Info3 Ict Revision
Guide
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Table of Contents
Chapter One: Future Developments ....................................................................................................... 5
Emerging Technologies ....................................................................................................................... 5
Benefits to Leisure from Technology Advances .................................................................................. 6
Potential future uses of ICT ................................................................................................................ 7
Implications of future developments of ICT ....................................................................................... 7
Issues surrounding the rapid development of ICT .............................................................................. 7
Chapter 2: Information and Systems ...................................................................................................... 8
What is an organisation ...................................................................................................................... 8
Structure of an organisation ............................................................................................................... 9
Pyramid Structures ............................................................................................................................. 9
Horizontal Structures .......................................................................................................................... 9
How has the development of ICT affected the organisational structure ......................................... 10
Activities within an organisation....................................................................................................... 10
Strategic Level of task ....................................................................................................................... 10
Tactical level of task .......................................................................................................................... 10
Operational Level of Task.................................................................................................................. 10
Exchanging Information with External Bodies .................................................................................. 11
Chapter 3: Types of ICT system ............................................................................................................. 12
Common Ict Systems......................................................................................................................... 12
Legacy Systems ................................................................................................................................. 12
Back office systems ........................................................................................................................... 12
Day-to-day working systems ............................................................................................................. 13
Management Information Systems .................................................................................................. 13
Enterprise resource planning systems .............................................................................................. 13
Customer Relationship Management Systems ................................................................................. 13
Decision Support Systems ................................................................................................................. 14
Ecommerce systems ......................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 4: Managing ICT....................................................................................................................... 15
Organisation Size .............................................................................................................................. 15
Information Flow .............................................................................................................................. 15
ICT management and business strategy ........................................................................................... 16
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Chapter 5 ICT Strategy .......................................................................................................................... 16
Factors Influencing a Strategy........................................................................................................... 16
Managing Information Assets over time .......................................................................................... 16
The Need for a Corporate Strategy ................................................................................................... 17
Upgrading Hardware & software ...................................................................................................... 17
Standards .......................................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 6: ICT Policies........................................................................................................................... 18
Ict Training Policy .............................................................................................................................. 18
ICT security Policy ............................................................................................................................. 18
ICT procurement Policy ..................................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 7: Legislation ........................................................................................................................... 20
Impact of Legislation on ICT policies ................................................................................................. 20
Developed Legislation ....................................................................................................................... 20
Copyright Designs and Patent Act 1988............................................................................................ 22
Software theft ................................................................................................................................... 22
Health and Safety Legislation............................................................................................................ 22
Freedom of Information Act ............................................................................................................. 22
Chapter 8: Developing ICT Solutions..................................................................................................... 23
Factors Contributing to a Successful Development .......................................................................... 23
Factors that Contribute to an unsuccessful Development ............................................................... 24
Chapter 9: Developing Methods ........................................................................................................... 24
Systems Development Life Cycle ...................................................................................................... 24
The Need for Systematic Formal Methods: Project Management ................................................... 26
Development Methodologies ........................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 10: Techniques & Tools for System Development .................................................................. 28
Business Process Modelling Tools..................................................................................................... 28
Data Modelling Tools ........................................................................................................................ 28
Techniques for Testing ...................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 11: Introducing large ICT systems into organisations ............................................................. 30
Reliability & Testing .......................................................................................................................... 30
User Acceptance Testing ................................................................................................................... 30
Testing Network Systems.................................................................................................................. 30
Installation ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Documentation ................................................................................................................................. 31
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Maintenance ..................................................................................................................................... 31
Chapter 12: Backup & Recovery ........................................................................................................... 33
Backup & Recovery Strategy ............................................................................................................. 33
Online backup ................................................................................................................................... 34
Risk Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Data recovery Plan ............................................................................................................................ 34
Disaster Recovery & Contingency Planning ...................................................................................... 34
Planning for Recovery from Disaster ................................................................................................ 35
Contents of a contingency Plan ........................................................................................................ 35
Options for recovery ......................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 13; Training Users.................................................................................................................... 37
Types of Training & Methods ............................................................................................................ 37
Chapter 14; Supporting Users ............................................................................................................... 38
Support Options for Industry Standard Packages ............................................................................. 40
Documentation ................................................................................................................................. 40
Factors to consider when choosing a support option ...................................................................... 40
Chapter 15: External & internal Resources ........................................................................................... 41
Using external services and support ................................................................................................. 41
Ways of obtaining services ............................................................................................................... 41
Managing internal resources ............................................................................................................ 42
Pre-Release ........................................................................................................................................... 43
The Vision .......................................................................................................................................... 43
Key quotes about the task ................................................................................................................ 43
Team Hope ........................................................................................................................................ 43
Team Endurance ............................................................................................................................... 44
Pre release notes .............................................................................................................................. 45
Chapter 15; Internal & External Resources.............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Chapter One: Future Developments
Emerging Technologies
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Personal Digital Assistants: a device acting as an electronic organise, easy to use and can
share information with a PC. A PDA can be used for Personal Information Management:
keeping calendars and managing appointments/ appointments.
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Global- Positioning System (GPS devices).
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Smart Phones: a small device that combines mobile phones & PDA’s. It can run applications,
use PIM systems, email and use word processing. Some smartphones have WI-FI.
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Mobile Dongles: allow people to use the internet on the go via a USB.
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VOIP: Leading to an increased amount of office workers working from home, allows for
conference calls
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Benefits to Leisure from Technology Advances
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Digital Photography: Storage and printing of photos using a computer. Taking photos on
mobile phones, the quality has improved through the development of megapixels. Photos
can be deleted: costly using a disposable camera using film.
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Image processing software packages: Modification of images, changing the brightness,
removing red-eye.
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Faster Processing speeds: Gaming & Instant messaging
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Music: Downloads via the internet, Streaming. The sound is in wave or analogue form; the
digital data needs to be converted into analogue form and then amplified via a speaker. This
conversion is carried out by the sound card; it’s quality is determined by the sampling rate
(the number of times a second that a measurement of the sound wave is made and stored
as a number).
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Potential future uses of ICT
The move towards ICT-Based techniques of identification is likely to grow in the future. Already,
many passports contain encoded biometric data of facial characteristics. Fingertip identification is
used to register pupils in some schools. More and more services are provided online; an increasing
percentage of the population makes the use of these services as a matter of routine. The potential of
the internet provides a challenge to businesses large & small.
Implications of future developments of ICT
Issues surrounding the rapid development of ICT
Social
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Digital Divide: people getting left behind due to lack of skills & resourced. The digital
divide is between the rich & poor, physically unable & able, old & the young and
different economic backgrounds.
People missing out on information because of the use of post instead of emailing.
Online job applications
Exposure to violent video games
Legal
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Data Rights management: is a set of technologies that allows copyright owners of
media to ensure they get paid for the use of their property. DRM uses encryption to
protect the content and authentication systems to make sure that only authorised
users are able to decrypt the files. Data transmitted over the internet is scrambled
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and can’t be read by any one who does not have the correct key. This allows files to
be sold online and helps prevent piracy.
Technical
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A greater range of skills is required at different levels. These skills quickly become
outdated and people need retraining.
How technological advances help businesses meet business objectives.
Older versions of software packages quickly become obsolete.
Ethical
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Movements can now be tracked via phones & CCTV
ISP’s store the recipient’s address, subject line and exact time an email was sent
Government can track all this information: breech of freedom
Phorm: Records a users browsing habits and targets audience with advertisements
Economic
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Businesses need to keep up to date to remain competitive, this is costly.
Offshoring & cheap labour
Environmental
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Growth in phone masts: Some people believe this is a health hazard
Rising level of Co2 emissions, renewable energy.
How previous technology is disposed of or recycled: pressure on businesses
Chapter 2: Information and Systems
What is an organisation
An organisation is a group of people with a specific purpose.
Activities and tasks are allocated to staff depending on their roles and skills. This allocation of tasks is
called the division of labour. It allows people to specialise and develop their own knowledge &
expertise in a particular group of tasks.
Information needs depend on;
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Type or structure
Scale of the organisation: Global companies have issues with the national boundries.
Nature of the organisation: Banks, schools, authorities need different information.
Management style of the organisation: Autocratic (Detailed breakdowns) &
democratic management ( Employee participation)
Tasks in the organisation
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Structure of an organisation
Structures determine who is responsible to who, who can make which type of decision & allow staff
to co-ordinate/control their staff; the structure can be presented within an organisation chart
Span of control: The number of employees who are directly supervised by one person. Too wide a
span of control leads to lack of control & inefficiency.
Chain of command: The path through the levels of management. Instructions go down the level of
authority and problems are referred up the lines to higher levels. Long lines of communication mean
messages can be distorted and take time to reach their destination.
Pyramid Structures
The pyramid structure is the traditional shape of a structure within a large business. Roles are clearly
defined in a number of layers. At the top is the managing director or chief executive, further down
are the floor staffs: suitable for centralised decision making by senior staff.
Advantages
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Clearly defined authority & responsibility
Effective use of specialist managers
Employees loyal to their department
Disadvantages
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Long time to make & implement decisions
Poor communication across sections
Senior staff remote from the lower levels
Horizontal Structures
These structures have fewer layers and a wider span of control. People within this structure are
directly answerable to the managing director and decision making power may be delegated.
Advantages
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Greater communication between management and workers
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Less burocracy & easier decision making
Employees have more responsibility: more motivation
There are lower costs associated with fewer management levels
Disadvantages
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Specialisation: departments may have little to do with each other
Managers can be responsible for several departments and their role isn’t always clear
Control of top management could be weakened as they may have too wide a span of control
Fewer levels of management usually mean that there are fewer prospects of promotion
How has the development of ICT affected the organisational structure
Ict has lead to a flatter structure in order for the business to be able to cope with the rapid &
dynamic changes ICT brings. Ict has also helped provide managers with the information needed to
more easily monitor staff performance and in some cases ICT has eliminated particular jobs. Middle
management jobs have also been eroded.
Activities within an organisation
Ordering systems: Allow businesses to manage the distribution of goods from supplier to customer
in an automated way which saves time & minimises overheads. Track order systems allow
management to manage & track orders from their desktops.
Customer support: Consumers have high expectations and good future support can boost sales. To
boost sales a business needs to provide information on a range of matters i.e. past orders to respond
to queries & complains.
Strategic Level of task
This is the highest level, it consists of upper management. Strategy is the long term planning and
major decision making i.e. whether to open a new factory or move location.
A management information system can produce projectioernal and external, that relate to the
business. The nature of strategic management means that the information that is required at this
can be very varied in content & timing. One off information may be needed.
Tactical level of task
This consists of middle management; tactical decisions include which training courses to offer staff &
timetable issues.
Tactical staffs are likely to have a number of operational staff reporting to them: much of the
information they need relates directly to the organisations performance.
Operational Level of Task
The operational level is the lowest level. This consists of the workforces who are making the product,
taking orders and keeping accounts. These staff may be well qualified and are closely involved at the
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productive end of the operation: decisions may be to order new stock. The information they need
must be in a high level of detail.
Exchanging Information with External Bodies
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Customers/ suppliers= extranets showing stock levels, stock and prices. There will be issues
of privacy and security along with this as the business will not want the person viewing the
data to be able to edit it.
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Inland revenue= There are a range of taxes for which a company is liable including PAYE
income tax payments for employees, VAT and Corporation tax that is paid by public limited
companies on their profit
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Information Commissioner= all personal data held about a data subject under the data
protection act 1998.
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Charity Commissioner= Any charity must register and submit published accounts
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Chapter 3: Types of ICT system
Common Ict Systems
Name Of the
System & process
Payroll System
Can be outsourced
or managed in
house
electronically/
manually
Personnel systems
Accounting
Systems
A computer
system will be
used, these can be
purchased off the
shelf (SAGE).
Purpose
Information Stored
Output
Calculates Payments=
Salary, overtime, holiday,
bonuses and
Dedications= national
insurance, tax, student
loans
The records and
calculations needed to
work out the
payments and
deductions for every
employee of the
business.
Data on current
employee’s skills,
capabilities and salary.
Some companies hold
photos and driving
licence certificates.
Money coming in &
out of the business
listing dates and
names.
Each employee receives a
payslip that itemises the
payments and totals to make
the gross income. The
deductions are also itemised
and subtracted to give the net
income, this is paid to them.
Statistics such as staff turnover
and abscence, tracking
employee development,
supports administration
courses.
Deals with recruitment,
induction, training,
disciplining and the
departure of staff.
To keep formal accounts
of financial transactions:
to fulfil legal
requirements, provide an
overview to the
management, keep track
of money coming in & out
and make sure the
accounts reconcile.
A detailed account which can
be used by senior management
to enable them to make
appropriate decisions and
highlight serious issues.
Legacy Systems
A legacy system is an existing system that is likely to have been used for many years, these are
usually never replaced because
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To replace them would be expensive
To replace them would be disruptive
A new system would not improve the current system
It is vital that any new system can link to legacy systems.
Back office systems
A system which runs the businesses administration processes which do not directly deal with
customers. An example of a back office system is within a bank, inside a bank back office systems
deal with tasks such as producing customer statements, calculating interest and updating stock
records. The system could produce management information from the data that is stored.
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Day-to-day working systems
A transaction processing system deals with the routine, day-to-day transactions of an organisation.
They carry out repetitive, routine business activities such as the sale of goods recording the loan of
books in a library or the sale of goods. As a transaction is carried out, the database records are
updated before another transition is processed, this prevents double booking.
Document approval workflow is when a document is passed between staff to be reviewed and
approved: this is done with insurance claims.
Document management system controls the flow, storage and retrieval of documents. Many
organisations scan in and digitise all documents and store the digital record in a large database. The
physical copies can be stored in a safe, off-site location as long as they are needed, or if they do not
need to be kept they could be thrown away to save storage space. Accessing physical records can
become a problem if they are misfiled; some important documents are given stickers that include
transponders that allow a filling clerk to locate them. As more data is created and shared on a daily
basis there is a great demand on keeping it sure and available. Links can be set up to make it easy to
cross reference between documents.
Management Information Systems
These use operational level data to provide management level information. Within these data is
combined from internal & external sources and presented in an easy-to-read format such as tables
or graphs. This information is then used by senior management to make quick decisions at a
strategic or tactical level. An MIS is usually based on one or more database and allows people at
different levels to access appropriate information in an understandable form.
An Executive information System is a form of MIS. This provides aggregated information for senior
management. These have user-friendly, graphical interfaces. If a manager clicks on the information
displayed they can dive deeper by using the hotspots. The information then presented often
compares with previous years or estimated budgets.
Enterprise resource planning systems
This is an integrated suite of software applications which support and automate business processes.
It may consist of modules dealing with manufacturing, shipping, finance, payroll etc. The modules
depend on the nature of the business. This is back office software and is designed to improve overall
business efficiency, reduce money tied in stock and lower costs. ERPS tie together all functions into
one integrated system that has a common user interface.
Customer Relationship Management Systems
This allows a business to collect, update and maintain all its customer data in one centralised
location. The information is accessible to everyone within a company who needs customer
information. This information is up to date and can help improve customer service. The aim of
installing this is to improve customer satisfaction, happy customers are likely to shop with the
company again and recommend it to others: this reduces costs, wastage, complaints and better
customer relations.
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Decision Support Systems
This converts raw data into information that can be used to make high quality decisions and identify
problems. A DSS is an interactive application that can provide him with information in a form that
makes the process of decision-making easier. A DSS processes data from a business system and
outputs it in an easily understandable form which can include an expert system.
A form of DSS is an executive dashboard, business performance software allows a manager to make
certain decisions very quickly by identifying negative trends and allocating resources appropriately.
They tell the manager the key information needed to run the company.
A Medical decision support system is used to assist doctors in making clinical decision and can
improve the quality of medical care giving reliable diagnosis and treatment; this avoids errors that
can be made by insufficient knowledge on behalf of the doctor. These decrease the cost of
healthcare by giving a faster diagnosis and minimising the need for consultations with specialist
doctors.
Ecommerce systems
Removes the possibility of double booking and means fewer staff is needed. Offers a wider pool of
customers but postage needs to be paid.
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Chapter 4: Managing ICT
Organisation Size
Ict systems must be managed effectively if the organisation is to gain the most benefit from them.
Usually small organisations have informal systems whereas large organisations have formal ones.
The formal systems need to be carefully planned in advance and be strictly adhered to. Here is a
typical structure;
Managing Director
Head of…
Head of…
Head of ICT services
Head of management
information systems
Head of technical
support
Help Desk Manager
Policies define how to put a
strategy into action.
Network Manager
Information Flow
This is the way information moves around an organisation.
Formal information flow is the flow created by procedures of an organisation. I.e. internal memos,
formal meetings, noticeboards and the company intranet.
Informal information flow is not structured but is naturally arising within the organisation i.e. from
phone calls, the office grapevine, stories in the local press, personal conversation.
An increasing way of communicating is by sending a “global” mail list to every employee. If email is
tied into proper procedures i.e. an agenda for a meeting then it is formal information. Another
example of formal information is submitting stationary requests to the supplies department.
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ICT management and business strategy
A large organisation is likely to have a chief information officer ad a member of the company’s
executive. In a way, the CIO acts as a bridge between the business goals of the organisation and the
implementation of the ICT solutions that are needed to see these goals. They will be instrumental in
writing the strategy and overseeing the implementation within the budget.
Chapter 5 ICT Strategy
Factors Influencing a Strategy
Managing Information Assets over time
It is important to be able to predict any likely growth so that planning can be effective. Substantial
growth may mean moving to a new building and employing new staff who will need to be provided
with the appropriate equipment and network access. With a growing business, there will be an
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increased load of data needing to be managed to prevent a build-up and breach of the data
protection act, here are a few options for data management;
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Deleting Records: taking into consideration later customer enquiries
Archiving Records: Storing records offline.
Expanding Storage space
Unstructured data is data such as document files & emails: these need the same level of
protection as other files.
The Need for a Corporate Strategy
Procurement is the acquisition of hardware at the best possible price for the use of an
organisation. Hardware can be purchased outright or leased. This is important in achieving the
objectives of an organisation and appropriate services can only be given with the appropriate
hardware.
Future proofing: Concerns finding ways of making sure a system has a reasonable life and does not
need to be totally replaced too soon. Systems must be designed to cope with rapid growth and
predicated change; changes in software, increased data storage.
Upgrading Hardware & software
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Changes in available devices (Up to date) : flat screens
Software improvements
New software increases the need for more RAM and disk space
Processing Speed
Memory Capacity
Enhanced transfer speed over a network
Higher quality image or printing
Standards
A standard is a common way of doing something. Strategic choices concerning the purchase of
hardware can be affected by standards.
A company might decide to use standard formats for storing business documents so that they can
easily exchange data with other organisations through Electronic data interchange. The ability to
transfer data to and from another package or platform is known as portability. Without portability
data would need to be re-typed which would lead to wasted time and errors. Portability can only
exist if manufacturers agree to using standards: it is an important sales feature.
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Chapter 6: ICT Policies
Ict Training Policy
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) is a systematic updating and extending of skills and
knowledge relating to the workplace. As the term CPD implies, development should continue
throughout an individual’s career regardless of their age or role. The goal of CPD is to improve
personal performance and enhance career progression.
The training policy should fit in with other policies within the organisation. ICT training in a company
needs to be planned and developed, based on its objectives. Training is a vulnerable to budget
cutting as management sees it as an expensive luxury that has to be dropped when times are hard,
This can lead to reduction in the amount of training altogether or management may look to deliver
training in different ways i.e. e-learning.
However, if strategy is successful it is important that decisions involving the ways in which training
should be acquired fully take into account the needs of both the organisation and the individual
employee. The training must also be planned to complement the installation of new hardware and
software.
New legislation may bring new training needs and these must be planned for in advance. New
ventures within an organisation may also generate ICT training. These must also be identified early
and planned for. All this can be done through appraisal.
As employees are becoming more literate, so their training needs are changing over time. Many
people are going to demand further ICT training to develop their skills further.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Review the ICT skills gap- carry out a regular review
Review an individual’s needs annually
Encourage an atmosphere of on-going ICT learning within an organisation
Build in-time for an employee to consolidate any new skills
Ensure the organisation benefits As much as possible
Take into consideration training costs to new hardware/software purchases
Provide new employees with an induction to ICT systems
Take immediate steps to replace any valuable ICT skills held by an employee leaving the
organisation.
ICT security Policy
If an organisation does not have adequate security then its operations will be at risk. Knowledge and
data are probably the most important aspects of any organisation. Companies must make sure that
the confidentiality, integrity and availability of their data is maintained at all times;
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Who sees the data?
Has it been corrupted?
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Can I access the data when I need it?
External threats= hackers, illegal access, poor security
The policy must aim to;
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Prevents misuse
Detect misuse through regular checking
Investigate misuse through monitoring software and audit trails
Prevent unauthorised access
Lay down staff responsibilities in the prevention of misuse
Lay down disciplinary procedures for breaches of security
The policy must be altered when new systems are introduced
ICT procurement Policy
The ways in which hardware and software is obtained for the organisation.
Organisations spend a lot of money on ICT: for the hardware, software and the people who support
it. Any large organisation would have an ICT procurement policy to ensure that the best use is made
of their investment in ICT and that any systems introduced do benefit the organisation.
Without a centralised policy, as an organisation grows different sections can develop their own
systems that meet their specific needs; they may choose different hardware platforms and software.
This can lead to difficulties making it harder to transfer data and information because of
incompatibilities.
A timescale needs to be laid down for the replacement of hardware. This allows the managers
involved with purchasing equipment to plan ahead as the replacement costs of hardware can be
anticipated. With centralised control, new technology can be implemented over a reasonable period
without having to change every piece of equipment at the same time.
Within a company, hardware and software procurement should be standardised to ensure;
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Compatibility with existing data
Compatibility with existing hardware
That colleagues can share data when necessary
That they can communicate when necessary
That technical support is available
That legal software licencing requirements are met
That training is available
That the hardware can cope with future demands
Legacy systems are taken into account
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Chapter 7: Legislation
Impact of Legislation on ICT policies
The procedures within a company must reflect the requirements on the legislation to ensure all laws
are being adhered to. If a company’s employee breaks the law when at work, the company is legally
responsible as well as the individual. This impacts on publicity;
Developed Legislation
Data Protection Act 1998
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Copyright Designs and Patent Act 1988
Copyright laws protect the intellectual rights of authors, composers and artists. They also apply to
computer software. When you buy software you do not buy the program, only the right to use it
under terms of the licence. It is illegal to copy or use software without this licence.
Particular care needs to be taken with this when LANS are used as sufficient licences for the number
of users must have been obtained. This can be done through network software which keeps track of
users of a particular piece of software and limit the number of concurrent users to the number of
licences held. Laptops should be spot checked to ensure the software installed has been correctly
authorised and employees cannot take a copy of the software home.
An inventory should be kept that holds all the details of all software installed on computers within
the organisation and the licences that are held. Such centralisation also allows reliable, known
suppliers to be used and makes the checking that no unauthorised software had been installed a
relatively straight forward matter.
Software theft
Is divided into two categories: piracy and counterfeiting.
Piracy occurs when more copied of software are made then the number of licences purchased.
Many users do this and don’t realise that this is illegal and can sometimes do it unwittingly.
Counterfeiting is when software is illegally copied for sale to other users. The software cannot be
registered, so there is no technical support or upgrade available. An added problem is that such
software carries a high risk of carrying a virus.
Health and Safety Legislation
Management should encourage and give recognition to a trade union health and safety
representative who could act on and report the concerns of colleagues. These should be given
thorough training. It is the management’s responsibility to ensure risk analysis is carried out on a
regular basis.
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A health and safety policy should be given to all staff.
The role of a health and safety officer, who checks that the appropriate laws are compiles
with, must be established. The safety officer should review health and safety issues.
Regular training should be undertaken top inform and remind
Regular workstation inspections should be carried out against the health and safety criteria
Procedures should be in place to replace faulty equipment in a timely manner
Inspections should take place about ergonomic factors
Should establish a policy that specified the HCI requirements for software design that should
be adhered to when new systems are developed.
Freedom of Information Act
On receiving a request for information, publish authorities must acknowledge and log it. The request
must be answered within 20 working days. The organisation needs a system in place to help this.
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Any organisation covered by the Act must establish an active publication scheme. This must be
approved by the Information commissioner and regular be approved/updated.
Chapter 8: Developing ICT Solutions
Factors Contributing to a Successful Development
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Factors that Contribute to an unsuccessful Development
Chapter 9: Developing Methods
Systems Development Life Cycle
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1. Preliminary:
Looks at the need for a system, may be
initiated if a manager feels the system
can be improved
2. Feasibility
Will the new system work?
Will it save the company money?
Does it comply with the law?
Will it solve the problem?
Can it be built in time?
3. Analysis
Finding out about the current system and
investigating requirements: use DFD’ to
represent the current system. Draw up
deliverables.
4.
Design
determines how the requirements specification is implemented. It involves breaking the
problem down into smaller sub-problems. A specification is drawn up in sufficient detail for
the programmers to create the system. Clear timescales are needed.
5.
Construction
The stage when the system is produced by the development of programs or customisation of
software packages. Programs are coded, tested and documented. It is vital the work is
monitored carefully, and that timescales are adhered to.
6.
Testing
Test data should test that all branches of the program perform to specification. Data should
be used to test extreme cases. Any discrepancies should be investigated and corrected if
necessary
Types are;
Module: Each part of the system is tested.
Functional: Sometimes called black box testing, testing for given inputs.
System; Called alpha- the developers test the system to make sure requirements are met.
User: Sometimes called beta- in which potential users test the software on their real data.
Beta testing is done to make sure it does the right job, it is thoroughly tested.
Operational: In which software is tested in its normal operating environment.
7.
Installation & Conversion
Hardware must be purchased, staff trained and user documentation can be written.
Direct Changeover, this is scrapping the old system and immediately replacing it with the
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new one. This means no time is wasted but there is higher risk of something going wrong,
this is normally carried out at quiet times i.e. after closing.
8.
Review & Maintenance
Once a system is in full operation it is monitored to check that it has met the objectives set
out in the original specification. Inevitably, changes will need to be made: this is called
systems maintenance. More programming hours are spent on maintaining existing systems
than producing new ones.
Tests of performance should be made, such as speed tests. Surveys can be used to check if
information flows are correct and the quality of the information.
The Need for Systematic Formal Methods: Project Management





Agreeing to deliverables that state exactly what the system must do, when it will be done by
and what it will cost
Gaining approval to proceed
Creating a project plan
Setting Milestones- Dates
Achieving Sign off- The client signing to say the project is complete
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Development Methodologies
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Chapter 10: Techniques & Tools for System Development
Investigating and Recording Techniques
Business Process Modelling Tools
Diagrams are much easier to understand than the same information in text format.

Gantt Charts

Business Process Modelling Notation: Graphical Representation of workflow within a
business. Represents complex processes in intuitive diagrams. Software can be downloaded
to do this for free online.

Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology: Developed to provide a standard
methodology for developing UK government IT projects. It uses structured techniques and
tools to study data flows, models and life cycles.
Data Modelling Tools

Entity- Relationship Diagrams: used in deigning relational databases. They show the
relationships between the tables. One to many relationships is shown.

Data Flow Diagrams: Show the movement of data through the whole organisation. This is
used in systems analysis to show how data moves through a system. External sources are
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called external entities. They are people such as suppliers etc.
Symbols
External Entity:
Process:
Data Store:
D2
Flow of Data:




Level Zero Context
This is a high level
overview of the
system.
These start with a
rectangle in the
middle of a piece of
paper which
represents the
system.
Next to it, oval
shapes represent the
external entities.
Arrows show the
data flows.
Level One
The DFD is broken down by
dividing the processes into
individual detailed
processes.
This shows data in/outflow
and the associated
processes.
Each process refers to a
separate part of the system.
Data flow cannot directly go
from one store to an
external entity: only by
process.
Level Two
These just simply
break down the
system even
further into the
various processes
involved. Each
process has its
own DFD.
There should be a data store for each entity
Information Flows show data and not physical items.
Entities don’t link directly to data stores.
What goes in must come out.
Techniques for Testing

A test harness is a collection of software and test data configured to perform specific
tests on a module of a program by running it under the different conditions, comparing
actual outputs with expected outputs.

Volume Testing tests that the new system works with large volumes of data. After a long
period of use, data files may become very large. Volume testing tests that this does not
affect the performance of the software.

Scalability Testing; Tests that a system will still perform as required even if the system
has to deal with an increased workload.

Prototyping means producing a scaled down, simple version of the software which is
used to show how the system will work. Can be constructed and tested in a short time.

Multiplatform Testing: Ensures the software can be sued with a variety of hardware
specifications and operating systems: i.e. new browsing software with Windows XP &
Vista. Important with Legacy Systems.
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
Simulated Environments: With various inputs and outputs can be used to test software
in as realistic an environment as possible.
Chapter 11: Introducing large ICT systems into organisations
Reliability & Testing
A large system has many users; it is particularly important with these large systems that they always
operate as expected. When a new system is developed, extensive testing must be planned to ensure
reliable operation. The testing will be structured and involve teams of people: it is the most
expensive part of the development of software.
Developer Testing

Takes stage at many parts of the development. The developers use a range of tests to make
sure their code performs as required by the specification.

This can include methods such as a code walkthrough. This is a formal testing technique
where the program code is worked through by a group with a small set of test cases; as this
is done the state of program variables is manually monitored. This form of testing checks
that the internal program logic is correct. This is an example of white-box testing. This
concentrates on how the programs carry out what is expected.

The second round of testing is Black box testing; based on what the software should do
rather than how it is done. Black box testing is carried out by the developers. Functional
testing is an example of this: checks the features, operations and erroneous actions.

Automated testing employs tools which execute tests without manual intervention.
Compatibility testing checks that the software is compatible with the other parts i.e.
hardware & operating systems.
A software release is the initial generation if a new or upgraded application.
User Acceptance Testing
Done after the release and is not usually carried out by the client to determine whether or not to
accept a software product. These criteria are likely to be agreed upon at the start of the project and
real data is likely to be used. Test cases are created to ensure proper coverage of all possible
scenarios during testing and realistically should be as similar to the real-world environment as
possible.
Testing Network Systems
Tests the effect of running the system on the current network and its structure i.e. too much traffic
on the network and slowed responses when using a WAN.
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Installation
Documentation

System Documentation: is produced for the programmers who will maintain the system.
This will consist of structure and other diagrams, annotated program codes and records
relating to testing.

User Documentation: is designed to enable the users to operate the system. It can consist of
procedure manuals that describe how to perform business tasks; tutorials that teach a user
how to use components of the system and reference manuals that allow a user to research
specific function.
Maintenance
Can account for up to 80% of programming costs.
The cost of maintenance is affected by;





It’s structure
The number of Users
The number of undiscovered errors
The quality of documentation
The skills of the maintenance team members
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The job of maintenance can be outsourced to an external organisation.
Maintenance releases are the versions of a software package released after the initial release. They
include changes to the original software. Very often a software patch is produced. A software patch
is a mini program, a brief piece of code that will make the changes to overcome a specific problem.
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Chapter 12: Backup & Recovery
Backup & Recovery Strategy
The aim of producing backups is to make sure that if data is lost from a system that it can be
recovered and the system is restored to its original state. The loss might occur because of;




A hardware fault
Accidental deletion
A natural Disaster
Deliberate actions i.e. terrorism
The strategy should cover;








The best time to back up
How often to back up
The type of backup to use
Whose responsibility it is
The media that will be used
Where the media will be kept
A log of backups taken
Testing the recovery of backed up data
RTO= the period of time after an outage within the systems and data must be restored.
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Online backup
Disk mirroring may be used to store identical data on two different disks. Whenever data is stored, it
is stored on two disks. If the main disk fails, identical data is available on the second disk. The mirror
disk does not have to be located in the same place as the original disk.
RAID; Redundant array of inexpensive disks
Is a fault-tolerant system which uses a set of two or more disk drives instead of one disk to store
data. By using two disks to store the same data, a fault in a disk is less likely to affect the system.
Risk Analysis
Risk analysis plays an important part in counteracting potential threats to ICT systems. The
continuing operation of any organisation depends on its managements awareness of potential
disasters and their ability to develop a plan that will minimise disruptions and ensure successful
recovery.
It involves:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Identifying each element of an information system
Placing a value on that element
Identifying any threats to that element
Assessing the likelihood of threats occurring.
Businesses should consider the potential threats to the data, the vulnerability of the data and the
value of the data to the business. Risk analysis compares the vulnerability to threats and the cost of
potential losses.
Data recovery Plan
Several levels need to be considered;




Partial or full loss of data
Loss of data & applications software
Loss of data, applications software & operating system
Loss of everything.
A recovery plan needs to be put together in place for every level of failure; this needs regular testing.
Disaster Recovery & Contingency Planning
There is much that can go wrong when using an ICT-based system, it is important that any potential
problems are identified before they occur and appropriate measures are taken to minimise their
occurrence. This is known as disaster avoidance.
A fault tolerant computer has extra hardware, such as memory chips, processors and disk storage in
parallel. Special software routines or built-in self-checking logic detects any hardware failures and
34 | P a g e
automatically switches to the backup device. Detectors can be placed with CO2 extinguishers;
fireproof safes can be available for disks & backup tapes.
Uninterruptible power supply’s and standby generators prevent loss of power supply.
Planning for Recovery from Disaster
A contingency plan or disaster recovery plan sets out what to do to recover from a failure. It is a
planned set of actions that can be carried out if things go wrong so that disruption is minimised. The
contingency plan or disaster recovery plan sets out what to do to recover from a failure.
The contingency plan covers equipment, data, staff and business functions. The plan chosen
depends on;






The size of an organisation & its systems
The method of processing
The length of time before the alternative system needs to be up and running
The financial losses sustained
The cost of the backup & recovery options
The likelihood of the disaster happening
Contents of a contingency Plan





Alternative computer hardware
Backup Procedures
Recovery Procedures
Staff Responsibilities
Alternative Working Location
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Options for recovery
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Chapter 13; Training Users
Types of Training & Methods
Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Face-to Face or
instructor led: On the
job or in external
classroom courses
On the job



Questions can be answered
Immediate feedback/help
More interaction





Time spent observing colleague
Realistic setting

In-house courses







Lower cost is run by employees
Tailored needs are met
Employees do not have to travel
Learn when & where they want
Immediate access to help
Convenience
Some are free/ others cheap




Provided by software package (F1)
Natural language: user friendly
Availability, Quick, free
E-learning
Online Tutorials
On screen help
37 | P a g e
Expensive
Has to be planned in advance
Things can be forgotten if not
practised
Often difficult to learn when
dealing with everyday stresses of
the job



The managers may not have the
specialist knowledge
May lack facilities
Lack of employee enthusiasm
Demanding of network resources

See above
Paper based material


Step by step instructions
Work at their own pace


Vary in quality, not a good source
Hard to follow
Chapter 14; Supporting Users
On-site help
Call-out Support
When a software house supplies and installs a
large, new, bespoke system for an organisation,
considerable support is likely to be needed for the
first few weeks. New users will need guidance
from the software house’s development team in
its use. At this stage, unforeseen errors may occur
in the software and modifications may need to be
mad. This is the most expensive option
Less wide-ranging, cheaper method of support. A
service will make a technician ready to go on-site
to an organisation.
It can be expensive for the software house to
provide call-out support but it’s crucial that a
customer does not have to wait too long for help
to arrive; otherwise confidence will be lost in the
product.
Telephone Help Desks
Email Support
May be available during business hours. It is likely
that the software will have a large number of
operators.
These are sometimes monitored using call logging
giving as unique call reference number. A
computerised database of known errors and their
solutions, together with frequently asked
questions could take the form of an expert
If a problem is not time-critical, email could be
used as an alternative. This has the advantage of
soothing out demand.
A priority system can be used to ensure more
critical enquiries are answered first. Operators
spend their time finding solutions without
telephone interruption.
Lacks human interaction, instant messaging can
38 | P a g e
system.
Number of calls per hour, response time, time
taken to resolve and number of repeat calls are
often recorded.
be used to resolve this.
User Guides
On-Screen Help
Typically provided free with software. May come
in a hard or soft copy form.
May describe how to install the programs and
explain how to perform common tasks.
Wizards can be provided to make complex
procedures within the package easier by breaking
down the tasks into clear manageable steps.
This helps to prevent user error during data input
and is more suitable for novice users.
Online Support
Package Credibility
Information can be kept very up to date and users
can access patches to fix errors.
Online self-help groups are available i.e. a bulletin
board, discussion forum or a thread. Other users
will share their knowledge to help others.
It is not cheap for companies to provide and staff
a customer help desk. The provision of user
support reassures customers about the product
which makes them more likely to buy it.
A poor quality product could result in thousands
of expensive help-desk calls.
39 | P a g e
Support Options for Industry Standard Packages






Online
Faqs
Newsletters
Support articles
Bulletin boards
User groups: users get together to solve problems ( for complex software)
Documentation
Documentation consists of written material that provides information on how to use a software
package. The documentation quality is often a considered criterion when choosing software.
Different types of user will have differing documentation needs. The technical support team will
need documentation that provides installation instructions using disk peripheral devices whereas a
data entry clerk will need functional instructions.
Factors to consider when choosing a support option





Skill level: Experienced users need less help with everyday functions
Whether the new system is different from the one it replaces
How critical the system is: The more critical it is, the more fast expertise is needed
The number of employees: Access to external help desks if small numbers
The patterns of work: Night shift, call out work available
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Chapter 15: External & internal Resources
Using external services and support

Outsourcing
Outsourcing is the subcontracting of aspects of the business to an external organisation or
agency. Functions which may be outsourced include testing & payroll or backup. Reasons for
outsourcing include cost or for the expertise. Outsourcing can also improve e on overall
company performance.

Off shoring
When an organisation purchases services in one country to be provided in another,
this is called off shoring. Most offshoring places take place in locations such as Africe
& China. This improves businesses profitability. An example of this is the HSBC bank
has set up a section in India where it has 2000 employees working on back office
operations.

Service level agreement;
A service level agreement is a contract that is made between a company obtaining a service
and the company providing it. It specifies the nature, scope and quality that is needed to be
provided.

Bulk printing
Specialist companies provide a service to carry out bulk printing, for example a payroll and
billing system. These companies have high speed, high quality printers that enable them to
print at much higher speeds , they also have equipment which folds and places documents
in envelopes.
Ways of obtaining services

Contracting: Way of acquiring human resources, space or equipment. Individuals who work
at freelance can be hired on a specific task. Contractors are often used to take on a role in
developing a new system or in testing.

Leasing
A lease is an agreement whereby one person or organisation hires a particular asset. Hiring
equipment or office space avoids the capital cost that is involved in owning it. The hire costs
require regular payments from, income. Standard software can be leased; the costs cover
41 | P a g e
any maintenance and upgrades that become available.
Managing internal resources
Hardware:
Any organisation should have a procurement policy that specifies how decisions concerning
hardware acquisition should be decided. Hardware can be purchased outright or leased. Once the
hardware arrives on site, details should be entered into an inventory. An inventory is an itemised
catalogue of all hardware held by an organisation. It is likely to be held in database management
software and is very important that they are kept up to date. Data recorded includes







Serial number
Description
Supplier
Date of purchase
Purchase Price
Location
Maintenance Agreements
Software
if bespoke software is used, very careful management of software development will be needed.
Training and reference manuals will need to be kept up to date whenever changes are made. When
off the shelf software is purchased: licence agreements must be kept.
Communication Resources
An organisation may have WAN lines, leased lines or may have access to a WAN via the internet. The
hardware that is required for a network infrastructure will need to be set up and maintained.
The type of communications link that an organisation uses is important to the quality and speed of
communications.
Consumables
these are the regular minor items that need to be purchase for an Ict system such as paper & ink. An
organisation will need to manage the reordering & distribution of consumables appropriate
trustworthy suppliers need to be contacted.
Facilities
Organisations need buildings to house their computer hardware and provide office space for
employees. These can also be owned or leased. Rooms that house alot of electronic equipment may
need to have air conditioning installed and cables need to be safely installed.
People
While most people use ICT as part of their job, there are some roles which are specifically related to
ICT systems. A large organisation will have its own ICT support team of technicians who will manage
the network, organise backups, install & monitor use of software and hardware. There is likely to be
42 | P a g e
a staffing structure with specific areas of responsibility and chain of command. Support staff will
need to be provided with appropriate training on a regular basis.
Pre-Release
Overview notes






Scarlett Price wants to create and operate a large youth community centre
A derelict warehouse has been purchased as the venue
She wants to recruit teams of graduates; Designers, Administrators & Professionals.
These will be recruited via a TV program
The ICT team selection is about to begin
She has grown up in the town of the warehouse
The Vision



Multi-purpose hall on the ground floor
Gym, squash courts, cafe and meeting rooms on the second floor
The upper floor will be turned into accommodation for staff and guests
Key quotes about the task




“I want lots of ideas about the ICT that could be used to help us succeed”
“Don’t give me an insecure ICT facility where data can be lost”
“Useful if we could track and record every business trader”
“Speak to the administration team”
Team Hope
How they approached the task





Established the business goals with the administration team and produced a joint document
Obtained information about the available finance from this
Interviewed the administration team to determine the functionality.
Discussed the project with a focus group: Youth group leaders. Market research
Formulated a strategy based on requirements and available finance
What they recommend





A package system: Within budget and would fit requirements
A CRM facility: meet the need to record customer details
A booking system: Hotel rooms & functions
Accounting System for the administration team
Mailing system: post forthcoming events
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Provision of ICT




No internal: all outsourced. A SLA agreement will be made
Five year contract: better deal with a seven year
ICT manager needed to monitor the work of the outsourcing
Wireless facility
Pros







Cons
They listened to Scarlet prices vision
Discussed & acknowledged budget
Interviewed the User
Discussed with focus group
Taken into consideration each aspect of
the business including bookings
Noted the fact that a bespoke system is
out of scope
Considered a SLA agreement




Alot of systems in place
No time frame specified
Outsourced contract: may find the company
isn’t reliable
The systems may not work together as they
are on different platforms, unless a software
house is purchased
Team Endurance
How they approached the task




Established the business goals without the administration team
Researched online
Asked for help from a university professor
Formulated a strategy by themselves
What they recommend



Bespoke system; meets requirements precisely
The system will record all contacts, including mobile phone information and details of social
networking sites used.
Used to contact past customers and promote future events
Provision of ICT


Recruit 12 staff
All in-house
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

Computer suite in warehouse
Off site Data store
Pros


Cons
Off site data store provides protection
against disasters
Researched online






Did not consider Budget: too many staff,
expensive bespoke system
Formulated goals without the user
Did not consider a timeframe: two years to
implement
Did not consider the space for this, Scarlet
wants a community centre and not an office
Did not consider the data protection act (Up
to date, Relevant)
Asked for help: lack of coordination
Pre release notes
1. What is a business Administrator
somebody who presides over the daily operations of an organisation. They oversee all the
functions relating to managing a business i.e. planning, controlling, staffing and
organising. They work closely with all the departments and sometimes with external
bodies.
2. What is meant by an ICT professional
Somebody who works within the industry in ICT, they may have specific qualifications and
expertise in the development, maintenance and support of ICT systems.
3. What makes an effective team
Leadership, co-ordination, mix of skills, agree to standards, effective communication,
adequate planning
4. ICT facilities
The physical infrastructure that provides ICT hardware i.e. RC14 is a room of 30 PCs as a
facility. Or a room which holds the servers & the network equipment
5. What is an ICT system
A setup consisting of hardware, software, data, information and the people who use it
6. Factors for a successful project
Management involvement, End user involvement, Effective Teamwork
45 | P a g e
7. Factors for unsuccessful Development
Inadequate analysis, Unrealistic Project plan, Insufficient Monitoring, Lack of standards,
Loss of control
8. Threats to data
Physical Failure, Hardware, Software, Telecoms, Computer Crime/Abuse, Invalid Data/
Inaccuracy, System Design Failure.
9. How to Secure Data
Password, Biometrics, Train Staff, Lock Doors/windows, alarms, encryption software, audit
trailing
10. What is a business Goal
The overall aims of the business i.e. to cater for 300000 youths over 3 years
11. Publicise
Online advertising, Social Networking, Posters, Gather addresses & mail merge, Video on
java, emailing and texts to existing customers about forthcoming events.
12. What is an ICT strategy
The strategy is what helps a business achieve its goals, it often defines what the business
needs to do to be successful, influences on the strategy are;
Goals, Available Finance, Legacy Systems, Geography of clients, Business fulfilment,
Structure
13. Methods of communication
Formal= the flow created by procedures of an organisation i.e memos, presentations
Informal is unstructured and naturally arising i.e from phone calls.
The flows need to be planned so that the information arrives where and when it is
needed- the size, type and structure depend on this.
A hierarchical structure requires careful planning otherwise information can become
distorted.
14. What is a fully integrated Bespoke System
A bespoke system is a system tailored to the user’s needs- these are expensive and time
consuming to make.
15. Package Software
Multiple software programs that work together from the same platform and therefore
sold together. Also known as a software suite. Off the shelf software which is already set.
Advantages: don’t need an in-house development team, cheaper option, time savings
16. CRM
Customer relationship management software allows a business to collect, update and
46 | P a g e
maintain all its data within one centralised location. Customer details could be recorded
and the information is accessible to everyone within the company that needs customer
information.
Up to date information helps provide better service
Increases customer satisfaction
Reduces costs, wastage and complaints
17. Booking Systems
Is a form of transaction processing system, it is used where the input needs to be dealt
with straight away. Each transaction is processed individually in line with the main system.
18. MIS
Uses operational-level data to provide management level information. The data can come
from both internal & external sources and is combined in a n easy to read understandable
way. This information is used by senior management to make strategic decisions. It is
usually based on one or more database and allows people access at different levels.
An executive information system is a form of MIS; this provides aggregated information
for senior management. The manager can dive deeper by using hotspots. The information
presented is often compared with previous years.
19. Outsourcing
The moving of a particular process or function to an external organisation i.e. bulk
printing. A business may not have the facility to print out large graphics or business cards
and an external company could provide the outsourcing for this.

Service level agreement
A service level agreement is a contract that is made between a company obtaining a service
and the company providing it. It specifies the nature, scope and quality that is needed to be
provided.
20. Wireless Internet access
Don’t physically need a pc. Accessing systems on the internet without having to be
physically connected by a cable connect; they connect via a wireless hub.
21. Data storage
An off-site data store is where all the data is stored externally- this could be provided by
another company or be done via cloud computing
22. Strategy should cover
When
How often
47 | P a g e
Type
Testing
Who
Which Media
Where
23. What is hot desking
This is where employees do not have their own desks, but are in a different space each
day? Hot desking relies on advanced systems with flexible technology.
Recommendations
ERP to integrate the information which incorporates all the different sections, this will make the data
easier to share between different. As it is already integrated the system is already designed to be
able to share rather than needing to duplicate.
Training= Outsourcing the training. Add that as part of the provision of the software.
Hot desking wirelessly, eliminates the need for a large office and gives more space for the
community centre activities.
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24. Security Policy
First of all a security policy will be a document that, if you start work for an organisation,
you will be expected to read and understand and probably sign.
It can include many statements or rules that you, as an employee, should follow and be
aware of. The primary aim of a security policy is to ensure the security and privacy of the
data within an organisation.
Some possible inclusions:
No user can use their own USB memory stick on any work-based PC or IT system.
All users must adopt strong passwords that are at least 8 characters in length and a
combination of letters, numbers and symbols.
No user shall disclose their password to anyone, including work colleagues.
Users are expected to change their password monthly.
No user shall leave their PC/workstation unattended without logging off or locking it.
Users are expected to encrypt data when it is being transferred to another organisation this includes email. They must use the company provided encryption program.
The company reserves the right to monitor, for security purposes, any employee's email
or file access.
The employee has a responsibility to check his or her virus software is up to date and
where they suspect it isn't they must report it immediately to the IT support staff.
25. Acceptable Use policy
An Acceptable Use Policy may well include rules that cover how an employee should use
email and the internet. Some companies are stricter than others - ask yourself would you
like it if you were a boss and you were paying your workers to go on Face book, browse
for a new pair of shoes or simply email their mates. This also reduces the bandwidth of
the network and can cause congestion and slowness.
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