Title: Challenges in Managing Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome in Special Populations:
Focus on the Surgical and Elderly Patients.
Joanna Piechniczek-Buczek, MD
Department of Psychiatry Boston University School of Medicine
Alcohol Medical Scholars Program (Slide1)
I.
INTRODUCTION (Slide 2)
A. Alcohol misuse is common in the general population
1. 80 % lifetime alcohol use1
2. 15 % lifetime alcohol abuse
3. 10 % lifetime alcohol dependence2
B. Alcohol Use Disorders (AUD) of abuse or dependence common among
1. Medical inpatients ~ 20%3
2. Surgical Patients: ~ 43% otorhinolaryngological patients; 50%
gastrointestinal tract cancer patients4
3. Trauma patients ~ 40% -50% intoxicated; 94% of those with intoxication have
substance abuse or dependence
5
4. Elderly ~ 17%6
C. Alcohol abuse, dependence, withdrawal: DSM IV TR definitions 7 (Slide 3)
1. Abuse: repeated alcohol–related problems in same 12 months with 1+ :
a. Inability to fulfill role obligations
b. Use in physically hazardous situations
c. Legal problems
d. Social or interpersonal difficulties
e. Never dependent
2. Dependence: repeated alcohol-related problems over 12 months with 3 +:
a.
Tolerance
b.
Withdrawal
c. Use heavier or longer than intended
d.
Desire and inability to cut down
e. Activities aborted
1
f. Long time spent in alcohol-related activities
g. On-going use despite consequences
3.
Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome (AWS) 2 +: (Slide 4)
a. Autonomic hyperactivity
b. Tremor
c. Insomnia
d. Nausea or vomiting
e. Hallucinations or illusions
f. Agitation
g. Anxiety
h. Grand mal seizures
D. Risk factors for severe alcohol withdrawal: (Slide 5)
1. Quantity and frequency of intake (large amounts over long period of time) 8
2. Number and severity of prior episodes
3. Use of other substances9
4. Medical/surgical co-morbidity10
5. Elevated Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)11
6. High severity of withdrawal upon presentation12
7. Advanced age13
E. Development of AWS associated with: (Slide 6)
1. More complicated hospital stay
2. Longer stay
3. ↑ need of intensive care14
4. ↑ mortality
F. This lecture will cover: (Slide 7)
1. Neurobiology of Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome (AWS)
2. Signs and symptoms of AWS
3. Evaluation of patients
4. Treatment- general principles
5. Special considerations in:
a. Surgical/ trauma patients
2
l
b. Geriatric patients
(Slide 8)
II. NEUROBIOLOGY OF ALCOHOL
A. Acute effects of alcohol: (Slide 9)
1.  activity at GABA A receptor 15
2.
 glutamate transmission at NMDA receptor
3. dopamine
4.  norepinephrine synthesis and release
5. ↑ effect of serotonin at 5HT3 receptor
6.  beta endorphins levels / µ binding
B. Chronic effects of alcohol:
1. Down- regulation of GABA receptors 16
2. Up-regulation of NMDA receptors
3. Down-regulation of dopamine receptors
4. Serotonin depletion
5.  postsynaptic receptor norepinephrine sensitivity
6. ↓ in β-endorphine levels / binding
C. Withdrawal (Slide 10)
1. ↑excitatory effect by: ↓ GABA, ↑ glutamate tremor, seizures
2.  norepinephrine sensitivity  autonomic instability
(Slide 11)
III.
ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS
A.
Phase I17(Slide 12)
1. Time abstinent or cut down: 6-24 hrs
2. Signs and symptoms:
a. Tremor: hands most prominent
b. ↑ autonomic activity:
3
i. ↑ blood pressure
ii. ↑ reflexes
iii. Fever
c. Insomnia
d. Nausea/vomiting
e. Sweating
f. Anxiety
B.
Phase II (Slide 13)
1. Time abstinent: 7-48 hrs
2. Signs and symptoms:
a.
Distractibility
b. Autonomic instability (↑↓heart rate, ↑↓ blood pressure)
c. Grand mal seizures
3. 5-10% lifetime risk of seizures
C.
Phase III (Slide 14)
1. Time abstinent: 72-96 hrs
2. Only in < 5%
3. Symptoms: (Delirium+ severe autonomic instability + tremor = delirium
tremens or DT)
a.
Confusion/disorientation
b.
Severe autonomic instability
c.
Auditory/tactile hallucinations
d.
Agitation
4. Mortality rate ~ 1 %18
(Slide 15)
IV.
ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL ASSESSMENT
A.
History/Interview: (Slide 16)
1. Duration of use
Chronic use (weeks, months) ↑ risk of withdrawal
2. Quantity, frequency and drinking pattern
a.
> 5-6 drinks/ day
4
b.
Daily or almost daily use
c.
Age of first use, periods of heaviest use, periods of abstinence
3. Time since last drink (~6+ hours)
4. Severity of previous withdrawals (e.g. seizures or DTs)
5. Concurrent medical/psychiatric problems
6. Social /domestic/emotional/occupational problems
B.
History/Screening tools: (Slide 17)
1. Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)
a. 10 items scale
b. Can be self administered
c. Assesses: frequency, quantity, lack of control, guilt, blackouts etc.
d. Sensitivity: 90%; Specificity: 85% at score of > 8
2. CAGE Cut down, Annoyed, Guilty, Eye opener
a.
Very brief
b.
2 or > + responses high likelihood of alcoholism
c.
Sensitivity 85%; Specificity 90%
d.
Not gender sensitive; does not identify recent or episodic use
3. Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST)
C.
a.
Structured interview
b.
25 questions
c.
Positive answers to 4 + questions suggest alcohol “problem”
Physical exam: (Slide 18)
1. Focused on identifying withdrawal symptoms (e.g. sweating, tremors, etc.)
5
2. Chronic alcohol exposure stigmata:
a. Spider angiomata-superficial spider-like cluster of capillaries,
b. Palmar erythema- reddening of the palms
c. . Hepatosplenomegaly-↑ liver and spleen
3. Assessment of possible complicating medical conditions:
a. Cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heart rate)
b. Congestive heart failure (secondary to hypertension or cardiomyopathy)
c. Gastrointestinal bleeding (blood in vomit or stool),
d. Cancer (esophagus, stomach, head and neck, lungs)
e. Liver disease (fatty liver, hepatitis, cirrhosis)
f. Pancreatitis19 (abdominal pain, ↑ pancreas enzymes e.g. amylase)
g. Nervous system impairment:
D.
i.
Central (confusion, cerebellar damage)
ii.
Peripheral (neuropathy e.g. “pins+ needles” in hands/feet)
Laboratory investigations:20 (Slide 19)
1. Blood count:↑ red blood cells size; mean corpuscular volume
(MCV) > 100
2.
Liver functions tests (LFTs)
a. ↑ Aspartate aminotransferase (AST); > 40 u/l
b.
↑ Alanine aminotransferase (ALT); > 40 u/l
c.
AST/ALT ratio > 2 e.g.  suggestive of alcoholic
liver disease;
3. ↑ Carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT) : high sensitivity
and specificity/ good indicator of early relapse: 20U or 2.6 %
4.
↑ Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT): levels↑ after 70
drinks/week for several weeks; > 35 u/l
5. Urine/serum toxicology screen: to exclude other drug use
6. Electrolytes: ↓ Na, ↓Mg  ↑ risk of seizures
7. Blood alcohol concentration (BAC):
BAC ~ 150 w/o intoxication or ~ 300 w/o somnolence
evidence of tolerance  ↑ risk of withdrawal
6
(Slide 20)
V. ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL TREATMENT21
A. General care: (Slide 21)
1. Multivitamins (MVI): 1 tablet daily
2. Thiamine: 100 mg daily
3. Folic acid: 1 mg daily
4. Fluid repletion if dehydration evident
B. Medication regimen- benzodiazepines (BZDs) 22(Slide 22)
1. First line treatment
2. BZD are effective to decrease:
a. Severity of withdrawal
b. Incidence of delirium
c. Incidence of seizures
3. Are 2 types:
a. Longer acting ( ½ life ~ 30 hours)
E.g. diazepam (Valium)
b. Shorter acting ( ½ life ~15 hours)
e.g. lorazepam (Ativan)
4. Longer acting better at preventing seizures, but  sedation
5. Two main strategies:
a. “ Fixed schedule” (Slide 23)
i. Description:
 Specific doses administered at specific intervals
 Additional doses used as needed based on the severity of
symptoms
ii. Examples:
 Lorazepam 2 mg every 4 hours;
 Diazepam 10-20 mg every 6 hours;
 Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) 25-50 mg every 6 hours
iii. Tapered gradually over several days
7
iv. Problems: over / under- medication ( too difficult to control
symptoms)
b. “Symptom–triggered” (Slide 24)
i.
Description:
 Medication given when CIWA-AR >8
 Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment, Revised (CIWAAr) - severity scale 0-7 on the following items: (Slide 25)

Nausea, vomiting

Tremor

Diaphoresis (sweating)

Anxiety

Agitation

Tactile hallucinations (touch)

Auditory hallucinations

Visual hallucinations

Headache

Orientation and clouding of sensorium (confusion)
ii. Examples:
 Lorazepam 2 mg q 1 hour for CIWA 8-13
 Lorazepam 3 mg q 1 hour for CIWA 14-20
 Lorazepam 4 mg q 1 hour for CIWA >20
iii. Problems:  cost/ staff time
C. Non-pharmacological treatments: (Slide 26)
1. Reassurance
2. Reality-orientation techniques (time, place, situation)
3. Rest/sleep
4. Adequate nutrition.
(Slide 27)
VI. ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL IN SURGICAL AND TRAUMA PATIENTS
A. Epidemiology (Slide 28)
8
1. 50-60% prevalence of alcohol abuse/dependence in trauma patients
2. 16% incident of AWS post-surgery vs. 8% in general population23
3. Pre-operative assessment/prophylaxis prevents post-operative AWS
complications in 75% of patients
4. Highest risk of DTs: in 40+ year olds and s/p fall or burn
B. Risks
1.  operative and post operative morbidity and mortality24
2. Postoperative morbidity 2-3 X ↑ if 21+ drinks/week25
3. 50% longer hospital stay
4. Poorer 3 month outcomes: infections, bleeding, cardiopulmonary
C. Challenges (Slide 29)
1. During surgery:
a. Alcohol can or sensitivity to anesthesia26
b. Alcohol ↓ coagulation
c. ↑ risk of hypoxia and poor BP control
2. After surgery:
a. Alcohol  immune functions; surgery  immunosuppression  risk of
inflammation/ infection
b. Alcohol ↑ metabolic acidosis and ↑ surgery stress response27
c. DTs often confused with28
i.
Sepsis
ii.
↓ Circulation to brain
iii.
Worsening of closed head injury
d. Autonomic instability ( e.g. ↑ or↓ blood pressure) due to alcohol
withdrawal  incorrectly attributed to traumatic injury
e. Agitation due to withdrawal
i. Challenges nursing care
ii. Risks displacement of monitors and dressings
f. Hallucinations difficult to assess in intubated patients
D. Assessment and treatment
1. History (Slide 30)
9
a. Scheduled surgeries:29
i. Good pre-operative assessment to screen for AUDs
ii. Advise abstinence if not at risk of AWS
iii. Pre-surgical detoxification should be considered if needed
b. Trauma and emergency surgeries
i. History taking difficult
ii. Collateral informants (family, friends, witnesses) important
iii. Physical exam/ laboratory findings important
2. Differential diagnosis/common surgical causes of agitation30: (Slide 31)
a.
Bleeding,
b.
Metabolic/electrolyte abnormalities
c.
Infection
d.
Pain
3. Supportive care (Slide 32)
a.
Pain management
b.
Pulmonary toileting
c.
Eliminate unnecessary catheters
d.
Early mobility
4. Pharmacological treatment31
a. BZDs
b. Symptom-triggered approach most effective
c. Dosages generally larger
(Slide 33)
VII. ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL IN THE ELDERLY:
A. Epidemiology (Slide 34)
1. 11% of elderly in acute medical settings have alcohol abuse or dependence
2. 20% in psychiatric settings
3. 14% in emergency departments
B. Risks32
10
1. Even moderate drinking in the elderly : ↑ disease burden and ↑ risk of
complicated withdrawal
2. Aging affects alcohol levels:33
a.
↓ body water ↓ volume of distribution↑ alcohol concentration
b.
↓ gastric alcohol dehydrogenase ↑ alcohol concentration
3. Alcohol ↑ risk of falls leading to hip fractures/ subdural hematomas ( bleed
under skull)
4. Alcohol interacts with many common medications
C. Challenges (Slide 35)
1. Age alone predictor of ↑ withdrawal severity34
2.
Early onset drinkers long use ↑ probability of prior withdrawals ↑
severity of AWS 35
3. Functional reserve and tolerance of physiological stressors ↓ with age36
4. ↑ risk of adverse effects from use of BZDs 37
a. Cognitive impairment38
b. Daytime sedation
c. Falls
D. Assessment and treatment (Slide 36)
1.
History:
a. Difficult because:
i.
Patient ashamed to admit
ii.
Family reluctant to share
iii.
Physicians not likely to suspect39
b. Clues that should ↑ suspicion of AUD in the elderly:
i.
Frequent falls
ii.
Bruises
iii.
Many ED visits
iv.
↑ blood pressure
v.
Depressed mood and suicidal thoughts
vi.
Insomnia
11
2. Differential diagnosis40 (Slide 37)
a. Withdrawal from other substances (e.g. BZDs, Barbiturates)
b. Delirium of other causes ( see DTs differential diagnosis described above)
c. Psychiatric conditions (anxiety, dementia, psychosis)
3. Supportive treatment (Slide 38)
a. Safe/ well lit environment
b. Gentle/empathic/ non-judgmental approach
c. Hearing aids/glasses as individually indicated
d. Extremes of sensory input- to be avoided
e. Sleep/rest/nutrition
4. Pharmacological interventions (Slide 39)
a. Shorter acting agents (lorazepam, oxazepam) preferred because:
a. No active metabolites
b. ↓ rate of side effects 41
b. Symptom-triggered approach preferred
c. For some patients (with history of sz and DTs) fixed schedule preferred
Medication held for sedation
d. Medication dosages typically lower.
(Slide 40)
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