AN UNDERSTANDING OF ABORIGINAL EXPERIENCE
IN THE CONTEXT OF COLLECTIVE TRAUMA:
A CHALLENGE FOR HEALING
Dr. David Ratnavale
Consultant Psychiatrist Glenside Hospital, Adelaide, SA
Visiting Professor Dept of Psychiatry University of Adelaide
April 27th 2007
This report is condensed summary of a power point
presentation prepared for the Aboriginal and Torres Islander
Mental Health Services of CNAHS on March 9th: 2007
OUR COMMON HUMANITY
1
From the beginning of human existence people have relied on the safety and security
which the group offers. Our ancestors were beset with stresses and strains, leaving
our species with both strengths and liabilities. Considering that many species have
faced extinction our survival represents an amazing feat.
The Aboriginal people of Australia are said to have arrived in the Australian continent
40,000 plus years ago from South Asia, and represent humankind’s marvellous
potential for adaptation, resilience and cooperation with nature. Into their DNA has
entered a myriad of talents and capacities which remain to this day among the nearly
half a million people of Aboriginal descent.
Our reliance on our collective (group) security is rarely brought to our attention unless
we are faced with some natural or human-caused disaster such as an earthquake,
tsunami, a war or even a strike. Similarly, we do not as a rule realize how much we
depend on the people around us until something goes wrong in our relationships or if
they leave us, go missing or die. It is only then that we reluctantly admit, with some
resentment, sadness even despair how much we are dependent on the harmony of
nature’s forces and our fellow beings.
Concept of balance: Although this paper dwells primarily on the traumas of our
species we might take pride in knowing that we would not have survived without
experiences that have healed the traumas, experiences that have strengthened human
capacities and the underlying indomitable human spirit. Aboriginal traditions amply
illustrate the significance of balance and maintaining harmony. (See below – chosen
triumphs)
Disasters are shared catastrophes and result from many causes, broadly divided into
natural disasters and those that are human caused. Although we usually think of them
mostly as sudden unexpected events, disasters and their harmful consequences may
last for lengthy periods.
Trauma - Individual and Collective:
Everyone understands intuitively that being caught in serious conflict can be extremely
traumatic to the individuals involved. The causes and consequences of individual
trauma have been widely studies and acknowledged, with some commonly referred to
as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Relatively little attention has been paid to the collective psychologies of societies under
stress or the appropriate strategies for healing collective trauma and restoring
community stability, health and prosperity.
Individual trauma can be understood as a blow to the psyche that breaks through
one’s defences with such intensity that the person cannot cope or respond effectively
Collective trauma is a reaction to the shock of being separated from a stable
community such that the bonds that link people together which give them a sense of
safety and security are broken.
Disasters:
Common natural disasters include earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, and typically in
Australia, droughts and bushfires.
Wars and conflicts arising from ethnic and racial conflicts and even genocide count
among human caused disasters, but there are others where humans and nature
together have contributed, such as the dangers of global warming, the landslides that
result from deforestation or when oils spills or poisons contaminate the environment.
2
Other disasters, far less recognized, but no less serious, are the long standing
circumstances of poverty, chronic illness, violent conflict, isolation and the long
standing (chronic) stressors experienced by certain indigenous and aboriginal
populations.
Yet another category of disaster risk is known as asymmetric threats. These kinds of
threats reflect asymmetry of stimulus and response, the enormous and often
unpredictable consequences of what might seem to be a small disaster stimulus. 9/11
is such an instance, where a handful of terrorists led to repercussion across the globe
or when a bioterrorist attack kills hundreds and can generate an epidemic of fear.
In all disasters, what is common is that needs overwhelm resources, demands
overwhelms supply. Hence the importance of preventing disasters and being prepared
Shared catastrophes of any kind – natural or not – represent collective traumas.
Communities as a whole are affected, life is threatened and people will suffer in all
cases, but the victims of human caused disasters appear to impact more seriously
because the perpetrator-enemy is a human agency. We might be angry that a tsunami
has caused so much death, destruction and displacement, but there is no room for
blame or retaliation.
Vamik Volcan1 reminds us that the tragedies resulting from the deliberate actions of
others must be differentiated from other types. This is because these deliberate often
cruel actions are accompanied by tremendous amounts of shared shame, shared
helplessness, shared rage and shared suffering, leading to intense and prolonged
mourning for huge losses, with reactions painful and impossible to avoid.
Collective trauma: Although disasters invariably cause both physical and mental
reactions as well as death, destruction and displacement, the term collective trauma is
more commonly applied to the psychological effects shared by a group of people of
any size, and must be distinguished from individual trauma as in PTSD- although
vulnerable individuals in any group will be prone to unique particular suffering. Indeed
the experience of group trauma is also shaped by the groups own past history,
strengths and liabilities in much the same way.
Collective triumphs or collective glories would correspondingly apply to events which
bring pride, success and satisfaction to the group (society). These may include victory
in war or periods of plenty when the people flourished, improving their economy,
developing self-sufficiency and enjoying the fruits of their successes. These periods of
success might cover extensive or short lived periods of time.
Chronic Collective trauma would be an appropriate description of the experience of
the indigenous people, oppressed minorities and groups like refugees who have lived
with suffering over extended periods of time. Their traumas may involve suffering at
the hands of enemies, conquerors (and even their own governments) as well as the
hardships endured as a result of starvation, disease or natural disasters.
Collective trauma impact: The impact of chronic collective trauma tends to set in
motion behavioral patterns which repeat the traumas of the past even to the extent of
bringing it upon themselves. This suggests that just as trauma frequently becomes a
1
Volkan, Vamık D. (1997). Bloodlines: From Ethnic Pride to Ethnic Terrorism.
New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
3
central organizing principle in the psychological structure of the individual, so too may
trauma be a central organizing principle in the psychological structure of a nation.
The Veddas of Sri Lanka
The Veddas were an indigenous people who used to wander the lush tropical green
forests and plains of the island of Sri Lanka. Living in harmony with nature - that was
kind and not separated from them - where water, wind, fire and plant life were linked to
nature’s laws, they had a strong sense of connection to elemental life forces and
shared a collective identity. The culture was buffeted by successive waves of invasion
from the Indian subcontinent followed by four hundred years of colonization by the
Portuguese, Dutch and the British. Neglect and exclusion forced them to live in a
rapidly shrinking habitat, their heritage increasingly fractured and diluted. The culture
was diluted over the years - a minority manipulated by a tradition of political lip service
or “divide and rule”.
The last Vedda Chieftain DambanaWanniya-Iaeto Chief Tissahamy who died 1998,
had a direct line of descent from the island’s original community dating back to at least
16,000 BC. Their fate was the disaster of lost generations, dwindling into the nations’
memory.
An apology from a former Sri Lankan president came far too late, for by then the
Island’s ancient aboriginal people had literally been absorbed out of existence, no
longer an identifiable cultural influence.
Aboriginal and Torres Island people:
In the case of Aboriginal and Torres Islander people whose history dates back over
40,000 years, we can never fully appreciate the intensity and duration of the traumas
they have suffered, or know of the periods of collective triumphs they must have
experienced.
Nevertheless recent evidence reveals that the Australian and Torres Island people’s
traumas are characterized by multiple deaths and diseases, expulsion from home
lands, loss of self-sufficiency and autonomy, the arbitrary removal of children and other
assimilation strategies, unlawful incarcerations and cultural suppression. The multiple
secondary harmful complications may remain hidden, deliberately concealed or denied
but now are well documented to include vulnerability to chronic disease and reduced
life expectancy.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF COLLECTIVE TRAUMA:2
 Deep mistrust of self, others, even family
 Fear and anticipation of betrayal
 Shame and humiliation
 Cultural genocide, losing traditional values, desecrating land and institutions
 Violence against women
 Self-directed violence- suicide, risk-taking behaviour
 Substance abuse
 Unremitting grief
 Intergenerational conflict-role diffusion, sexual abuse, other boundary violations
 Dependency- hostile or pathological
 Leadership vacuum
 A Conspiracy of silence - Overall attitude of secrecy
RECOGNIZING, ACKNOWLEDGING AND UNDERSTANDING DIFFERENCE
Aboriginal culture shares many features of Asian and Latin American and
Mediterranean cultures in the ways that cultural identity is valued – as illustrated in
2
The basis for these observations are the author’s own where large groups have been subject
to violent conflict, long standing stress, neglect and isolation
4
Table 2, particularly in relation to respect for elders, cooperation more than
competition, sensitivity to dignity and saving face, minimizing shaming and humiliation
and caring for the less able and poor.
Although pride and prejudice and discrimination are implied when we speak of “us”
versus “them”, differentiation and discrimination are basic to safety and security and
have a protective function. Indeed, distinctiveness and difference can be regarded as a
universal structure of human species (even other animal species) because it defines
‘us’ as a source of closeness, sharing and safety. Yet, it is common for perceived
differences (external, physical, racial and ideological) to justify discrimination.
TABLE 2:
INDIVIDUALIST vs COLLECTIVE THINKING3
INDIVIDUALIST
Think in terms of “I”
Independent self.
Oneself & immediate Family
Speaking one’s mind
Individual ownership/resources
Extroverted
Faster walking speed
To which we could add:
Emphasize uniqueness
Narcissistic
Adventurous - Self starter
Compete or control nature
Encourage risk taking
Confrontational
Single God
Private weddings/funerals
COLLECTIVIST
Think in terms of “We”
Inter-dependent self
Extended family
Speaks one’s mind with caution
Shared resources
Introverted
Slower walking speed
Emphasize commonality
Self-effacing -saving face
Group initiative
Cooperate with nature
Exercise caution
Yielding
Multiple Gods
Large group events
Asian, Latin American, Mediterranean, Aboriginal and indigenous cultures appear to be
collectivist.
THE EXPERIENCE OF TRAUMA
History is filled with examples of collective trauma suffering and grief. For some of us,
and our people, the impact and scars of trauma are easily remembered. For others the
traumatic effects are denied or below the surface. Individuals and groups who have
suffered numerous losses, up-rooting and displaced from their familiar surroundings
seem to remain unsettled in more than one way. Usually some deeply buried
experience of fear or hurt is the reason why some individuals or groups remain uneasy
and distrustful.
An individual’s recall of a traumatic event is not always accurate because memories
change over time and are manipulable. Even shared traumas are recalled and
interpreted differently as there are versions of history - your version, their version, our
version and my version (the real truth)
When a language has been lost, suppressed or ignored future generations are
deprived of their birthright and voice. Many ethnic conflicts are the result of the
3
Hofsteder & Hofsteder (2005)
5
suppression of language and culture by a dominant group. Recent revival of interest in
nearly forgotten aboriginal languages is a most heartening trend to be strongly
encouraged.
For Aboriginal and allied groups their history and culture survived mostly by word of
mouth, through oral history.
When we have no language to express ourselves or if our words don’t carry weight,
communication becomes wordless and “behavioural” and therefore easily
misconstrued.
Shared memories of historical catastrophes tend gradually to create a in the mind,
a metal representation, a mindset or memory map that is traced by the group.
Memories of these events are passed on from one generation to the next and become
what is referred to as “chosen traumas”, those which we remember with pain,
humiliation and suffering, and which we may then pass on down the line. New
experiences of trauma – physical or psychological may reinforce these “images”
strengthening the traumatized groups’ identity.
Time collapse: We are often reminded of traumas that our ancestors have suffered
long years go. We do this in memorial ceremonies to honour and show respect for the
people who gave their lives to save our tribes or families. Sometimes leaders and
politicians remind us of these events in great detail describing the suffering of our
people and this may bring up strong emotions like grief, anger and possibly even the
wish for revenge or recompense. When this is done over and over again our
imaginations are stirred. An event that took place hundreds of years ago might begin to
seem to us as if it happened yesterday. Time, in a sense, collapses.
HEALING COLLECTIVE TRAUMA
When members of a traumatized group cannot undo, overcome or remove their
shame, humiliation and helplessness, or cannot grieve all the losses they have
suffered, they may pass on that task, that process, the necessary funeral business, to
their children. 4
Because this is a painful business, it can persist unattended, with the result that
shame, helplessness and humiliation remains. Because shame, humiliation and
helplessness won’t go away, it hangs on and continues to subtly affect daily life.
Because these feelings are so intolerable, they could be acted out via harmful thoughts
and action against others as well as to ourselves.
“The experience of historic trauma and intra-generational grief can best be described
as psychological baggage being passed from parents to children along with the trauma
and grief experience in each individual’s lifetime. The hypothesis is that the result of
unresolved historic traumatic experiences and generational or unresolved grief is not
only passed from generation to generation, it is continuously acted out and recreated
in contemporary Aboriginal culture” 5
‘Do not make your nightmares become your children’s’6
Articulating the problem
4
Volkan, Vamik ?op cit.
Historic Trauma and Aboriginal Healing Foundation Research Series 2004,
6 Sign at the entrance of the Truth Commission in Cape Town, South Africa. Quoted
from the Presidential Task Force Action Plan, Sri Lanka (David Ratnavale)
5
6
Often the problems are too huge and too painful to describe and there is no one to
explain how they came about and why they persist. Confidence in the compassion of
others has worn thin and from where will help come. Is the trauma so far back in time
that you have no words to describe it? Are you forbidden to speak about it and must
conspire to being silent- and who is listening, who cares?
THE AUSTRALIAN DILEMMA
Australia ranked bottom of wealthy nations on Indigenous Health7 The Oxfam report
offers hope that the crisis in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health can be
overcome when Governments demonstrate leadership and make solving the health
crisis a national priority.
THE AUSTRALIAN CHALLENGE – DESIGNING TOOLS FOR ACTION
For Aboriginal and Torres Island people living today the knowledge and
understanding of their history comes from many sources. Integrating all these pieces of
emotion will generate a mountain of feelings. Walking the journey across the hot desert
sand will be a re-living of the trauma, slowly. Many aspects of history which were
handed down from generation to generation will take on a new shape as more and
more information on culture comes to life. Libraries, history books, newspapers,
novels, television (living black), movies (ten canoes) radio, music, art, drama and sport
programs; wide publicity given to the struggle for native title. Various Aboriginal
customs are being revived
as purifying smoking ceremonies are accepted and
prayerful homage to ancestors acknowledged tradition
Rites and rituals: The coalition of compassion and the spiritual dimension.
All these developments provide a huge source of data and inspiration that bring energy
and even more meaning to Aboriginality. In this process empty spaces are being filled
bringing and greater understanding and pride. What happened thousands of years go
will seem like it happened yesterday. Thousands of years are shrinking by this process
of time collapse. One will be able to look back, feel back and be back thousands of
years. This would be a case of connecting and healing by time collapse
7
National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organization and Oxfam Australia
Close the Gap April 2007,