History and Techniques of Enameling before 1600
By Baintighearna Ruadhnait inghean Ruaidhri
(mka. Brenda Tighe)
Fig 1 Reliquary Casket, 1200 AD, France
Since it’s early beginnings, enameling has developed into a complex and diverse means of
adding decoration to everything from reliquary objects to buttons. In modern times, enameling
has become an art in and of its self, but it began as a means of mimicking precious stones.
Enameling at its most basic level is the fusing of a thin layer of glass to metal, by means of
intense heat, to create a long-lasting finish that will retain its color for centuries. Enamels are
comprised of relatively soft glass, a compound of flint or sand, red lead, and soda or potash.
This mixture, when melted together produces a clear, slightly blue or green tinged glass called
flux or frit—or, in France, fondant. The degree of hardness of the resultant glass is dependent
upon the proportions of ingredients. Harder glass fires at higher temperatures (~1600°F) and is
more durable than very soft glass, which fires at far lower temperatures (~1300°F) and is
vulnerable to breakage and erosion. The colors of enamel are achieved by the addition of
various metallic oxides and minerals when the flux mixture is in a molten state. For instance,
copper oxides produce green colored enamels, while iron oxides make red enamels and cobalt
makes blue enamels. Translucent and opaque enamels are produced by the addition of calx, a
mixture of tin and lead calcined. White enamel is produced by adding stannic and arsenious
acids to the flux, the quantity of the acid affecting the density, or opacity, of the enamel (ArtEnamelling). To make enamels the desired pigments are added to the ingredients for the frit
and fired into cakes of approximately 4-5 inches in diameter. Each cake is then pulverized into
powder, and then washed repeatedly until the run-off is clear. The powdered enamel is then
spread out onto sheets to dry.
For most of the SCA period there were two main types of enameling “cloisonné” which
originated in the area around the Mediterranean Sea, and “champlevé” which originated in
Northern Europe. Cloisonné uses wires to create compartments, called ‘cloisons’ to create a
pattern and to keep the different colors of glass from blending together or ‘bleeding’.
Champlevé is the exact opposite in that the artisan digs down into the base metal to create
channels to create patterns and prevent bleeding. These two basic techniques have given rise
to a number of diverse styles of enameling including, basse-taille, and plique-a-jour. In the
15th century, enamellists began to draw from the painterly techniques, and derived painted
enamels (Limoges technique) and grisaille.
Early History in the Mediterranean
Long before the first enamels were made glass had been used to
make beads and vessels, but cloisonné (the earliest form of
enameling) owes its beginnings to the jewelers of ancient Egypt,
who cut glass and inlaid it into gold filigree to create the
beautiful pieces demanded by the Pharaohs. The cloisonné and
filigree techniques used by the Egyptians predate the first
enamels by nearly 30 centuries (Michaelides) Filigree work
using cloisons to separate and hold gems, pieces of shell and
glass had become a very refined art, by the time the earliest
known enamels were made in the 12-13th century BC. Some of
the most impressive pieces using this technique are those found
Fig 2 Ring, 14th century BC, Cypress
in the digs from the tomb of Tutankhamun. His burial mask is
well known to people today and is a fine example of the Egyptian goldsmith’s skill. The
Egyptian pieces do not represent true enamels as the cut glass that was used in them was held
in place by means of adhesives, prongs or bezels.
Not until some unknown craftsman in Cypress discovered
that glass would adhere to metal when fired at high
temperatures, and began using this method, were the first true
enamels made (Maryon, 170). .
The earliest known examples of vitreous enamels were 6 gold
rings discovered in the tomb at Kouklia in Mycenaean that
date to the 13th century BC, and a gold scepter and an orb
discovered in the tomb at Kourion that date to the 11th
century BC. The glass used in these pieces was most likely
very carefully cut to fit into a pre-made filigree pattern of
twisted gold wires, and then fired
(Maryon, 170;
Michaelides).
Unfortunately, very few relics remain to us today to make a
testament to the early development of this technique. It is
fairly certain that enameling spread from Cypress into Greece
and from there into Europe, the Middle East and Asia, but
there is a large gap of time between these earliest artifacts
and pieces found of Greek manufacture dating to the 6th-3rd
centuries BC.
Fig 3 Golden Scepter, 11th century BC, Cypress
Western Europe
While cloisonné enameling was spreading throughout the
areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, the Celts of
Northern Europe were developing their own technique of
enameling. Champlevé enameling is in many ways the exact
opposite of cloisonné enameling. In this technique, channels
are gouged or cast out of a base metal to create recesses for
the glass. Copper or bronze were more often used as base
metal for this technique, due to the need for thicker backing
material that could be cut away or cast to create channels.
These pieces were often gilded to create the appearance of
gold once finished. It is uncertain how much influence the
enameling techniques of the southern peoples may have had
Fig 4 Reliquary Box, c. 1250-1300, on
the early Celts development of enamel decoration, but we
Limoges, France
do know that by the time Caesar’s troops conquered the British
Isles the use of enameling to decorate everything from horse trappings to household items was
commonplace.
The Birdlip mirror, a bronze mirror buried with its owner near Gloucester, England in
approximately 50 AD, is comprised of chased and worked curvilinear patterns. Traces of red
enamel can still be found in protected recesses of the design. (Art. Birdlip Mirror) Philostratus,
of the 2nd century AD, describes a boar hunt at which the riders appear with horse trappings
ornamented in bright colors, “It is said that the barbarians in the ocean [i.e., the Celtic tribes]
pour these colors into bronze moulds, that the colors become as hard as stone, preserving the
designs.” (EBO-4) This quote would seem to indicate that the process of enameling was
unfamiliar to the writer and was not in practice in Italy or Greece during this time period. The
use of champlevé enameling remained quite common in
Northwestern Europe, until the 12th century.
The Sutton Hoo boat burial dating to the 7th century AD,
represents a vast treasure trove of
these, ornaments on the hanging bowls (most likely of
Celtic manufacture) represent some of the most intricate
champlevé work of the period (Sutton Hoo art. 2).
The champlevé technique remained the dominant form
throughout Western Europe for the majority of the
medieval period, and the cloisonné technique fell
completely out of use there by the end of 12th century.
Fig 5 Champleve Medallions, 7th Century, Celtic
Byzantium
Enameling is found in Byzantium dating from the 6th
century, and the techniques of Byzantine artists were
being copied by Lombardy artisans as early as the 7th
century and were later copied by artisans in Italy and
Sicily. The famous Alfred Jewel, made to the order of the
English king Alfred the Great in the 9th century AD,
shows strong Byzantine influence. (EBO-7)
The cloisonné technique used by the Byzantine craftsman
differed from that of their western neighbors in that it was
invariably executed on thin sheets of gold. The pattern
outline was often chased into the gold and then cloisons
were built into the channels created in the backing
material.
The artifacts most commonly found are of a religious
nature, primarily crucifixes and miniatures of saints.
Fig 6 Cross Pendant, ca. 1080–1130, Constantinople
The 10th-11th centuries represent the hey-day of Byzantine enameling. The masterwork of the
era is widely held to be the alter screen “Pala d'Oro” in St. Mark's, Venice. It is believed to
have been brought from Constantinople to Venice about 1105. (EB0-7) Byzantine enamels
were traded widely and can be found as far away as Italy and France. By the 12th century the
quality of Byzantine enamels was on the decline.
Fig 7 Pala d’Oro, 1105, Constantinople
Eastern Europe
Fig 8 Temple pendant, 1000-1200 AD, Kiev
Artifacts variously dated from the 2nd-9th centuries BC were
found in a cemetery in the Kuban (near the Caucasus). The
oldest of these artifacts (variously dated from the 7th-8th
century BC), known as the “Maikop belt buckle”, is now
thought by Russian experts to be a forgery (EBO-5). Given
the other artifacts found at the site the emergence of enameling
in southern Russia dates to the 2nd-3rd century BC. Enameling
gained popularity during the Kievan Rus period (862 AD-1200
AD) and Russia remains the home of some of the most
fabulous enamels known to us today. The enameling of the
Kievan Rus period is executed in a very similar manner to
Byzantine enamel work of the time period.
The Middle East
Some scholars state that there is very little evidence of the use of
enameling within the Islamic cultures before 1600 AD. (EBO13); however Sultan Hasan (reigned 1344–51 AD and 1354–61
AD) of Cairo, is known to have commissioned hundreds of
enameled lamps for his mosques. (Lane-Poole, 221) These
lamps were suspended by chains and filled with oil to illuminate
the mosque. The style of these lamps was very similar to that
practiced in Byzantium. Those scholars who doubt that these
artifacts were manufactured within the Islamic culture believe
that they were commissioned from Byzantine workshops. (EBO5).
F
Fig 9 Mosque Lamp, c. 1360, Egypt
The Far East
Although it is fairly certain that the Chinese were
introduced to the concept of the manufacture of glass
as early as the 5th century AD, the earliest enameled
artifact of Chinese manufacture dates to the T'ang
dynasty (618–907). This artifact, a silver mirror with
a back decorated in cloisonné enamels and most
likely of Chinese manufacture, is now housed in the
Shoso-in (principal storehouse) at Nara, Japan
represents the only piece that can be dated to earlier
than the 14th century. The reign of the last emperor
of the Yu’an period (1333-68) ushered in the true
beginnings of enameling in the Far East. The finest
works of this time period came slightly later during
Fig 10 Tripod Incense Burner, c. 1400-50 AD, China
the Ming period (1368-1644 AD). The bold designs
and clarity of color produced by the Ming artisans remains unsurpassed.
The Development of New Techniques
Italian artisans created a new technique called “basse-taille” in
the 13th century. This technique consists of first creating a
low-relief sculpture sunken below the surface level, and then
covering the whole in transparent enamel. This both magnifies
and protects the design. The earliest known piece date from
1290, a gold chalice made for the Convent of St Francis of
Assisi, but references to this technique date as early as 1286.
Relief patterns were created by either carving, casting or
chasing the backing material. In the 14th century the most
common means of creating the relief sculpture over which to
create basse-taille enamels was by chasing the backing
material. Due to the nature of the technique, it was not
necessary for the person doing the chasing to have a great deal
of skill in the technique (Maryon, 186-7).
Fig 11 Reliquary Pendant, c 1370-90, France
Plique-a-jour enameling is a direct descendant of the cloisonné technique, wherein a network
of wires is shaped and soldered together to create a framework for the enamels. In plique-ajour, however, the framework and enamels do not have a backing. The pieces are created
either using a backing material that the enamels will not fuse to (ie. Mica or Aluminumbronze) or a resist material (usually clay slip) is used to coat the backing material. (Cellini, 1314) This creates the effect of a miniature stained glass window. It’s beauty is derived both
from the intricacy of the it’s wirework and the luminescence of the glass as light passes
through it. The oldest recorded piece of plique-a-jour enameling was created in the 13th
century. Unfortunately, due to the delicacy of pieces created with this technique, there is only
one piece created before 1600 that remains to us today. The Merode Cup (Fig 15) dates to the
15th century, and is now housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
Up to this point, enameling was in many ways simply a
part of the jeweler’s craft. In the 15th century, artisans
began to draw on the painterly techniques of the time and
developed a completely new art form, painted enamels. In
all of the centuries that came before, artisans has always
sought to separate and define the colors of enamels by the
use of metal frameworks and channels. It was probably
Flemish artisans who originally developed the technique
and it was later developed by Venetian artisans, but by the
16th century the workshops of Limoges were the
undisputed masters of painted enamels. (EBO-1) So much
so, that even today painted enameling is often referred to
as “Limoges work”. Painted enamels are executed by first
firing a layer of white or other light colored enamel on
both the front and back of a panel. Enamels are then mixed Fig 12 Deposition in the Tomb, late 15th/early 16th
with a small amount of lavender oil to create thin vanishes. Century, Limoges
which can then be applied in the same manner as other paints. These panels are then fired
repeatedly, as layer upon layer of enamels are built up to create depth and luminescence in the
composition. Painted enamels have the advantage of durability over their oil or tempura
counterparts, as their colors do not fade over the centuries. The painted enamels of the 15th
century are as vibrant and colorful today as they were the day they were fired; however, they
are limited by the size of the kilns or furnaces available in which to fire them.
Summary of Enameling Techniques
Cloisonné
The word cloisonné comes from the Old French meaning
‘cloison’ meaning room or partition.
Cloisonné
enameling uses a framework of wires to define spaces,
called ‘cloisons’, to create a pattern within the define and
to separate the different colors of enamels. These wires
are then either soldered into place or held static by the
glass itself.
Cloisonné is the earliest form of enameling, dating from
the 13th century BC. It originated in Cypress, and spread
from there into Greece. Cloisonné was widely used
through out the medieval time period and was developed
extensively by the artisans of Byzantium and later by
th
Fig 13 The Kingston Brooch, 7 century, England those in Russia. In the , and gave rise to the plique-a-jour
technique in the 14th century.
Braided Cloisonné enameling uses the same techniques, but uses braided or twisted wire to
make the cloisons.
Champlevé
Fig 14 Chariot Trappings, c 200-400 AD, by
Provincial Roman
The word champlevé is derived from the French words
‘champ leve’ meaning raised field.
Champlevé
enameling creates recesses for enameling by etching,
carving, casting or chasing the backing material. Because
of the need to remove or mould large amounts of
material, this technique was typically done on less
expensive materials, such as copper or bronze. It was
quite often gilded once the enameling was done to give
the appearance of gold. Champlevé enameling was
invented and widely used by the Celts in northern
Europe. It is uncertain when this technique was
developed, but it was in use by the 3rd century BC, and
the time Julius Caesar’s troops invaded the British Isles
it was being used widely and was to become the dominant
form of enameling in western Europe.
Plique-a-jour
Plique-a-jour means ‘braid letting in daylight’. Plique-ajour uses the same techniques as cloisonné, except that
once fired the enamel and wires are removed from the
backing they are fired on, creating a stained glass window
effect in miniature. This technique was developed in the
late 14th- early 15th century in France. Due to the delicacy
of this technique only one extant example is in existence
today. The Mérode cup now housed in the Victoria and
Albert Museum dates from the 15th Century and is thought
to be of Flemish or Burgundian origin.
Fig 15 The Merode Cup, 15th century, French
Basse Taille
Basse taille comes from the French meaning ‘low cutting’.
Basse taille uses the same basic techniques as champlevé,
except that instead of making simple channel cuts in the
base metal create a low relief sculpture that is made at a
slightly lower depth than the outmost rim. The relief
sculpture is created either through carving, chasing or
casting. In the 14th century, it was most common for the
sculptures to be created by chasing. The recess is filled
with transparent glass, which magnifies the relief sculpture
under it. This technique originated in the 13th century in
Italy.
Fig 16 Valve of Mirror, c 1350, France
Encrusted enameling (or émail en ronde bosse)
Encrusted enameling is used on 3-dimensional objects.
This technique uses innovative methods of wrapping the
piece to prevent distortions during the firing process,
including elaborate armatures and packing the piece in
plaster of Paris. This technique originated in the mid-16th
century, and although it was quickly put into practice
throughout Europe, Benvenuto Cellini of Florence was the
only artisan to have written a technical treatise on the
subject.
Fig 17 Saltcellar. 1540, Benvenuto Cellini, Florence
Painted enamels
Painted enamels draw from the painterly techniques of the
time, and differ from other enameling techniques in that it does
not use strips of metal to prevent the blurring or mixing of
colors. Transparent enamels were mixed with oil, and applied
to a backing that had been first coated with a layer of white
enamel. The piece was fired many times to create the shading
and variation in colors. This technique is believed to have been
created by Flemish artisans for the Burgundian court in the
early 15th century, but the artisans of Limoges are so noted for
this style that it is often referred to as ‘Limoges technique’.
Fig. 18 The Annunciation, c 1500, Limoges, France.
Grisaille
Grisaille comes from the French "gris" meaning gray.
Grisaiille enameling is a painted enamel that is done on a black
enameled backing, and the patterns are executed by coating the
plate with a layer of white enamel. Before the plate is fired,
the white enamel is scratched through to reveal the black layer
beneath it. The design is outlined and areas are crosshatched
to create shading. The result after firing is a layer of gray
enamel over black outlines. This process is repeated to create
a low relief wherein the white parts of the design are
Fig 19 The Wedding Feast of Cupid
and Psyche, 1558 Pierre
Reymond
composed of several layers of white enamel glaze. This
technique originated in the early 16th century in Limoges.
In Conclusion
Over the centuries enameling has evolved from its very humble beginnings as a simple piece
of glass glued to a piece of jewelry. It has developed into an independent artform, and has
given rise to many different genres of enamels. The concept has spread into nearly every
country and culture, and has adapted to the cultural aesthetic of each culture.
Today, it is common to find enamelwork in everything from keychains and figurines to
architectural elements in people’s homes and Faberge eggs.
Photo Notations and Credits
1. Enameled Casket depicting Christ in majesty, surrounded of the Virgin, apostles and
angels, 1200 AD, the Municipal Museum of Evêché
http://www.premiumwanadoo.com/sahl/document.htm
2. One of 6 gold rings found in the tomb of Kouklia, Cyprus, 14th century BC
The Earliest Cloisonne Enamels from Cyprus by Dr. Panicos Michaelides; Glass on
Metal, Volume 8, Number 2, April 1989
3. The scepter found in the tomb of Kouklia, Cyprus, 11th century BC
The Earliest Cloisonne Enamels from Cyprus by Dr. Panicos Michaelides; Glass on
Metal, Volume 8, Number 2, April 1989
4. Reliquary casket, c. 1250-1300, France, Limoges, Champlevé enamel on copper, 3-5/8
x 3-1/8 x 1-3/4 in. (9.0 x 7.7 x 4.2 cm), Kimball Art Museum, Fort Worth, TX
http://www.kimbellart.org/database/index.cfm?detail=yes&ID=AP%201979.27
5. Champleve enameled medallion from a hanging bowl, Sutton Hoo boat Burial
http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ3924
6. Cross Pendant, ca. 1080–1130, Byzantine; Made in Constantinople, Gold and enamel worked
in cloisonné; H. 1 1/8 in. (2.9 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/byza/ho_1998.542.htm
7. Pala d’Oro, 1105, Constantinople, currently in St. Mark's, Venice.
http://www.antiquorum.com/vox/june_2002/enameling/enameling.htm
8. Temple Pendant with Two Birds Flanking the Tree of Life, ca. 1000–1200 AD, Kievan
Rus'; Kiev, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/07/eue/hod_17.190.679.htm
9. Mosque lamp, c 1360, Egypt
http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/islamic/figural1a.htm
10. Tripod Incense Burner, about 1400-50 AD, Cloisonné enamel on gilt-bronze, 19 cm
width, Compton Verney Gallery, Warwickshire, England
http://www.comptonverney.org.uk/?page=collections/china/tripodIncense.html
11. Panel-The Deposition in the Tomb, late 15th-early 16th century, Hermitage Museum, St.
Petersburg, Russia
http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/04/2005/hm4_1_110_0.html
12. Reliquary Pendant portraying Saint Catherine of Alexandria, silver gilt and basse-taille
enamel, c. 1370-90, Louvre Museum, Paris, France. (Phillips, plate 55)
13. The Kingston Brooch, cloisonné enamels, garnets, shell, 7th century, Liverpool
Museum, Ireland
http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/wml/humanworld/antiquities/anglosaxon/kingsto
n_brooch.asp
14. Chariot Trappings, 200-400 AD, Provincial Roman, possibly Thrace, Metropolitan
Museum, New York, NY
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gaul/ho_2000.505a-o.htm
15. The Merode Cup, 15ht century, France, Victoria and Albert Museum, South
Kensington, England
http://www.vam.ac.uk/images/image/4427-popup.html
16. Valve of Mirror, c 1350, France, Louvre Museum, Paris, France
http://www.insecula.com/oeuvre/O0007811.html
17. Saltcellar of Francis I, encrusted enamel and gold, by Benvenuto Cellini, 1540
www.answers.com/topic/benvenuto-cellini
18. The Annunciation, enamel painted on copper (width 11.2 cm x height 18 cm), c 1500,
Limoges, France, private collection
http://www.vam.ac.uk/images/image/13409-popup.html
19. The Wedding Feast of Cupid and Psyche, 1558, Pierre Reymond (French, 1513–after 1584),
Enamel on copper; 19 3/4 x 15 1/4 in. (50 x 38.5 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
NY
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/valo_2/hod_1984.195.htm
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Cellini, Benvenuto, translated by Ashbee, C.R., The Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini on
Goldsmithing and Scupture; Kessinger Publishing, 2006
Lane-Poole, Stanley; The Art of the Saracens in Egypt; Chapman and Hall, limited; 1886
Liban, Felicia and Mitchell, Louise; Cloisonne Enameling and Jewelry Making; Dover, 1980.
Maryon, Herbert; Metalwork and Enamelling; , 1971.
Michaelides, Panicos Dr.; The Earliest Cloisonne Enamels from Cyprus; Glass on Metal,
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Phillips, Clare; Jewelry; From Antiquity to the Present; Thames and Hudson, 1996
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Patrizzi, Osvaldo, A Brief History of Enameling, Vox Antiquarum, parts I & II
1- http://www.antiquorum.com/vox/june_2002/enameling/enameling.htm
2- http://www.antiquorum.com/html/vox/vox2003/enameling/enameling.htm
Encyclopedia Britannica Online articles:(EBO)
1- Enamelwork 15th century to the present: European- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74081
2- Enamelwork China- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74082
3- Enamelwork- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108354
4- Enamelwork Western European- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74080
5- Enamelwork, Ancient Western- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74076
6- Enamelwork, Basse-taille- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74071
7- Enamelwork, Byzantine- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74078
8- Enamelwork, Champlevé- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74070
9-Enamelwork, China, Champlevé- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74084
10-Enamelwork, China, Cloisonné- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74083
11-Enamelwork, Cloisonné- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74069
12-Enamelwork, Encrusted enameling- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74073
13-Enamelwork, Islamic- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74079
14-Enamelwork, Japan- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74086
15-Enamelwork, Materials and techniques- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74068
16-Enamelwork, Painted enamels- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74074
17-Enamelwork, Plique-à-jour- http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-74072
The Birdlip Mirrorhttp://www.gloucester.gov.uk/Content.aspx?urn=1278
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2-http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ3924
“Enamelling”, The Household Cyclopedia
http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/enamelling.html
“Arts of the Islamic World- Abstract Design”, National Museum of Asian Art
http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/islamic/figural1a.htm