Triangle
Aristotle taught that a speaker's ability to persuade is based
on how well the speaker appeals to his or her audience in
three different areas: ethos (ethical appeals), pathos
(emotional appeals), and logos (logical appeals).
Appeal based on logic or reason.
Logos
Syllogisms
Facts
Statistics
Mathematical proofs
Scientific evidence
Appeal based on the character of the source.
Reputation
Credibility
Expertise
Education
Celebrity
Ethos
Appeal based on an emotional response.
Pathos
Pride
Pity
Joy
Sympathy
Morality
Envy
Companionship
Camaraderie
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Rhetoricians have labeled these areas the rhetorical triangle.
We could also illustrate the concept this way:
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Ethos refers to the writer's "ethical appeal." In other words, how well does the writer presents
herself? Does she seem knowledgeable and reasonable? Does she seem trustworthy? Does she
treat her opponents, people who might disagree, with fairness and respect, or does she take cheap
shots at them? Does she try to establish common ground with the reader? Why do you think
essays that lack this kind of appeal are likely to be unconvincing? What effect do you think it
would have if a writer included nothing but ethical appeals?
Pathos refers to the argument's "emotional appeals." Many times, this appeal is how a writer
will make an argument "matter" to readers. Advertisements do it all the time. Perhaps a writer
will offer an anecdote to illustrate suffering or appeal to readers as parents concerned for their
children. Does the writer appeal to your emotions--feelings of sadness, pride, fear, being young,
anger, patriotism, love, justice? Or is the essay loaded with facts, figures, and nothing else? Is
the emotional appeal effective, or overwhelming?
Logos corresponds with the argument's "logical appeals." Effective arguments will probably
include facts and other supporting details to back up the author's claims. They may contain
testimony from authorities and will demonstrate the writer's carefulness in choosing and
considering evidence. They are likely to be well organized, skillfully written, and well
edited/proofread. Questions to consider: What is being argued here, or, what is the author's
thesis? What points does he offer to support this idea? Has he presented arguments that seem
logical, or does he seem to be jumping to conclusions? Can you think of kinds of writing that
rely exclusively on logical appeals? Do they bore you?
Note that this triangle is essentially equilateral. Why? Again, the equal sides and angles illustrate the
concept that each appeal is as important as the others. It also suggests that a BALANCE of the three is
important. Too much of one is likely to produce an argument that readers will either find unconvincing
or, worse yet, cause them to stop reading.
Finally, note how each of the areas potentially affects the others. An illogical argument may move us
emotionally, but only in the sense that it makes us angry at the author for wasting our time. An
overwhelming emotional argument may make us feel that the author is relying exclusively on emotions
rather than offering solid reasoning. Or, if an argument contains only facts and figures and no emotional
appeals, we may simply get bored. All these defects may in turn affect the author's ethical appeal: how
can we trust a writer who appeals only to our emotions? What common ground do we have with a writer
who doesn't appeal to our emotions at all?
What positions do you think the following people are speaking from (there can be more than one)?
 Oprah telling you to buy Toni Morrison’s Beloved.
 Martin Luther King Jr. giving his “I Have a Dream” speech.
 Jerry Springer’s guest on the “My father married my principal!” show.
 Rosie O’Donnell convincing mothers to march for gun control.
 You writing a letter home about your first week of college.
Copyright 1997 Joseph Sigalas - Rhetorical Triangle
http://www.theperfectcompany.com/teaching/discussion/rhetoricaltriangle.htm
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Writing & Rhetoric
Ask yourself these questions as you are writing & when you are you are reading
the writing of your peers.
o What are my motives for writing? That is, what am I trying to achieve in this
text and how do I expect this text to help me achieve my goals?
o In what ways and how have I met these expectations?
o What do readers expect from a writer of this text? How do I want to be
“invented” by my readers? Does the writer I project match the one readers
expect? Why or why not? What cues identify me (make me most visible) to
them?
o Who do I expect will read this text and for what purposes? Have I given them
what they need and expect? How and why not?
o What audience role/stance have I created for my readers? What cues do I
give my readers to help them adopt that role/stance?
o What relationship have I created between me as writer and my readers?
o What questions do I want readers to ask of my text? How do I get them to ask
the questions I consider important?
o What conventions (level of formality, simple or complex sentences,
specialized vocabulary, kinds of words, style, citation system, etc.) do writers
of this sort of text usually use? In what ways does my text match these
conventions? If it does not, why? If it does not, how do I help readers accept
me text?
"A writer keeps surprising himself... he doesn't know what his is saying until he sees it on the
page." -- Thomas Williams
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Close Reading
Close reading means reading a text closely: looking at the details and discussing how those
details lead you to make conclusions about the text. The idea is to look at the little pieces and
see how they connect to the whole. Close reading is a writing strategy meant to help you
gain a better understanding of your reading of a text and to provide you will the necessary
textual evidence to support that reading.
When doing a close reading, the goal is to closely analyze the material and explain why
details are significant. Therefore, close reading does not try to summarize the author’s main
points, rather, it focuses on “picking apart” and closely looking at the what the author makes
his/her argument, why is it interesting, etc. Here, you will begin with the details and move
outward, which is an essential skill in supporting an argument. Using quotation analysis can
help you do this as it demands that you remain close to the text. However, a close reading is
NOT only one piece of quotation analysis, as it demands that you further develop your ideas.
The tips below will help you effectively develop and organize your ideas and produce a close
reading. Your approach will vary, depending on if you are just doing a general close reading,
or whether you are adapting the instructions below to accommodate an assignment.
How do I do it?
1. First, gather data. By this, I mean identify the details (the little pieces) that you want to
analyze. Keep your focus narrow. Either look at a small section of the text (a few sentences
or a paragraph or two) or look at a single repeating detail (a term or stylistic choice that
occurs a number of times in different places). If you are choosing to look at a specific detail,
then scan back through the text and make sure that you have noticed all the instances in
which it takes place. Reread the sections you are working with at least four or five times, so
you don’t miss anything. It may help to list the details—the data—on a separate page so
you can see clearly what you are working with.
2. Next, look for ways that the data is connected. Look for patterns, See if there are parallel
structures or ideas. Note the structure of the passage and see if the structure is related to
the content in any way. Do you see anything being compared or contrasted? Do these
pieces fit together in any meaningful ways?
3. Finally, report your findings. This is when you communicate the conclusions you have
made. You will always need to refer to your data to illustrate, support, and explain your
findings. That means paraphrasing or using quotes from the original text. Along with
explanations of why those details are important to your discussion. A good rule of thumb
is “introduce, quote, explain” when using others’ words in an essay. First, introduce the
quote and give it some context, then quote the essential part of the passage, and then
explain how that quote ties into your conclusions. Remember, your goal is to show how
these small details contribute to the overall meaning of the text.
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Tips for close reading:
1. Read the passage several times. Annotate and outline.
2. What stands out to you about the passage? Why did you choose it? What
relevance does it have to the rest of the text?
3. Take very specific notes on the passage—remember, this time you are not
summarizing main points (though you will need to contextualize your
discussion so it makes sense.)
4. Now that you have some notes on the specific language of the piece, see
how your ideas might tie into larger themes of the texts as a whole.
5. Remember to focus on the “how” and “why”—don’t just say that the
passage does this or that—interact with the text and figure out and explain
how the language is doing what it’s doing.
6. Make it relevant: Ask yourself why you need to tell the reader about these
observations—what’s the point? So what? Answering these questions leads
you toward an argument (and that you beyond summary, which is
description). However, keep your argument SMALL and Specific at this point.
Make it clear in the first few sentences why the passage is relevant and what
you will say about it.
7. Rethink and regroup, organizing your thoughts from questions into logical
paragraphs (each paragraph might contain a “point”). Decide where it is
relevant to include summary (you’re going to need to summarize the piece
before writing about it), introduce the author and piece, use quotes, etc. As
this is a short piece, no formal conclusion is necessary, though the piece
should “wrap up” at the end.
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Writing the Summary Essay:
A summary essay should be organized so that others can understand the source or evaluate your
comprehension of it. The following format works well:
Introduction (usually one paragraph)
1.
Contains a one-sentence thesis statement that sums up the main point of the source.
This thesis statement is not your main point; it is the main point of your source. Usually, though,
you have to write this statement rather than quote it from the source text. It is a one-sentence summary of
the entire text that your essay summarizes.
2. Also introduces the text to be summarized:
(i) Gives the title of the source (following the citation guidelines of whatever
style sheet you are using);
(ii) Provides the name of the author of the source;
(ii) Sometimes also provides pertinent background information about the author
of the source or about the text to be summarized.
The introduction should not offer your own opinions or evaluation of the text you are summarizing.
Body (one or more paragraphs):
This paraphrases and condenses the original piece. In your summary, be sure that you:
1. Include important data but omit minor points;
2. Include one or more of the author’s examples or illustrations (these will bring your summary to life);
3. Do not include your own ideas, illustrations, metaphors, or interpretations. Look upon yourself as a
summarizing machine; you are simply repeating what the source text says, in fewer words and in your
own words. But the fact that you are using your own words does not mean that you are including your
own ideas.
Conclusion
There is customarily no conclusion to a summary essay.
When you have summarized the source text, your summary essay is finished. Do not add your own
concluding paragraph unless your teacher specifically tells you to.
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Characteristics:
 Summaries identify the source of original text.
 Summaries demonstrate your understanding of a text's subject matter.
 Summaries are shorter (at least 60% shorter) than the original text--they omit
the original text's "examples, asides, analogies, and rhetorical strategies: (
 Summaries differ from paraphrases--paraphrases more closely follow the
original text's presentation (they still use your words, but they are longer than
summaries).
 Summaries focus exclusively on the presentation of the writer's main ideas-they do not include your interpretations or opinions.
 Summaries normally are written in your own words--they do not contain
extended quotes or paraphrases.
 Summaries rely on the use of standard signal phrases ("According to the
author..."; "The author believes..."; etc.).
Tips on Writing Summaries
Step One (Prewriting):
Read the article quickly.
Try to get a sense of the article's general focus and content.
Step Two (Drafting):
Restate the article's thesis simply and in your own words.
Restate each paragraph's topic simply and in your own words.
Step Three (Revising):
Combine sentences in Step Two to form your summary; organize your
summary sentences in the same order as the main ideas in the original text.
Edit very carefully for neatness and correctness.
17
Annotated Bibliography
An annotated bibliography is a list of citations to books, articles, and
documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (usually about 150 words)
descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation. The purpose of the
annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of
the sources cited.
ANNOTATIONS VS. ABSTRACTS
Abstracts are the purely descriptive summaries often found at the beginning
of scholarly journal articles or in periodical indexes. Annotations are
descriptive and critical; they expose the author's point of view, clarity and
appropriateness of expression, and authority.
THE PROCESS
Creating an annotated bibliography calls for the application of a variety of
intellectual skills: concise exposition, succinct analysis, and informed library
research.
First, locate and record citations to books, periodicals, and documents that
may contain useful information and ideas on your topic. Briefly examine and
review the actual items. Then choose those works that provide a variety of
perspectives on your topic.
Cite the book, article, or document using the appropriate style.
Write a concise annotation that summarizes the central theme and scope of
the book or article. Include one or more sentences that (a) evaluate the
authority or background of the author, (b) summarize the work and
comment on the intended audience, (c) compare or contrast this work with
another you have cited, or (d) explain how this work illuminates your
bibliography topic.
CRITICALLY APPRAISING THE BOOK, ARTICLE, OR DOCUMENT
For guidance in critically appraising and analyzing the sources for your
bibliography, see How to Critically Analyze Information Sources. For
information on the author's background and views, ask at the reference desk
for help finding appropriate biographical reference materials and book review
sources.
18
CHOOSING THE CORRECT FORMAT FOR THE CITATIONS
CUL Publications 7 and 8, MLA Citation Style and APA Citation Style, are
available at the Uris and Olin Reference desks. Style manuals for these and
other formats are also kept in the reference collections. Check with your
instructor to find out which style is preferred for your class. Online citation
guides for both Modern Language Association (MLA) and American
Psychological Association (APA) are available in the Library Gateway's Help
section, under the "Research Strategy and Process: Citing sources" link.
SAMPLE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRY FOR A JOURNAL
ARTICLE
The following example uses the APA format for the journal citation.
NOTE: APA requires double spacing within citations.
Waite, L. J., Goldschneider, F. K., & Witsberger, C. (1986). Nonfamily
living and the erosion of traditional family orientations among
young adults. American Sociological Review,51, 541-554.
The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use
data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young
Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters
their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from
their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly
supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young
males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased
individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In
contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant
gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.
This example uses the MLA format for the journal citation. NOTE:
Standard MLA practice requires double spacing within citations.
Waite, Linda J., Frances Kobrin Goldscheider, and Christina
Witsberger. "Nonfamily Living and the Erosion of Traditional
Family Orientations Among Young Adults." American
Sociological Review 51 (1986): 541-554.
19
The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use
data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young
Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters
their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from
their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly
supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young
males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased
individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In
contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant
gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.
Revised 6 March 2007 [MOE]
Michael Engle, Amy Blumenthal, and Tony Cosgrave
Reference Department
URL: http://www.library.cornell.edu/olinuris/ref/research/skill28.htm
20
Toulmin’s Ideas About Argument
Back in 1958, a guy named Stephen Toulmin, originally a British logician and now a professor at
USC, spelled out what he considered the basic elements of an argument. The First Triad of his
model consists of three basic elements: The CLAIM, the SUPPORT and the WARRANT.
Claim: The claim is the main idea, or thesis, that you are focusing on. Basically, the claim
answers the question, “What’s your point? Why does it matter?”
One claim I make in my syllabus is that the portfolio system allows you to be graded on your best
work.
Support: Support are the statements given to back up your claim. This may take many forms:
facts, data, personal experience, expert opinion, evidence from other texts and sources, emotional
appeals. The more reliable and comprehensive your support, the more likely your audience is to
accept your claim.
I support my claim about the portfolio system be referring to “experts” whose actions give
evidence that my argument is true, mostly gained from personal experience and the directions of
my department.
Warrant: The warrants are the beliefs, values, inferences, and/or experiences that you are
assuming your audience has in common with you. If your audience doesn’t have the assumptions
you are making about your support, than it won’t be effective.
The syllabus relies on a number of assumptions. One is that you will trust my knowledge of
writing. Another is that you wouldn’t automatically assume that the portfolio system is best. I
also assume that you care about how you are graded and that you can understand the way I
write.
1. Someone warns you, “Don’t eat that mushroom—it’s poisonous!”
Claim:
You shouldn’t eat that mushroom.
Support:
The mushroom is poisonous.
Warrants:
You aren’t immune to poisonous mushrooms.
You want to live.
You don’t know it’s poisonous.
You trust my knowledge of mushrooms…
2. Two women are talking. One says to the other: “You’d better start watching your weight, or
you’ll never find yourself a man.
Claim:
She needs to be careful not to gain anymore weight.
Support:
She won’t be able to find “a man” if she gets fat.
Warrants:
She doesn’t already have a man.
Men aren’t attracted to fat women.
She wants to be in a relationship.
She’s heterosexual.
She lives in a culture that values thinness.
That never finding a man is a bad thing.
That she is able to watch her weight (there isn’t a medical reason, etc.)
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Low Down on Academic Argument Conventions
Claim/Thesis
 Provides the purpose of your paper
 Gives a roadmap of where your paper is going
 Identifies the argument that will be developed and supported in your essay.
The Claim Identifies (ie, clearly states using specific language) the following:
 WHAT the argument (point) of your paper is.
 HOW you will prove the argument (identify key claims you will make to prove the
argument)
 WHY your argument is significant (or, what the implications are)
Development/Support
 Develops and supports your argument by using logically progressing interpretive
claims and evidence from the text.
 You must interpret and analyze. In other words, show your readers how the claims
and evidence support and develop your argument.
Recognizing Warrants
Assumptions are crucial to your argument, for, if any of your assumptions aren’t true,
the argument breaks down. When developing an argument, it is important to think
through the assumptions you are making. Often times one of the assumptions you are
making might be just as interesting as what you are discussing and you can make it part
of your argument.
Under each statement, note the warrants.
 If we don’t stop underpaying our teachers, fewer and fewer people will go into this
field.
 You shouldn’t major in the humanities because you will never get a job.
 We don’t need to have bilingual education because everyone should learn English.
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Notes to Remember for Arguing a Position
1. Remember to define your terms. Definition by example is one of the best ways to
argue your position.
2. Consider the necessary counterarguments to your claims. Counterarguments allow
you to complicate and elevate your thinking. They are not an admission that your
idea is weak.
3. Avoid abstractions. Don’t speak in generalities. Speak of what you know. Use your
knowledge. Being academic means never leaving the personal behind.
4. IDEA—the mighty idea—let it reign supreme in your essays. Introduce it without
giving it away. Keep exploring and elevating your idea as you and your reader
journey through your essay. It is your idea that guides you as you question and
explore your sources. There is no questioning or arguing for its own sake. Your
questions and arguments gain their power and persuasion through the context of
your idea.
5. Don’t forget your readers and their need to be invited into the exploration of your
idea. Show respect for your reader’s intelligence by inviting your readers to consider
the questions and evidence you are exploring. Ask yourself: how might my readers
oppose my argument? How might my readers misunderstand my argument? What
kind of evidence will my readers find most persuasive?
23
Making Concessions & Counterarguments
In your papers, it is often important to make a concession to the other side to make your
argument stronger—that is, rather than acting like another side of your argument does not exist,
you address it and “debunk” it. In fact, in an argument paper, presenting the other side and
then “tearing it apart” can often be a very effective strategy. Conceding to some of your
opposition’s concerns can demonstrate respect for their opinion. Making concessions also
demonstrates your ability as a writer by showing that you have researched and considered you
argument from multiple perspectives in order to come to an informed decision.
Naturally, what you don’t want to do is present a counterargument and not address it. It might
be tempting to do this in your conclusion; you may feel that you’ve made your point pretty
strongly and that it is okay to just say something about the “other side” and just leave it there.
But resist—the conclusion is what the reader is left with.
There is no surefire way to make concessions, but it is likely a good idea to keep it short,
limiting yourself to one per paragraph at the most (otherwise the counterarguments and
concessions start to become your argument). Also, watch out for fallacies—sometimes it might
be tempting to make a bad analogy or to oversimplify in order to “dismiss” the other side.
Basically, if you can’t make the concession strongly, it may be better not to address it all.
Tips for Making Counterarguments and Concessions Effectively



Consider your audience when you make your counterargument or concession.
Remain tactful and respectful yet firm on your position.
Using rude and/or deprecating language can alienate your reader and cause them to reject
your position without carefully considering your claim.
See this example:
“League Officials and Female Athletes: Manipulating Image for Profit”
(Emily Hauenstein)
“Differentiating the women’s game from the men’s game through sponsors and
skimpier uniforms is unsettling for many current players. “Anyone who thinks that a uniform
will draw people to the game is severely off base,” Brandi Chastain said. “The game of football
[soccer] itself is what brings people to the stadium, not what the players are wearing. He
should continue to focus on the development of the women’s game rather than trying to
sexualize it” (Associated Press par. 7). Interestingly, this statement by Brandi Chastain contradicts
some of her previous actions that resulted in added media attention for Women’s soccer. At the
1999 FIFA Women’s World Cup, Chastain scored a game-winning penalty kick and proceeded
to fall to her knees and peel off her jersey revealing her sports bra as shown in Figure 2.
Following the event, many speculated whether this was either an act of “momentary insanity” (as
Chastain herself claimed), a blow for gender equality (as shirt shedding by male soccer players
in celebration of a victorious moment is something of a tradition in soccer), or a shrewd and
calculated marketing ploy (since the sports bra in question was a Nike prototype planned for
mass production) (Markovitz & Hellerman 178). Though this game was one of the strongest
finishes in the history of US Women’s Soccer, the focus of the media’s attention quickly changed
24
the moment Chastain stripped off her jersey. Women’s professional tennis has shown that
femininity and revealing uniforms have aided in building up a large fan base, contrary to Ms.
Chastain’s statement, therefore sexualizing the women’s game could potentially result in pay
increases and larger audiences for women’s soccer as well.
Why it Works
 Hauenstein uses the counterargument to consider the other sides of the debate,
using a quote from an insider to the community to situate her discussion of the
possibilities.
 Hauenstein offers multiple perspectives on the situation
 Hauenstein attributes her counterargument/concession to someone—“ Markovitz
& Hellerman” & “Chastain herself.” Remember that making a concession that is
vague is probably going to end up being a fallacy. Make it clear who is arguing with
you (and why, thought here this is implied).
 Hauenstein returns back to the original point in her paragraph (underlined). He
refutes the counterargument both immediately afterwards, and goes on to make
more points. She doesn’t present the counterargument too late or too early.
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Thesis Statements vs. Arguable Claims
The following are examples of the “descriptive” thesis statements, drawn from the top scoring
AP English Language and Composition papers posted on the College Board website, that are
common to high school writing, but are not acceptable for the academic argument paper.
To be a writer one must have an elite understanding of diction, syntax and tone. These literary
devices are utilized by writers, including Eudora Welty, as a method for expressing the message
that they wish to convey to readers.
In the excerpt from One Writer’s Beginnings, Eudora Welty conveys a positive tone toward her
childhood experience. She accomplishes this through the use of descriptive diction,
impressionable images, and unusual syntax.
The language she employs to relate anecdotes of her childhood love affair with reading is
invested with the same passion and value that she applied to books.
The author’s response to nature is strong and vivid.
Oliver recognizes the overwhelming power and mystery of nature visible in this passage about
the great horned owl. This concept is carried over to the reader by the effective use of detail and
syntax.
Kincaid, instead of openly displaying her ideas, uses a clever mix of syntax and rhetorical
structure to let us gradually realize that something is wrong is such a seeming paradise.
The two passages given describe the swamp in very different lights. Although they are in some
ways similar, the styles of the authors of these paragraphs are very different.
Rather than being strong argumentative claims, the strategy here is to create a thesis statement
that describes what the reader will find in the essay. As readers, it is quite difficult to find a
motivation to read what’s here—in none of these thesis statements is there a connection to
anything beyond the text itself. The writers of these thesis statements aren’t investigating
anything, nor are they applying what they’ve read to a new text of idea. Another aspect important
to notice here is the formula for describing non-fiction writing: tone, diction, syntax, and
rhetorical strategies. While the application of an idea—tone, diction, syntax—to a text is a step in
the right direction, there is no sense of the communication of important ideas to a reading
audience.
Let’s compare these thesis statements with some arguable claims produced from English 131.
While the sentences listed above constitute, for the most part, the entire opening paragraphs of
the essays, in the arguable claims below, students have created a context for their argument,
26
explained important concepts from an essay, and then, after either a lengthy paragraph or
paragraphs, declared their claims.
The media is an influential force in our society. It carries the power to shape our thoughts and
close or accommodate our perception of a particular event. In many cases, the media will shape
an event around norms in society focused on a particular group of people, many times masking
real and complex social issues that truly give rise to the incident. These “master narratives”
oversimplify events and fail to tell the whole story in order to provide predictability and comfort
to society or a group of people. This was the case during the Los Angeles riot of 1992.
In her essay, “Teaching Children to Discriminate: What we learn from the Big Bad Wolf,” LippiGreen states specific criteria she used to determine whether a film should be included in her
study. These criteria include that the film is full length, not made of up individual shorts put
together for theatrical release, fully animated, and not specifically aimed at an adult audience;
both The Black Cauldron and Oliver and Company meet all of these criteria and thus should
have been included in the study.
While these personal accounts give people’s opinions on how contact zones are formed and
supported, the Articles of Confederation was a document that actually created contact zones,
instead of merely describing them. These contact zones are worthy to note because they are
important in shaping early American history.
I claim that the constant training to conform into a disciplined society to avoid danger is the first
step to individuals becoming more automated or compliant. Furthermore, it is this disciplinary
society that is responsible for producing our robotic behavior.
Both instances, leper colony and plague town, institute processes to solve the issue of the sick,
the leper through separation and the town through its meticulous segmentation. These processes
are applicable to our experiences, and our public education is a modern example of Foucault’s
processes of panopticism, drawing eerie parallels with Stephen King’s short story, “Quitter’s
Inc.”
The essays used here come from readings used in a previous writing class. In each case, the
student draws from a concept in the essay and makes a new application. The first student uses
Didion’s essay and its concept of the sentimental narrative and applies it to the media accounts of
the 1992 Los Angeles riots. The second student considers the archive of movies used by LippiGreen and argues that the archive is incomplete and therefore problematic. The third student
draws from May Louise Pratt’s concept of the contact zone and applies it to a moment in U.S.
history. The fourth student applies Foucault to compliant nature of contemporary behavior, while
the last uses Foucault to focus on public education and a story. In each case, the students move
from one text to another, applying concepts from one to the other instances.
27
Coming Up with a Juicy (and Arguable) Claim
Opinion and Inappropriate Claims
“I like creative fiction more than academic prose.”
“I think Mary Louise Pratt is just a bleeding heart liberal.”
Opinions (personal preference), and inappropriate claims (sarcastic judgment) are not suitable for
academic inquiry. Typically they have little to no evidence to support their validity. Such a
statement says in effect, “This is what I believe and that’s that.” It relies too heavily on
subjective beliefs and demands little engagement with or analysis of the text. Opinions such as
these are not arguable: no one else can offer varying perspectives on your opinion. Inappropriate
claims often assume that others will “naturally” feel as you do (they count on a reader sharing
your values – your warrants). Such a claim does not anticipate a reader who has different
beliefs, and thus shows a lack of audience awareness.
Obvious Claim (Statement of Fact)
“Academic prose is formal and often hard to read.”
“Both scientific and creative writing get revised in the writing process.” (Note comparison.)
“Scientific writing requires data; creative writing requires artistic style.” (Note contrast)
Obvious claims are tricky; they seem arguable. However, with obvious claims, you run out of
evidence quickly, because the text resists being boiled down into further levels: after you state
the obvious, there’s not much let to say about it. Obvious claims typically describe the text,
rather than analyze it–and they don’t tell your readers anything that they don’t already know.
Obvious claims, like inappropriate ones, don’t encourage dialogue and often lead to excessive
summarizing rather than to a complex and coherent argument. They usually leave your reader
thinking, “OK, but so what?” Basically, if your writing is a description or summary of the
information – instead of an analysis of or argument about it – then you’ve got an obvious claim.
Expository writing falls into this category and is often used in the sciences in undergraduate
writing. Most compare/contrast statements are obvious claims because they merely describe
similarities or differences. They do not assert an arguable point of view. A good place to look for
obvious claims is in introductory paragraphs: “People die every year”; “Advertisements are all
around us.” Another place to find obvious claims is amidst too much quoting of your readings.
Arguable Claim
“Writing creates knowledge.”
“Genres reveal the ideologies that first formed them.”
Arguable claims attempt to convince readers of something, change their minds about something,
or urge them to think about something in a new way. They typically recognize complexity, and
so avoid simplistic, easy explanations. Arguable claims are precise and specific: they don’t just
say that you’re going to compare certain texts, they explain exactly how you’re going to compare
them and why that matters. I put it this way: a juicy claim passes the “So what?” test. Such
claims address a problem to which no easy answer exists. If it sounds risky, if you’re doubtful
that you can prove it, it’s probably on its way to becoming a good argument. Such claims also
28
present a position that encourages a variety of perspectives. Arguable claims demand elaborated
evidence that helps to convince doubtful readers.
Remember that others are reading your paper and that even the
choice of one word can affect their response to it. Try to anticipate
their response, and choose your words accordingly. The original is
reflective of an opinion, whereas the revision is appropriate for an
academic argument.
Original: The media's exploitation of the Watergate scandal showed
how biased it was already.
Revision: The media's coverage of the Watergate scandal suggests
that perhaps those in the media had already determined Nixon’s
guilt.
In addition to being more specific, the revision does not force the
reader to defend the media. In the first example, though, the
statement is so exaggerated that even the reader who is neutral on
the issue may feel it necessary to defend the media. Thus, the writer
of the original has made his job of persuading the reader that much
harder.
29
Top 6 Myths about Claims for Argument Papers
Myth #1: A claim should be general so that lots of evidence in the text will support
its argument.
Correction: Usually a really broad claim can only be supported by really broad
evidence, which ends up describing rather than arguing. So stay sma,, and take the time
to unpack quotes and make a specific argument.
Myth #2: A claim shouldn’t include everything the paper is going to say because then
it “gives it all away” and eliminates the suspense.
Correction: An argument essay is not a mystery novel—you want to be clear about
exactly where you are going with your so the reader can follow, and believe, you. This
is not to say that you need to make your claim pages long; state where you are going
and you can flesh it out in the paper with specific quotes, etc.
Myth #3: A claim should never be longer than a sentence.
Correction: To present an argument that sustains the whole paper, you will probably
need a little more space. All of your points don’t have to be similar, you just need to be
able to tie them together.
Myth #4: You can present the essay you are reading and working from and the
present your ideas. The connection between them will be obvious.
Correction: Many of these papers are about making connection, so make them explicit.
Myth #5: A claim should present a theme and provide 3 examples of that theme.
Correction: While your claim will present where you need to go, don’t feel trapped
inside the 5 paragraph essay. Do present the information in a reasonable manner and
place emphasis appropriately so the reader knows what is important and what is not.
Myth #6: A claim should be true or correct beyond a doubt so the reader “buys” the
argument.
Correction: An argument paper is not about taking one side or the other—its’ about
being able to articulate a position and argue it using academic evidence. Often, you may
be disagreeing with sources at one point and agreeing with them later in the essay.
Don’t feel that you have to “take” one side or another.
30
Generating a Claim
A good claim will usually include the following four attributes:




take on a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree
express one main idea
assert your conclusions about a subject
deal with a subject that can be adequately treated given the nature of the
assignment
Below is an example of a generated claim, beginning with a broad topic and ending with a
specific and arguable claim. The below example is based on an assignment that asks the
writer to write a persuasive academic argument that thoroughly explores and carefully
supports an arguable claim about the implicit and/or explicit representation of the ways in
which language is used to create a community identity through an examination of cultural
artifacts. An important part of the assignment was to include considerations of excluded
members and/or issues of stigmatization that were relevant to the particular community,
analyzing how the community excludes and what the social implications are.
Brainstorm the topic
language of exclusion
Narrow the topic
language of exclusion used by members of my community of practice-a wine club
Take a position on the topic
The wine club uses language to talk about non-wine people in negative ways.
Use specific language
The wine club, known for the purpose of this study as the “Wednesday Winos”, uses
language to discriminate against non-wine drinkers.
Make an assertion based on clearly stated support
The Wednesday Winos, a community of practice that engages in weekly wine tastings
that I observed, utilize language as a powerful weapon to discriminate against others
whom they deem as culturally inferior.
Notice how the claim answers the question:
“So what?” Why should we care about language in this community of practice?
31
How to Tell a Strong Claim from a Weak One




A strong claim takes some sort of stand.
A strong claim justifies discussion.
A strong claim expresses one main idea.
A strong claim statement is specific.
Weak Claims
Strong Claims
There are some negative and positive aspects
to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes
rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle
and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to
customers.
It fails to take a stand & the phrase "negative
and positive" aspects" are vague.
It states an observation. Your reader won't be
able to tell the point of the statement, and will
probably stop reading.
It takes a stand
While most American families would view
consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear
family structure, many Iranian families, like my
own, believe that these marriages help reinforce
kinship ties in an extended family.
Companies need to exploit the marketing
potential of the Internet, and web pages can
provide both advertising and customer
support.
It shows how your experience contradicts a widelyaccepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong
thesis is to show that the topic is controversial.
Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the
essay to see how you support your point.
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous
marketing potential, companies should exploit this
potential by using web pages that offer both
advertising and customer support.
My family is an extended family.
Because the reader can't decide whether the
paper is about marketing on the Internet or
web pages
World hunger has many causes and effects.
This is a weak thesis statement for two major
reasons. First, "world hunger" can't be
discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages.
Second, "many causes and effects" is vague.
You should be able to identify specific causes
and effects.
It shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great
many clear and engaging thesis statements contain
words like "because," "since," "so," "although,"
"unless," and "however."
Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are
scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely
profitable.
This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject
to a more specific and manageable topic and it also
identifies the specific causes for the existence of
hunger.
This page produced by Writing Tutorial Services, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN
http://www.indiana.edu/%7Ewts/wts/thesis.html#unassigned
32
Better Use of Textual Evidence
Some things to consider when evaluating the use of textual evidence in an essay:
1. Think about how it “flows”:
 Does the quote fit naturally into your prose or does it jar or distract the reader?
 Does the quote fit grammatically into the sentence? When you read it out loud, does it make
sense?
 Is it necessary to use a direct quote, or would paraphrasing be more appropriate (or vice
versa)? Would it be more effective to use shorter chunks of the quite (or a longer one)?
2. Think about technical conventions:
 Is it properly cited according to MLA guidelines?
 How is the punctuation? Are periods and commas inside quotation marks? Are colons and
semicolons outside quotation marks? When citing a page number, does the ending quotation
mark go before the parenthesis with the period after the parentheses? [Like “this,” “this”; and
“this” (25).]
 Are all references to the text in present tense?
3. Think about how it fits into your argument:
 Is there some sense of context or introduction so that you know where this quote comes
from? (Look for lonely quotes: quotes that stand alone as a sentence. It’s usually best to
incorporate quotes into your own sentences.)
 Is there a clear distinction between the writer’s voice and those of the text(s) that he or she is
citing?
 Is there sufficient explanation of the writer’s interpretation of the quote’s meaning? (Look for
paragraphs that end with a quote. While sometimes it is effective to end a paragraph with a
quote, more often doing so means that you haven’t fully explained that quote.)
 Is it clear how the quote was important to the original text’s argument?
 Is it clear how the quote is important in this essay?
A final hint: One way to check how well you’re using quotes is to have someone read your paper
aloud to you (reading it aloud to yourself can also work). Listening to your paper, you’ll hear
places where grammatical irregularities or other kinds of “choppiness” show through.
33
Evaluation of Effective Quoting
Remember that effective quoting:
 Adds Authority
 Adds evidence
 Adds a more sophisticated level of writing
Rate your partner’s use of quoted evidence on a scale of 1-5 according to the following
criteria.
In-line (embedded) quotes and blocked quotes:
____ Does the author establish solid context and introduction for the quote? (i.e. does the
author incorporate the quote well enough to make sure it does not seem dropped from
nowhere?
____ Does the paper smoothly transition between the two voices (the voice of the author of
the paper and the voice of the quoted author)?
____ Do you understand why he or she chose the quote? Does the writer take the time to
explain the relation between the quote and his or her own argument or does the reader have to
figure out how the quote is related?
____
Do you feel satisfied with the level of analysis AFTER the quote?
____ Is there as much analysis as there is quoting? Or, is the quote followed up with a mere
“like she said” remark? The paper-writer should be doing as much analytic work as the quoted
author?
____ Is each quote connected directly to either the point of the paragraph (check topic
sentence) or the thesis of the paper?
MLA format
____
Are the page numbers in the right place and free of excess commas? Ex: (Katz 438)
____
Are the periods in the right place for BLOCK and in-line quotes?
____
Is the quoted author’s name mentioned only once (i.e. not at the beginning AND end of
quote)
____
Is just the last name used after the initial introduction of the author?
____
Are necessary grammar changes bracketed? Ex: Katz offers “[v]iolent male icons” (435).
____
Is everything spelled correctly and is the grammar correct?
34
3-Step Quotation Analysis
First step: Introduce the Quotation
(Write down and cite quotation)
The use of labeling within communities of practice is worthy of consideration, as this
linguistic performance has real-life affects. According to Penelope Eckert and Sally
McConnell-Ginet, “labels arise in use in relation to real people in real situations: people
label as they chat, make observations and judgments about people, point people out to
others, challenge people, and so on” (268).
Second step: Explain what the author is arguing in the quotation.
(The author should agree with how you sum up the quotation—this will help you
establish credibility, by demonstrating that you do know what the author is saying
even if you don’t agree.)
The use of labeling within communities of practice is worthy of consideration, as this
linguistic performance has real-life affects. According to Penelope Eckert and Sally
McConnell-Ginet, “labels arise in use in relation to real people in real situations: people
label as they chat, make observations and judgments about people, point people out to
others, challenge people, and so on. It is through such activities that labels are endowed
with meaning” (268). Eckert and McConnell-Ginet spent three years engaged in
linguistic ethnographic research, and claim that labels are regularly used in daily life,
although people give little thought to their use or impact.
Third step: State the implications of the quotation for your own argument.
(What do you make of the author’s argument?)
The use of labeling within communities of practice is worthy of consideration, as this
linguistic performance has real-life affects. According to Penelope Eckert and Sally
McConnell-Ginet, “labels arise in use in relation to real people in real situations: people
label as they chat, make observations and judgments about people, point people out to
others, challenge people, and so on. It is through such activities that labels are endowed
with meaning” (268). Eckert and McConnell-Ginet spent 3 years engaged in linguistic
ethnographic research of communities of practice, and claim that labeling others is a
regular part of daily life, and that these labels take on a specific meaning when they are
considered together with the activity of assigning a label. As Eckert and McConnellGinet suggest, this practice of labeling has serious consequences as the it often is used by
communities of practice that have more inherent or institutional power to discriminate,
disparage, and/or exclude individuals that are perceived to be outside of their community
of practice.
35
Writing Effective Introductions & Conclusions
There is no formula for writing effective introductions and conclusions—but below I have listed
some strategies that you may find helpful.
Introductions
 An introduction has two main purposes – to catch the reader’s interest and to indicate the
subject of the paper. It needs to perform both of these purposed smoothly, as an awkward
introduction will only confuse your reader. Be sure to engage your reader as quickly as
possible and to orient them to your attitude toward your subject. Your introduction should
draw your readers into your paper and “convince” them to continue reading it.
 Your introduction should also, of course, include your thesis statement, as well as set out a
“roadmap” for your reader. Your thesis statement, usually the last sentence or two of the
introduction, should be a clearly articulated statement outlining the specific argument that
the rest of your paper will develop. Be the time your reader finishes reading your
introduction, they should know what you are going to argue and should have an
understanding of how you are going to prove your argument.
 Do not think of your introduction as an “umbrella” paragraph under which all other points of
your essay must fall. Rather, think of your introduction as a “doorway” to the more involved
analysis and evidence you provide in the rest of your paper. Make sure that the points that
you raise in your introduction relate directly to the subject of your paper. This is not the place
to make broad generalizations about society, the world, human beings, etc
 If you find writing your introduction difficult, try writing it last – sometimes it is easier to
write your introduction after you have written the body of your paper. Often, an effective
introduction will be easier to write after you have developed your ideas during the course of
writing the paper itself.
Conclusions
 If your conclusion says almost the same thing as your introduction, it may indicate that you
have not done enough critical thinking during the course of writing your essay (since you
ended up right where you started). By the end of your essay, you should have worked
through your ideas enough so that your reader understands what you have argued and is
ready to hear the larger point (i.e., the “so what?”) you want to make about your topic. Your
conclusion should create a sense of development or movement to a more complex
understanding of the subject of the paper.
 Your conclusion should serve as the climax (not the denouement!) of your paper. So, save
your strongest analytical points for the end of your essay, and use them to drive your
conclusion.
 It is fine to introduce new information or quotations in your conclusion, as long as the new
points grow from your argument. New points might be more general, answering the “so
what” question; they might be quite specific. Just avoid making new claims that need lots of
additional support.
 Vivid, concrete language is as important in a conclusion as it is elsewhere—perhaps more
essential, since the conclusion determines the reader’s final impression of your essay. Do not
leave them with the impression that your argument was vague or unsure.
36
Take a look at five different conclusions that grow from the same
introduction. How has the author maintained continuity and/or
developed the argument from the introduction? How has the author
developed a focus over the course of the essay? What impression
does each conclusion leave you with as a reader?
INTRODUCTION
We all know that textbooks dry history out completely, dehydrating the gripping
stories and critical conflicts of the past to a dusty piece of history leather—tough,
nasty, and hard to digest. As I reviewed three conflicts of expansion in the western
United States, I found some signs of life in the desert; compared to the texts I
reviewed for our last adoption, the new textbooks offered more complete
accounts and stronger analysis of the interactions between settlers and Native
Americans, race and gender dynamics in the west, and the role of the federal
government in all phases of western settlement. We have a much more palatable
assortment of facts for our students to chew on, but is it any more substantial?
Here, I question which of these texts will allow us to teach not just the facts, but the
skills—reading, writing, questioning, and thinking critically—which we as a
committee have decided should take precedence in out classes.
CONCLUSION STYLES
QUESTION
Which of these texts is best? The colorful pictures and graphics, the clear prose,
the primary documents all have their appeal. But these tasty morsels distract us
from asking the real questions—what are we teaching for? If we want our students
to think like historians, then Land of the Free’s liberal use of primary documents,
the very same documents historians use to construct the past, makes it our best
choice. These letters, journals, newspapers and photographs can help us achieve
our teaching goals, for they allow us and our students some freedom from
textbook’s “facts” and a chance to listen directly to the voices from our past.
37
QUOTATION
To inspire critical thinking, we need materials that can help us move beyond the
textbook and engage our students’ creativity. Of the three texts I reviewed, only
Oh Say Can You See included a variety of supplementary materials to spice up
our classes, from primary documents and historical film clips art slides and CDROMs. More importantly, the publishing company has a resource person available
to help us integrate these materials into our lessons. On short, the variety of extra
resources makes this textbook our best option, for it allows us the potential to
revise John F. Kennedy’s famous plea, “Ask not what your textbook can do for
you, but what you can do for your textbook.”
VIVID IMAGE
I remember what made history matter to me; as a high school student, I found the
diary my grandmother kept during the depression. I carried that little leatherbound book with me everywhere, poring over its contents, seeking connections
between my family’s past, my country’s past, and myself. From there it was a short
step to a history major in college and a career dedicated to sharing my interest in
the past and present with my students. If we want to inspire our students to move
from memorizing facts to developing an interest in history, I recommend A More
Perfect Union as our choice. This text’s attention to emotionally touching
photographs and personal storied of the west offers us the best hope of enabling
our students to make a personal connection with the past.
CALL TO ACTION!
Clearly, all three of the textbooks currently up for adoption have major flaws—but
is it our responsibility to take these foundlings in and spend hours of quality time
working with them? No! Instead of squandering our economic clout on these substandard texts, we can protest. Let’s delay the adoption until next year and lobby
the textbooks companies to give us what we want—textbooks that give us history
colored in all of its complexity, conflict, and compromise. We need books that will
not deaden our minds, but which will rekindle the passion for knowledge that
brought us to our field in the first place. In this way, perhaps, we can inspire our
students as well.
WARNING
Any of these textbooks would be an adequate choice; certainly any of them is an
improvement on the books we currently use. But merely adequate should not be
enough. Only Land That I Love, with its blend of optimism and skepticism, models
the kind of critical approach we expect our students to take in our classes. If we
settle for another text, we face the prospect of another seven years of bored,
passive students who simply expect to regurgitate the dry facts of the leather we
currently pass off as history.
38
Organization and Cohesion
The Known-New Contract
The known-new contract is “[t]he common feature of sentences in which old, or
known, information (information that is repeated from an earlier sentence or
paragraph to provide cohesion, often in the form of a pronoun or related word) will
appear in the subject slot, with the new information in the predicate” (Kolln 274)1.
In other words, the known-new contract recognizes the fact that sentences set up
reader expectations and that the most cohesive writing will provide the reader with
“known” information that links together the “new” information presented.
How can you go about making sure that you fulfill the known-new contract in your
own writing? Listed below are several ways in which to present information that
qualifies as “known”.
 Use repeated information, like repeated or related words and synonyms.
(Examples: Suburbs/suburbanization, border/edges, ,eastern/western)
 Continue a previously-stated theme or rely on common knowledge information
that a reader can be presumed to know. This strategy is more subtle and gives
ties that are not as strong as the use of pronouns or noun phrases. (Example:
The president delivered his State of the Union address to a joint session of
Congress last night. Every seat in the gallery was full.)
 Add words or phrases that drop hints about what a reader can expect next and
suggest direction. This often turns a statement of fact into an opinion that can
then be argued. (Example: The president delivered his much anticipated State of
the Union address to a joint session of Congress last night.)
As you write – and especially as you revise – make sure that you do in fact use
some of these strategies in order to guide your reader through your argument.
1 The definition, and many of the examples given here, are quoted or adapted from Martha Kolln’s book Rhetorical Grammar
Third Edition, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1999.
39
Using Transitions Effectively
What do Transitions Do?
 Transitions link and clarify the relationship of what has been said and what will be said;
transitions serve as bridges that link parts of your paper, by establishing logical connections
between sentences, paragraphs, and sections of your paper.
 Transitions act as “signposts” to help the reader to think about, organize, and react to your
ideas in the way that you, as a writer, want them to.
 Transitions help you carry over a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to
another, or from one paragraph to another with words or phrases.
 Transitions link your sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt
jumps or breaks between ideas.
Clear transitions are essential to the coherence of paragraphs and essays. There are several types
of transitions, each leading the reader to make certain connections or assumptions about the areas
you are connecting, based on the words or phrases you choose. Some lead the reader forward and
imply the "building" of an idea or thought, while others make the reader compare ideas or draw
conclusions from the preceding thoughts. A list of common transitional words and phrases can
be found on the back.
Transitions Between Paragraphs
When linking two paragraphs, the writer must explain how the two paragraphs are connected
logically. Transitional words or phrases sometimes will be precisely what you need to underscore
for your readers the intellectual relationship between paragraphs—to help them navigate your
essay. Very often, such transitions:
 Address an essential similarity or dissimilarity (likewise, in contrast, despite, etc)
 Suggest a meaningful ordering, often temporal (first, in addition) or causal (thus, therefore)
 In a longer paper, remind the reader of what has earlier been argued (in short, as has been
said, on the whole).
Tips for Transitioning
Since clarity and effectiveness of your transitions will depend greatly on how well you have
organized your paper, you may want to evaluate your paper’s organization before you work on
transitions. In the margins of your draft, summarize in a word or two what each paragraph is
about or how it fits into your analysis as a whole. This exercise should help you to see the order
and connection between your ideas more clearly.
If after doing this exercise you find that you still have difficulty linking your ideas together in a
coherent fashion, you problem may not be with transitions but with organization. Perhaps
something crucial is missing between this paragraph and it neighbors—most likely an idea o a
piece of evidence or both. Maybe the paragraph is misplaced, and logically belongs elsewhere.
40
Common Transitional Words and Phrases:
 Addition and Sequence: after, afterward, and, again, also, and then, besides,





consequently, equally important, finally, following this, further, furthermore, nor, too,
next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.), now,
subsequently, previously, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence
Cause and Effect: Accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for, for this
reason, hence, so, then, therefore, thus
Compare and Contrast: whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,
nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared
to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile,
after all, in contrast, although this may be true, similarly, likewise
Exception: yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a
while, sometimes
Example: for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion,
in this situation, specifically, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an
illustration, to illustrate
Summarize or Conclude: as has been noted, in brief, on the whole, summing up, to
conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore,
accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole
Collocation Sets
A Collocation set is a group of words that relates to each other conceptually. This idea
is most useful in thinking of and fulfilling your reader’s expectations. The example below
shows what types of words a reader might expect to see in a paragraph that contains
the sentence. Additionally, words that are conceptually related to the ideas in the
sentence presented are listed as collocation sets below. Use collocation sets in your
own writing to create cohesion.
For example:
On a winter’s night in that first year he woke to hear wolves in the low hills to the
west of the house and he knew that they would be coming out onto the plain in
the new snow to run the antelope in the moonlight.
Cormac McCarthy, All the Pretty Horses
Words a reader might expect: cold, ice, lonely, howl, white, grass, fires, season,
month, prey, horns, teeth, paws, number, packs, starts, etc.
Collocation sets: season, temperature, animal, nature, animals, etc.
Apply this exercise to your own essays, by taking a sentence from a given paragraph
and thinking of as many words as you can that might appear. Then, associate your list
into collocation sets so that you may rework your paragraphs to reflect a paper that
flows and guides your reader.
41
Writing Good Titles
Titles
In the scramble to finish and revise papers, titles often seem to be left behind. This is something
worth fixing, as a good title can intrigue the reader and lend unity to your paper. Some tips:
 Avoid general summaries, like “Stereotypes in Star Wars” or “The Church as a Community of
Practice.” These are not really lending any excitement to your paper.
 Be careful with humor and puns – they are greatly overused in titles, so consider them carefully,
as they are not necessarily the best choice.
 Realize that your title does not have to say everything the paper is about – it may focus on a
smaller point or example.
 A good way to lend unity to your paper is to have the title and the conclusion “connect.” You do
not want to pick a title that is totally nonsensical until you reach the conclusion, but it can be
interesting to have you conclusion lend new insight to a good title (this can also provide some
thematic unity at the end). For example:
Title: Discovery and Recovery of the Authentic Self: Rhetoric, Representations and Dr. Phil
Related Concluding Sentences: With Oprah Winfrey as his greatest supporter and promoter, Dr.
Phil has the ability to influence a large number of people with his rhetoric and representations. At
this point in time, it seems as if Dr. Phil has brought the rhetoric of self-discovery and recovery
directly into American households, allowing a once exclusive discourse to circulate with greater
range than previously possible, as anyone with a television has access.
Other Example Titles:
 Illness, Medicine, Doctor-Patient Discourse, and the Internet: The Uses of Abuses of Metaphor
 Dummies, Idiots, & Cowards: Writers in Need of Salvation
 Understanding Trauma and the Discourse of Healing:
A Discourse Analysis of Child Sexual Abuse Survivor Narratives
 Narration, Storytellers, Colonialism and the (Re) Construction of History:
Intersections of Jamaica Kincaid’s At the Bottom of the River and Leslie Marmon’s Silko’s
Storyteller
Why so many colons?
Though most of my examples have colons, this isn’t at all necessary, especially in a shorter period.
Take this knowledge, apply it to your paper, and try to come up with a title that engages your reader.
42
Peer Review: Providing Feedback
Goals
 To give you feedback about how your paper comes across to other readers.
 To teach you to become a critical reader of academic writing, which will
help you to judge and revise your own writing.
 To give you an opportunity to see how other writers approach a similar writing
situation.
 To give you new ideas for your own writing.
Thinking About Peer Review
Think of the peer review groups—and the class in general—as a community full
of resources. We are all here to help one another. We are all readers, and we
are all writers. But we are all at different places in out development, all come
from different places, and subsequently all have different writing and reading
experiences to share.
When reading or listening to your peer’s comments on your papers, remember
that they are trying to give you valuable information about their experiences as
readers of your paper. Since they have also been struggling with similar issues in
their own papers, they may be able to suggest helpful ways for you to approach
yours. Also, remember that you do not have to act on everything that your
peers say; take their comments seriously as extra information, but remember that
you must make the final choice of what to put in your paper. The process of
writing, reflecting, reviewing, and responding is diagrammatically set out below.
Giving Feedback
Think of yourself and your peers as readers, as you respond to your peer’s papers
as a reader. It might be useful to begin comments with the phrase, “As a reader,
I thought…” Instead of relying on evaluative language (such as “I liked this” or
“The paper is good”), put your comments in terms of the effectiveness of the
paper (“This was effective because ______”). Instead of telling your peers what
to do or where they did something “wrong,” Try to indicate what seemed
confusing, unclear, out of place, or irrelevant: or where you, as a reader, were
lost, confused, or had questions. If you want to make suggestions to the author,
say something like, “At this point, I wanted to know (to her, to see) ______” or “to
would have helped me if you had done (explained, showed) ______.” Use
language which speaks directly to the writer, as the writer is your audience.
43
Fun with Fallacies
Examples of Faulty Logic
1. Begging the Question: Offering support for a claim that is really the claim
restated.
Example: I’d be a better student if only I got better grades.
2. False Dilemma: Assuming that only certain options exist when more options
are available.
Example: The store is out of Chocopuffs, therefore I can’t have breakfast.
3. Guilt by Association: Failing to consider a linking category in its entirety.
Example: Jumping off a cliff can cause injury. Exercise can cause injury. Therefore, jumping off a
cliff is a form of exercise.
4. Post Hoc: Treating as a casual relationship what may only be part of a cause
or may be merely a coincidence.
Example: I had a nasty hangover when I took my Chem test, and I got an A. I will sure to indulge in
binge drinking the night before tests from now on.
5. Lack of Contrary Evidence: Offering the lack of proof for an opposing
viewpoint as “proof” of one’s own claim.
Example: No one has objected to my secret plan to destroy the world, so it must be a good idea.
6. Oversimplification: Omitting crucial points or qualifications to make an
argument appear unsubstantial or even silly.
Example: The striking workers just want to get big raises.
7. Personal Attack: Disparaging an arguer rather than his or her argument.
Example: My teacher has a foreign accent. Therefore, she can’t know anything about American
history.
8. Shifting Ground: Shifting, often subtly, from arguing the point in question
to arguing another point.
Example: yes, tossing sacks of kittens into the river is wrong, but I meant only when they’re too sick
to survive.
9. Straw Man: Exaggerating premises and conclusions to make another’s
argument seem ridiculous.
Example: If Gore gets elected, then we’re only a step away from a Communist dictatorship.
10. Amazingly Bad Analogy
Example: You can train a dog to fetch a stick. Therefore, you can train a potato to dance.
11. Faulty Cause & Effect
Example: On the basic of my observations, wearing huge pants makes you fat.
12. I Am the World
Example: I don’t listen to country music. Therefore, country music isn’t popular.
13. Forgetting that there was a World before You were Born
Example: Women never had it that bad in the United States.
14. The Few are the Same as the Whole
44
Example: Some Elbonians are animal rights activists. Some Elbonians wear fur coats. Therefore,
Elbonians are hypocrites.
15. Hasty Generalization: Generalizing from an inadequate sampling.
Example: The men in my family like baking. Therefore, all men are naturally good cooks.
16. Argument by Bizarre Definition
Example: He’s not a criminal. He just does things that are against the law.
17. Total Logical Disconnect
Example: I enjoy pasta because my house is made of bricks.
18. Judging Things Without Comparison to Alternatives
Example: I don’t invest in U.S. Treasury bills. There’s just too much risk.
19. Anything You Don’t Understand is Easy to Do
Example: If you have the right tools, how hard could it be to generate nuclear fission at home?
20. Ignorance of Statistics
Example: I’m putting ALL my money on the lottery this week because the jackpot is so big.
21. Substituting Famous Quotes for Critical Thought
Example: Remember, “All things come to those who wait.” So, don’t bother looking for a job.
22. Irrelevant Comparisons
Example: A hundred dollars is a good price for a toaster, compared to buying a Ferrari.
23. Circular Reasoning
Example: I’m correct because I’m smarter than you. And I must be smarter than you because I am
correct. OR: Marijuana shouldn’t be legalized because it’s against the law.
24. Incompleteness as Proof of Defect
Example: Your theory of gravity doesn’t address the question of why there are no unicorns, so it
must be wrong.
25. Ignoring the Advice of Experts without Good Reason
Example: Sure, the experts think you shouldn’t ride a bicycle into the ete of a hurricane, but I have
my own theory.
26. Following the Advice of Known Idiots
Example: Uncle Billy says pork makes you smarter. That’s good enough for me.
27. Reaching Bizarre Conclusions without Any Information
Example: The car won’t start. I’m certain the spark plugs have been stolen by rogue clowns.
28. Faulty Pattern Recognition/Ignoring History’s Impact on the Present
Example: His last six wives were murdered mysteriously. I hope to be wife number seven.
29. Failure to Recognize What is Important
Example: My house is on fire! Quick, call the post office and tell them to hold my mail!
30. Ignoring All Anecdotal Evidence
Example: I always get hives immediately after eating strawberries. But without a scientifically
controlled experiment, it’s not reliable data. So I continue to eat strawberries everyday, since I can’t
tell if they cause hives.
31. Inability to Understand that Some Things have Multiple Causes
Example: The Beatles were popular for one reason only: They were good singers.
45
Design Form for Academic Essay Writing (rules of layout)
Academic writing is formal writing (like a résumé) and demands the use of “manuscript form,” a design
layout that is error-free.
1. The paper copy should be clean and clearly printed: free of smudges, lines across text, etc.
2. Design set-up. A word about visual rhetoric: the visual appearance of your text hits the reader before
they can read your ideas. If you try to make a short paper appear longer by adjusting the margins and
font size, you risk insulting the reader (who can tell at a glance what you’re up to). That’s not skillful
audience awareness. Observe normal rules of layout.
a) Black, 11 or 12 point, standard font
b) 1-1.25 inch margins on all sides (computers default to this automatically)
c) Double spacing throughout essay (Do NOT space more than double-spacing anywhere in
essay: no more than double spacing between heading, title, and paragraphs within the text)
d) No printing on the back
3. A separate title page is unnecessary. On the first four lines of your first page, put this heading:
Your Name
Course
Date assignment is due
Name of assignment
Riki Thompson
TCORE 101d
November 22, 2008
Draft: Rhetorical Analysis
4. Title: Do NOT bold, underline, use larger font, italicize, or put quotation marks around your
own title when it is on the essay. Capitalize all main words and center.
5. Insert page numbers (this is usually done in the top right corner of every page after the first)2
6. Avoid the use of abbreviations, symbols, numerals (spell out numbers: two, forty-nine, etc.).
7. Avoid the use of graphics, shading, boxes, unusual fonts, boxes, etc.
8. Avoid the use of subheadings, lists, numbering, bullets, etc.
8. Staple the pages together before you come to class (do NOT tear or fold corner).
Your Name
TCORE e 101
Due Date
Draft: Rhetorical Analsys
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orjyvlrmtxljto5iu7m6lkmylmc.lz,g;timfk;ekt.
Lakdjflkdsj coeisimflsejroesaijc,,.,kdlfk…lij
lsdkmtlcsdrjtor..mcosrmlvsd,mc rjv.l,mgdfkypsrk.lkj
,mfknhc,mnblkguhpotslfkflksjf.adkjflkj lakjflkdjf
ot.,rmltkrjtors,sfglkfjvlfmlsklskrjybls,mklmljyvls.
2
I just hate it when there are no page numbers; it’s a pet peeve of mine, so I might as well confess it.
46
MLA Documentation
The Modern Language Association establishes parameters for proper documentation of sources
for writing in the humanities. It is your task as a writer to use these rules correctly, both to avoid
plagiarism and to allow the reader to investigate the validity of your sources. This handout has an
overview, but if you have any questions, you should look further in any good English handbook
or the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.
What’s a citation ?—It’s a place in your writing that you name, or cite, the author
whose information you are using. The citation is done in a pair of parentheses right
in your paragraph.
When do you cite a source?
1. When you quote directly. Use this sparingly—use only if
 the wording is so eloquent that you cannot say it more vividly
 the name of the author lends credibility to your point
 you wish to highlight the author’s opinion or phrasing
2. When you paraphrase—reword someone else’s idea in your own words
3. When you summarize—explain just the main point(s) of someone’s idea
4. When you use ideas from an author that are not common knowledge
5. When you cite statistics
The important element to use is the last name of the author, because it tells the
reader how to find the citation alphabetically in the Works Cited page, which gives
full publication information at the end of your essay. (This used to be called the
“Bibliography,” but since the word means only books and today we use other kinds
of texts, it is no longer used.) Here are samples you’ll use in the body of your
essay.
Quoting a source that you do introduce. Generally, it is better to attribute, or
mention in your own sentence, the author you are citing. It is stronger to tell who
the author is and why readers should value their reference.
Example: The distinguished herbalist Riki Thompson concludes: “My
research proves that herbs have the power of medicine” (47).
(Notice that the period is not inside the quotation mark, but outside the closing parenthesis at the
end of your sentence.)
47
Quoting a source that you do not introduce (attribute)
Example: Expert botanists assert that “herbs have the power of
medicine” (Thompson 47).
Paraphrasing a source that you do attribute:
Example: In conclusion to her research, Riki Thompson claims that
herbs make effective medicinal remedies (45).
Paraphrasing a source that you do not attribute. If it is not convenient to work the
author’s name into your sentence, put the last name in the parentheses followed by
the page number (with no comma between):
Example: One botanist concludes that herbs are medicinally effective
(Thompson 47).
Some common tricky cases
Remember that Works Cited pages are listed alphabetically. However you word the
citation in your text, you must give the first letter of the last name of the author
(if there is no author’s name, then use the first letter of the title of the article
you are citing). In the above four examples, the reader would look under the letter
T, for Thompson, in the Works Cited. Below are some more tricky cases:
If you have two sources by the same author, use the first word of the title:
Thompson asserts that herbs are medicinal (Herbs, 47).
Thompson notes that herbs must be used correctly to be effective
(“Power” 325).
Note that the first title indicates a book (in italics) and the second an essay (in quotes).
48
If you have a “quote within a quote,” use a single quotation mark for the inner one:
Original in article by Nielsen: “Organic farming produces superior quality
because it is natural.”
Example: “Others disagree with Nielsen who says that organics is a
method that ‘produces superior quality’ because it is ‘natural.’”
(Note that the period goes inside both quotes.)
If the quote fills more than three lines of your paper, then you must follow the rules
for using long quotes. There are no quotation marks needed because a double
indentation on the left margin (hit TAB twice) indicates the use of a quotation.
Continue to use double spacing. The period at the end of a long quote does go after
the sentence, not the parenthesis:
Thompson’s argument becomes clear near the end of her essay:
Herbs are nature’s medicine. They are powerful and
effectively, but only when used correctly and in
adequate amounts. Most people who do not buy quality
brands or take the herbs in proper dosages do not
experience the full efficacy of the botanicals. My own
research verifies what the majority of trustworthy work
in the field of botanical medicine has also concluded:
herbs have the power of medicine.(50)
49
Sometimes you need to alter a quote to fit the flow and structure of your sentence.
Use brackets [like this] to show your changes to the original:
Original: Gingko biloba taken regularly for two months establishes
noticeable results.
Yours: Research has shown that when “[g]ingko biloba[is] taken
regularly for two months” results can then be established(Bowers
617).
If in one paragraph, you quote several times from the same page, do not keep
repeating the same page number in parenthesis after all of your sentences. Clearly
attribute the author in the first sentence and put the page number after the last
citation.
Herbalist Riki Thompson notes the “medicinal power” of herbs,
although she notes that not all herbs are created equally: “My
research shows that organically crafted herbs that are grown and
processed under strict conditions are most powerful.” She goes on
to claim that quality control used by the manufacturer makes the
differences in “herbs that work and those that don’t”(215).
Finding credible sources often means using the library databases instead of Web searches.
Although much scholarly work is published on the Web, so are a lot of sites by fifth-graders.
The ending letters of the URL/address can help you evaluate a Web site because <.edu>
indicates an educational domain, but even that doesn’t guarantee academic rigor. It is up to you
to evaluate any textual source you find. Bottom line means that you must become familiar and
skillful at finding, evaluating, and citing outside sources.
If mechanical correctness is valued by your reader, you hurt your credibility for not knowing how to
control documentation.
Note page number continuation
Works Cited
An article
in a
journal
Author. “Title of Essay.” Title of Journal. volume.number (year): pages.
Bleich, David. “Readings and Feelings: An Introduction to Subjective Criticism.” Harvard Education
Review. 2.32 (1982): 125-47.
2nd entry
by same
author
Note punctuation differences for “essays” and
books. Essays in quotations, books italicized.
--------. “The Subjective Paradigm in Science, Psychology, and Criticism.” New Literary History. 7.1
(1976): 313-34.
Web site/
unknown
author
“Title of article.” Title of Web site. Date the site was created <address>. Date you accessed the site.
“Clever Stories and Crafty Story Tellers.” Just World Organization 22 Nov. 2001.
<http://www.jwo.com>. 3 Dec. 2001.
Article
in a collection
Author, Last name first. “Title of Essay.” Title of Book. Ed. Name of editor or editors. Headquarter
City: Publisher, Year. page numbers.
Dwyer, Richard. “The Case of Cool Reception.” Recasting: Gone with the Wind in American Culture.
Ed. Darden Pyron. Miami: UP Florida, 1983. 21-31.
Interview
Name. Personal Interview. Date.
Gozit, Ada. Personal Interview. 25 February 2001.
Class
handout
Author. “Title of handout.” Class Handout. Course. School. Date.
Thompson, Riki. “Making Arguments.” Class Handout. TCORE 101d. University of Washington
Tacoma. 16 March 2007.
1. Entries are alphabetized by last name of author (or first word of title)
2. The MLA handbook says to double space the works cited page.
3. Proper indentation is called “hanging indent,” and Word will do it automatically for you:
in the menu bar, click on ‘format’  ‘paragraph’  ‘line spacing’ ‘hanging indent’
4. Works Cited pages are numbered consecutively from the last page of the essay.
50
51
Rubrics & Evaluation
Daily Participation
Participation includes coming to class prepared (that is, having done the readings and other homework),
speaking during class by asking questions and contributing to discussions, and discussing course issues
online. I will assign a number grade (0-3 per week, no half grades) based on your level of participation
both inside and outside of class. Tardiness will be noted and have an adverse effect on your participation
grade. Separate marks will be assigned for completion of specific homework assignments. Any
homework which is not turned in by the due date will be marked as 0.
3
Excellent participation:
thorough preparation (by having completed the reading, taken notes, prepared questions)
frequent and supportive contribution to discussion (for example, by asking questions,
volunteering answers, offering opinions and ideas, and not dominating discussion) both
in class and in online discussions
2
Acceptable participation:
less than expected preparation (by having clearly completed the reading, although may
not have prepared notes or questions)
some contribution to discussion (by asking questions volunteering some answers, or may
occasionally dominate discussion, or get sidetracked)
1
Minimal participation:
preparation clearly lacking
minimal contribution (by answering questions only when called on)
unsupportive contribution to discussion (by dominating discussion, getting off-track)
late (more than 10 minutes)
0
Unacceptable participation
absent for half of class or more
disruptive (for example, by sleeping in class, refusing to participate, side conversations,
web-surfing, texting, disrupting class activities. etc.)
52
Response Papers
A+ 10 pts
A. 9 pts
B. 8
C. 7
D. 6
E. 5
The post summarizes key themes in the reading and responds
to a quote within the text. Themes and concepts are accurately
identified and the text is summarized clearly. The chosen quote
is relevant to the points raised in the response and
demonstrates close reading of the text, including citation of
quote. This post is virtually error free and writing is smooth and
concise.
The post summarizes key themes in the reading and responds
to a quote within the text. Themes and concepts are accurately
identified and the text is summarized clearly. The chosen quote
is relevant to the points raised in the response and
demonstrates close reading of the text, but may not cite the
quote with a reference page. Writing flows, but may have a few
minor mechanical errors.
The post summarizes a key theme in the reading and responds
in regard to a specific passage. Themes and concepts are
almost all correctly identified. The paper does end with a brief
response, but the response may be more personal than
analytic. This response may refer to a passage, but it does not
include a specific quote or a page number. Writing is clear, but
there may be a number of mechanical errors that make some
sentences confusing.
The post does describe themes, but there may be serious flaws
or misunderstandings in the themes that the text presents. Or
the ideas of the writer are not completely clear on account of
sentence level problems; this response has a number of
mechanical errors that slow down the reader. Or the response
is largely personal rather than demonstrating a close analytic
reading of a specific passage.
It is evident that some attempt has been made to
read the texts du’ jour, however the writing demonstrates lack
of comprehension of key concepts. It is not clear what the
reader thinks the themes are, despite the attempt.
Something has been turned in. It shows some effort.
53
Annotated Bibliography Rubric
A+ 10 pts
Provides a concise annotation that summarizes the central
theme and scope of the book or article. Themes and concepts
are accurately identified and written expression is clear and
virtually error free. Includes an evaluation of the authority or
background of the author that informs readers of the relevance,
accuracy, and quality of the source(s) cited. Comments on
intended audience, compares or contrasts with other readings
or discussion points raised in class, and explains how work
illuminates the topic. Citation format is accurate.
A. 9 pts
Meets the same criteria set out by an excellent entry, but may
have a few mechanical errors in the annotation or the citation
format may be incorrect.
B. 8
Provides a clear annotation that summarizes the central theme
and scope of the book or article. Themes and concepts are
almost all correctly identified and writing is clear, but there may
be a number of mechanical errors that make some sentences
confusing. Considers the authority of the author, but does not
evaluate the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the source(s)
cited. Comments on how work illuminates the topic, but does
not necessarily talk about the intended audience, or compare
with other readings or discussion points raised in class.
C. 7
Annotation summarizes some themes, but does not necessarily
grasp the scope of the book or article—there may even be
serious flaws or misunderstandings in the themes presented.
Or the ideas of the writer are not completely clear on account of
sentence level problems; this annotation has a number of
mechanical errors that slow down the reader. Annotation
provides a minimal evaluation of the text and/or the author.
D. 6
It is evident that some attempt has been made to summarize
key themes of the texts, however writing demonstrates lack of
comprehension of key concepts. It is not clear what the reader
thinks the themes are, despite the attempt. This annotation
may also demonstrate a lack of understanding about the genre
expectations for the assignment.
E. 5
Something has been turned in. It shows some effort.
**1 point is automatically deducted for an incorrect bibliographic citation.
54
Summary Rubric
A+ 10 pts
A. 9 pts
B. 8
C. 7
D. 6
E. 5
Provides a concise summary of the central theme and scope of
the book or article. Themes and concepts are accurately
identified and written expression is clear and virtually error free.
Themes and concepts are accurately identified and the text is
summarized clearly. Writing flows, but may have a few minor
mechanical errors.
Themes and concepts are almost all correctly identified and
writing is clear, but there may be a number of mechanical
errors that make some sentences confusing.
Summarizes some themes, but does not necessarily grasp the
scope of the book or article—there may even be serious flaws
or misunderstandings in the themes presented. Or the ideas of
the writer are not completely clear on account of sentence level
problems.
It is evident that some attempt has been made to summarize
key themes of the texts, however writing demonstrates lack of
comprehension of key concepts. It is not clear what the reader
thinks the themes are, despite the attempt.
Something has been turned in. It shows some effort.
**1 point is automatically deducted for an incorrect bibliographic citation.
55
Draft Evaluation - for essay writing in the humanities (and some social sciences)
"Majors" (What you say), "Minors" (How you say it), "Mechanics" (Editing)
Read your paper OUT LOUD to listen for how well it meets the guidelines for majors alone. Then do
the same for minors. Only after revision of these should you read for editing corrections.
Majors—Content
Thesis idea (Argument)—Do I know exactly what my main claim is for the whole paper? Is it juicy: arguable (not
reporting, opinion, or narrative) and appropriately complex? Does it meet the requirements of the assignment?
Does every section of ideas reflect advanced knowledge of the thesis (instead of the thesis only coming out later in
the body)?
The following boxes describe checkpoints to evaluate the intellectual work of the essay body.
Critical thinking and Analysis—Are the ideas I use to develop the thesis perceptive and valid? Are the main points
of the body the strongest ones I could use to prove the thesis? In the end, have I proven my thesis to a skeptical
audience? Does the writing pass the “So What?” test?
Development of Content
Elaborated —Are there enough topics in the whole paper to fully develop my analysis? Are there enough sentences
in each paragraph to fully develop that topic so that the idea is explored in depth?
Chain of Reasoning (coherent flow of strong ideas)—Does the path of my reasoning, the paragraphs that follow
each other, make logical sense? Do the paragraphs build on each other and move the essay forward rather than
repeat the same ideas over? (Rehashing the same material is often a sign that the writer is trying to understand her
or his own meaning.) Do I state how the paragraph topics connect to the thesis? This is a crucial use of a warrant.*
Evidence—Do I use valid academic evidence (authority of researched texts, spelled-out warrants,* logical
explanations, examples, facts, personal stories only as pertinent examples, qualified claims rather than absolutes)?
Have I avoided wild claims/ unsupported generalizations? Does the evidence conform to the rules of logic (one way
to check is “STAR—sufficient, typical, accurate, relevant.”)? Do I complicate the subject, acknowledge
ambiguities, and make concessions when necessary? Do I make wise choices about what researched material to
include (the authority of text from experts in their fields is probably the highest kind of academic evidence), and do
I use it effectively, knowing when to quote and when to paraphrase?
Rhetoric (Audience Awareness)— Have I adjusted my presentation to fit the needs of my audience? For the
humanities, this means: not address readers as if they already agree with me or know the context for the
assignment; not assume my experience is common to all by making comments like “We all have a religious
upbringing,” but show understanding of the diversity of other perspectives; make direct claims and exact assertions
rather than beat around the bush with phrases like “The movie is about what society fears.”; state my ideas clearly
in my own words using concrete, specific, explicit statements and not ask the reader to “read in-between the lines”;
keep my tone scholarly and not “preachy.”
Imagine your audience as your professor, diverse students, and all the English faculty at the college.
Exigency (a need to be said) and Voice—Have I made this topic my own or is it a repetition of class discussion? Is
my own originality reflected in the paper? Is this me talking (maybe with my newly educated voice)? Did I get
engaged with my subject and assert something I personally care about?
(Writing without voice sounds empty and mechanical. The biggest difference between an A and a B is often found
here, in the creativity and risk-taking of a well-supported original argument.)
Revision—Have I revised ideas and content rather than merely correcting wording or editing earlier drafts? Have I
responded to feedback from peers, tutors, and instructor? Have I gone beyond feedback and enriched my argument
56
and evidence with my own critical thinking?
Minors--Expression
Organization—Are the paragraphs in the essay arranged in the most sensible order? Are the sentences in the
paragraphs arranged in the most sensible order? (A useful arrangement of sentences in a good paragraph loosely
looks like this: General statement of topic  enough sentences to support it  general statement to make sense of
it all.)
One of the benefits of a computer is that it allows a writer to pour out ideas in a pile of words, as fast as they come
to you. But the resulting coherence is usually disorganized. Use the cut and paste features to reorganize original
ideas so that the presentation flows more smoothly.
Clarity—Is my wording spelled out and not implied? Is my wording specific and precise, not vague and inexact?
Does the wording sound smooth and not overblown or jumbled? Have I avoided wordiness, or unproductive
repetition?
Every sentence must speak for itself, must not perplex the reader with garbled wording and need other sentences to
make it understandable.
Transitions and Sign Posts—Are there clear transitions, or “bridges,” from one paragraph to the next? Are there
signposts within the text to help guide the reader through my train of thought? (ex. “Although teasing is
affectionate when used by my immediate family, the same teasing is not affectionate but disrespectful when used
by my cousin.” The repeated words guide the reader.)
Articulation—Have I checked for common writing errors?
Minors—Form
Title—Does my title capture the essence of my big point? Is the title creative and compelling? Have I typed it
correctly? (not underlined, not in quotes, not in a different font; capitalize all main words)
Introduction—Is the first sentence (or group of sentences) an attention grabbing “hook”? Do I give necessary
background the readers need to know? Is the background related to my thesis? Do I avoid a writer-based
background that repeats the steps I went through before I nailed down my thesis? Do I clearly assert my thesis in a
statement that directly claims my central point? Do I avoid a commonplace “announcement,” such as “I will now
discuss ads”?
First impressions are powerful—make the introduction capture your readers.
Conclusion—Does my essay have a satisfying finish? Does it tell a “so what” about my topic? Does it avoid
empty repetition, getting “preachy” or “drippy,” using clichés, or saying “In conclusion”? (Warning: if your
conclusion is merely a point-by-point summary of the main points, it is probably “just plain redundant and boring”)
The last word leaves a permanent effect: make yours be the finale that seals your presentation.
Mechanics—Grammar Conventions
Spell check—Have I put the final copy through spell check? Have I looked for spelling errors myself?
Proofreading—Have I read the final, printed copy (not the screen)?
MLA format—Have I checked for correct rules of MLA citation and documentation?
Correctness—Have I checked for grammar rules?
Design form—Have I checked margins, spacing, title form, abbreviations, and other rules of layout form?
57
English 101 Essay Checklist
Topic and Purpose
___ Does the thesis statement clearly convey the essay’s topic and purpose?
___ Are the topic and argument appropriate to the assignment?
___ Is the thesis compelling and interesting? arguable (not obvious)?
___ Does the paper stay on topic? (content unity)
___ Does the paper generate a new perspective (show originality and not repeat readings and discussions)?
Argument and Evidence
___ Does the discussion avoid a mere telling of an article’s content, a film plot, or an ad image?
___ Is the evidence sufficient (enough offered)? No wild claims?
___ Is the evidence offered well-developed (what is offered is fully interpreted and not superficial)?
___ Is the evidence sound, logical, analytical, and reason-based (not based on personal opinion)?
___ Is the evidence explicitly connected to the paragraph topic or thesis? (warranted)
___ Are assumptions spelled-out (warranted)?
___ Is the discussion appropriately complex? acknowledge alternative views/make necessary concessions?
___ Does the evidence include citations of textual authorities in the field?
Rhetoric/Disciplines (scholarly persuasion)
___ Is there an awareness and control of the expectations of an academic audience in the humanities?
___ Is the tone appropriate (scholarly)?
___ Is the voice of the writer convincing (knowledgeable, engaged, and serious about the topic)?
Organization and Language strategies
___ Is the chain of reasoning progressive, each paragraph building on the last one (rather than repeating ideas)?
___ Does the order of ideas have overall coherence (or is the organization weak or jumbled)?
___ Does the wording have explicit clarity (the reader never has to read “in between the lines”) ?
___ Are signposts used to lead the reader through the discussion/ effective transitions between paragraph ideas?
Conventions (grammar and mechanical rules)
___ Is the language/wording/expression fluent (or is it awkward and confusing)?
___ Errors do not interfere with understanding the essay (or do errors make it hard to read)?
___ Does the writer cite information (MLA format) correctly in the text?
___ Is the wording of citations smoothly worked into the sentence structure? Are the authors attributed
(named and worked into the discussion) as often as possible?
___ Does the writer document information correctly on the Works Cited page?
Revision
___ Does the writer revise ideas rather than merely edit or correct earlier drafts?
___ Does the writer respond to feedback from peers and instructor?
58
Understanding Your Final Grade
3.5-4.0 A terrific accomplishment
A score in this range indicate true proficiency and superior achievement: the portfolio us
interesting, fully developed, insightful, and perhaps even provocative. Your essays may take a
new approach to the topic, or add new depth and complexity to an old one. The use of sources
and supporting material is smooth, complete, and persuasive, and the organization flows
logically and clearly, showing readers exactly how the different parts of the argument fit together
without being obtrusive. Sentences are skillfully formed, and give readers a strong sense that
they are in the hands of a skilled writer.
2.5-3.4 Good solid work
A portfolio in this range displays clear, solid competence in all the criteria. Your essays are clear,
easy to read, logical, and make a substantial point about the topic, though they may not
demonstrate a full awareness of its complexities or be as original as those in the 3.5-4.0 range;
or, they make particularly insightful or challenging arguments that are a little hard to follow
because of organizational problems and/or because of the difficulty of the issues they tackle.
2.0-2.4 Competent
A score in this range is perfectly respectable, and means that you have achieved some degree of
skill in all areas. You may have written essays with interesting and persuasive content that are
weakened by problems with grammar and style (grammar errors, wordy or awkward sentences,
inappropriate or vague word choices). Or your essays may meet the formal and organizational
conventions and standards of good academic writing, but be lacking in originality, depth, or
complexity. For example, your thesis may be too simple, general, or obvious; you may not have
supported your claims in enough detail or related each claim clearly to your thesis.
1.7-1.9 Almost there
A grade in this range means that you have almost achieved what you needed to, but the portfolio
does not yet demonstrate consistent college level work. You are on the right track, bit more
substantial work has needed on one more of the necessary criteria, or you may have been
extremely sloppy in presentation, or not quite gotten the hang of the assignments. Or you may
need to improve the flow and clarity of your sentenced.
0.5-1.5 Unsatisfactory
A grade in this range shows some effort, but does not meet the minimum standards or the basic
requirements of the assignment. Often, essays in this range do not have a thesis, or the thesis fails
to address the terms of the assignment.
59
UW Grade Schedule
Letter
Percentage Grade
UW decimal grade
A
91-100
4.0
A-
88-90
3.8
B+
85-87
3.4
B
81-84
3.1
B-
78-80
2.8
C+
75-77
2.4
C
71-74
2.1
C-
68-70
1.8
D+
65-67
1.4
D
61-64
1.1
D-
50-60
0.8
E
< 50
0.0
GENERAL POLICIES
Additional Handouts will be added throughout the quarter. They will not be in the Table of
Contents.
60
MAKING A CONVINCING ARGUMENT
THROUGH
CLASSICAL MEANS OF PERSUASION
In general, this handout is designed to get you thinking about how to use evidence to make a
convincing argument. Specifically, this activity offers you rhetorical tools to apply to your own
writing.
OBJECTIVES
 IDENTIFY ARISTOTELIAN APPEALS
 RECOGNIZE EVIDENCE
 EVALUATE EVIDENCE FOR RELEVANCE AND PERSUASIVENESS
TASK
For this activity you will need to read through the shared text we are all reading for this class
with the goal of identifying evidence that is used by the author to support his or her
argument(s). As you read you will want to consider the types of evidence that are considered
relevant and persuasive (and those that are not). You will work in small groups to discuss your
initial findings. Next, we will reconvene as a class and focus on a few points of evidence to work
with further. Finally, we will experiment with the original text to consider how modifications
make the argument more or less convincing.
BACKGROUND: ETHOS, PATHOS, AND LOGOS
According to Aristotle there are basically three ways to appeal to people and thus to induce them
to agree with you. The Greek terms for the three types of appeals are: ethos, pathos, and logos,
usually translated as ethical, emotional, and logical (although the words have somewhat
different connotations in English).
Persuasion by ethos is based on persona, on your image as projected by your speech or
writing. Audiences that perceive you as wise, knowledgeable, and trustworthy are more
likely to be persuaded by you.
Persuasion by pathos is based on the feelings and desires of audiences. Not only do
emotions aroused in audiences affect the ease with which they are persuaded, but all
successful persuasion must ultimately identify itself with something its audience
desires—be that truth, justice or a larger piece of the pie.
Persuasion by logos is based on evidence and reasoning. If what you present at least
seems to be well founded and logical, that should help persuade.
Ethical Appeal: The first type of appeal is called ethical because it turns on the ethical
judgment readers make about the character of the writer. Readers who trust you may be
persuaded even by unsupported assertion. That trust may be based on the personal you project
on readers’ previous knowledge of you. Thus, a recognized authority, such as a certified expert
or a leader who is perceived as having been right often in the past, may be able to persuade
people without providing detailed argumentation.
61
Aristotle says that the ethical appeal is based on your ability to project yourself.
1. as a sensible person who understands the subject
2. as a good and forthright person who would not lie to readers, and
3. as an unselfish and benevolent person who has the readers’ best interests at heart.
Emotional Appeal: Appeals to pathos persuade audiences by arousing the emotions. Because
our culture emphasizes the virtues of empiricism and rationality, appeals to emotions tend to be
valued less in intellectual environments. Therefore, emotional appeals must be used wisely to be
persuasive.
George Campbell asserted in The Philosophy of Rhetoric, “so far…is it from being an unfair
method of persuasion to move the passions, that there is not persuasions without moving them.”
Logical Appeal: The third appeal is to reason. Aristotle reminds us that what persuades is not
logic, but apparent logic, the verbal representation of logic. To an honest writer, this distinction
ordinarily makes little difference, except as a reminder that the logic must be made apparent to
readers. There are two types of ways to organize appeals to reason.
Deductive argument begins with a generalization and moves toward a specific
conclusion.
Inductive argument begins with pieces of specific evidence and draws a general
conclusion from this.
Rhetorical Analysis Tip Sheet—Part I
Here is a brief checklist of different linguistic and structural tools that writers often use to get
readers engaged with the text and to get their meaning across powerfully.
Concrete, Descriptive Language
creates human interest (pathos), and can also carry important details/evidence (logos) and
demonstrate the author’s credibility (ethos) by conveying the sense of his/her close observation of
details.
 Strong verbs…"he slouched down in his chair, half-closed his eyes, and flicked his hanging
wrist."
 Metaphorical language and symbols…"The question of race was like the power of the moon in
my house." James McBride, The Color of Water
 Sensory details (you can see it, hear it, feel it)…"She wore a flower-print dress and black loafers,
her head swiveling back and forth as she rode shakily past the triangle curve where I played
stickball with my friends." James McBride, The Color of Water
 Concrete, specific examples…"We had a toaster that shocked you every time you touched it …"
James McBride, The Color of Water
 "Telling" facts that are revealing of larger truths…"We would hide food from one another,
squirreling away a precious grilled cheese or fried bologna sandwiches…" James McBride, The
Color of Water
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Narrative techniques: Creating tension and surprise
creates human interest (pathos)
 Oppositions between facts or ideas: One thing and its opposite, a positive and a negative, two
ideas that antagonize each other. …"I was one of the bigger, healthier boys in the class--and also
one of the biggest, smoothest liars…"
 Variety in language: long and short sentences, fast and slow rhythms, "kitchen " language and
elevated language…"lots of folks grow up Italian in America, lots more grow up capitalist in
America, and legions of us have grown up middle class, working class, poor, or even rich in
America. But white?" Grover, "Growing Up White in America?"
 Surprising expressions… "And the driver had a lot to lose--his truck and perhaps a few teeth"
Structural devices
These allow the writer to guide the reader to his/her point(s)--logos
 Overview statements (thesis statements, etc.)
 Sequential devices (time sequence, numbering of points, before/after)
 Logical connections (how the points/parts of the essay fit together logically)
 Graphic organizers (sub heads, bullets, diagrams, changes in typeface)
 Strong repetitions/patterns…"I don't like to combine the civilized way of eating with uncivilized
surroundings."
 Transitional devices (phrases like "next" or "however" or "in addition;" connecting new
information to previous information)
 The fish hook: a word, action, or symbol at the beginning of the piece that is repeated at the end.
Rhetorical Analysis Tip Sheet—Part II
Here is a brief checklist of different analytical tools for assessing the rhetorical effectiveness of the
content of a piece of writing. Of course, a writer who is rhetorically savvy also is consciously employing
these tools.
Logos—Claims, Reasons, and Evidence
Strong writers back up claims with reasons and evidence that demonstrate the reasonableness of the
claims.
 facts
 statistics
 examples
 reasoned sequence of ideas (no logical fallacies)
 data from personal experience
 quotations from credible sources, subject matter experts
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Ethos—Author Credibility, Believability
This factor lends weight to the writing. Writers sometimes weave in their personal experience, or their
credentials. Sometimes, if they are well-known to their audience, name-recognition is enough to build
ethos.
 education
 other publications
 awards or recognized expertise
 first-hand experience
 social position—in an institution or society at large
 reasonableness--acknowledgement of other points of view
Pathos
Use of evidence, examples, situations, language that evokes empathy from the reader, or stirs other
strong emotions
 “human interest” anecdotes
 personal experience of the writer
 emotional language (this can be overused and undermine effective writing)
 appeals to values, beliefs of the audience