DRAFT
Þuríður Jóhannsdóttir researcher
and Kristín Guðmundsdóttir research assistant
LOOKING INTO PRIMARY SCHOOL CLASSROOMS WHERE
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IS BEING USED
Paper presented at the NERA-congress in Reykjavík March 10 -13, 2004.
The congress theme is The Positioning of Education in Contemporary Knowledge
Society
For some time there has been a general agreement in Iceland of the value of using ICT
as a tool to enhance learning and teaching in schools. This not unlike the discourse in
other western countries where the possibilities afforded by ICT to transform teaching
and learning methods in schools are promoted and it is even predicted that the role of
teachers and learners will change radically when ICT is used as a tool in schools.
But what is meant by ’innovative changes’? From international research (SITES) on
use of ICT in schools those criteria can be identified:
extensive collaboration among students,
developed information searches and information processing,
new kinds of collaboration between students and teachers and among teachers,
development of collaboration projects outside schools, and
emphasis on creative products (references).
In the Icelandic national curriculum published in 1999 the use of ICT as a learning
tool across the curriculum is stressed and IT skills should be considered in that
context not as a special subject. Now, five years later it is timely to visit schools, look
into classrooms and talk to teachers to learn whether the reality reflects the vision and
official policy promoted in the national curriculum.
The study presented here is a part of the research project LearnICT – using ICT in
learning and teaching in Iceland. A project funded by Rannís, The Icelandic Centre
for Research, under the Information Technology research program1
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The project is coordinated by the Research Centre of the Iceland University of Education with the participation
of University of Akureyri and University of Reykjavík. The project's web-site is at http://namust.khi.is A group of
researchers have been doing a qualitative research with interviews and observations in 18 primary schools in
Iceland and Torfi Hjartarson will be presenting conclusions after the first round here at the NERA congress.
A research is also being done on the construction of the Icelandic national curriculum and M. Allyson Macdonald
has presented a paper by her and Thorsteinn Hjartarson on that matter, see Constructing The ICT Curriculum in
Iceland: Is there a rift in the North Atlantic? see http://namust.khi.is/fyrirlestrar.htm
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Data collection
In the fall semester 2003, more than two hundred teacher students in a course on
qualitative research methodology in the distance educational program in Iceland
University of Education carried out interviews and/or observations on ICT use in
primary schools. They interviewed teachers about the use of ICT in teaching and
learning in different school subjects and carried out observations in classrooms where
ICT was being used as a tool in learning and/or teaching. The teacher students live in
different parts of the country and these qualitative data reveal interesting information
about how ICT is being used in primary schools across the country. The authors, who
were the teachers in this course, then chose the most descriptive and rich field notes
and interviews and asked the students and their participants for permission to use their
data in this study. We got permission from 60 students. In this study we draw on 15
classroom observations in primary schools with pupils from 6 to 13 years olds and 15
interviews with primary school teachers.
The authors have also looked at policy documents on the use of ICT in schools, and
the national curriculum from 1999, where the agenda is set for ICT across the
curriculum.
Research questions
Do we see evidence for innovative changes in pedagogy that ICT brings into the
classroom?
How is the use of ICT as a tool for learning affecting the learning tasks of pupils?
How is the use of ICT as a tool for teaching affecting the teaching tasks of teachers?
Which of the affordances offered by ICT are being used and which under-utilized?
What are the potential negative side-effects or risks that the affordances offered by
ICT tools bring when used in schools settings?
What sort of gender differences appear when ICT is used as a learning tool for pupils?
How is the situation in Icelandic schools and in our neighboring countries ?
In UK policy makers have been concerned that despite hopes regarding the effects of
ICT it is still a marginal force in the education of 5-12 year-olds (Robertson 2002). In
Denmark researchers have dentified no overall changes, either in the curriculum or in
students performance (Bryderup 2002) and Swedish research found no remarkable
changes in the way learning is organized nor in teachers’ or pupils’ role in the
classroom (Nissen 2000; Ludvigsen 2002)
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In 1998 Iceland participated in the Second Information Technology in Education
Study, SITES, Module 1.
“The goals of the study should reflect the current widely held belief that ICT is
a potentially strong facilitator for realizing school reforms aimed at preparing
citizens for the Information Society”.
Regarding teaching and learning it asked to what extent there is a connection between
the use of ICT and teaching methods that enhance active learning methods of pupils.
It appeared that Iceland like other countries was no further along than other countries.
ICT was mainly being used in traditional settings and the diversity of programs used
was below the average of the countries taking part. Traditional programs like word
processors were more commonly used than use of e.g. creative programs for artistic
work and virtual simulations. Lack of access to computers as well as lack of IT skills
of teachers hinderedthe use of ICT (Brynhildur Sch. Thorsteinsson 2002).
In connection with new national curricula 1999 where for the first time the policy on
ICT across the curriculum was promoted a developmental project was launched by the
ministry. Three primary schools participated and in the chapter on teaching and
learning in the evaluation report it seems unclear the extent to which the use of ICT in
the classroom was being systematically developed. The teachers are aware of the
possibilities inherent in ICT tools and they mention advantages such as more
diversity, flexibility and innovations. But few seemed to be using it and it seems that
most teachers needed mentoring on how to use ICT in pedagogical settings (Jón Torfi
Jónasson and K. Stella Blöndal 2002).
Theorietical framework and data analysis
The general theoretical framework of the study builds on the socio-cultural or
cultural-historical approach on learning arising from Vygotsky and his co-workers of
the Russian school who articulated the important role of tools in the development of
psychological processes of men. The most important tool of men is language and
dialogue and communication play an important role in human learning from this
theoretical perspective (Vygotsky 1978) .
Activity theory is developed on those grounds and emphasises that thinking, learning
and cognition are inseparable from activity and the context in which the activity takes
place (Ludvigsen & Flo2002):
“An activity is undertaken by a human agent (subject) who is motivated
toward the solution of a problem or purpose (object), and mediated by tools
(artifacts) in collaboration with others (community). The structure of the
activity is constrained by cultural factors including conventions (rules) and
social strata (division of labour) within the context.” (Ryder 2004)
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This approach will guide the analysis of the data where we strive to identify teachingas-task and learning-as-task mediated by ICT.
When a tool is as complicated and multifunctional as ICT then it is important to be
aware of the possibilities that are inherent in the nature of the tool. With ICT new
opportunities have opened for saving and distributing information along with changes
in the possibilities for communication (Ludvigsen and Flo 2002). These affordances,
e.g. easy access to information and easy distribution, are apparently something that
can be used by students and teachers in schools. But the computer is also a powerful
tool for processing information and can be used for automatic interactive answers that
can be convenient in all kind of drilling and memory practice students need to
perform well in their studies. Multimedia and hypertext possibilities could be
powerful tools for learning but are presumably still under-utilized.
Conole and Dyke (2003) argue that clear articulation of the affordances2 is important
in order to understand how ICT technology could be used to support learning. But any
one affordance can have negative side-effects which can bring unintended
consequences into pedagogical settings and those have to be articulated as well.
Conole and Dyke use the concept affordance risk of ICT and suggest that both
positive and negative connotations are taken into account when deciding how to use
ICT to enhance learning.
A computer practice framework (CPF) has been developed by Twining (Twining
2002) to analyze for what purpose ICT is used in schools, e.g. for enhancing IT skills,
as a learning tool or for other reasons such as a reward for a finished assignment.
When used as a learning tool Twining analyzes the modes of use as follows:
1. Support. ICT is used to support learning in ways that are more efficient or
effective but without changing the content.
2. Extend. The use of ICT changes the content and/or processes of learning but it
could have been achieved in a classroom without a computer..
3. Transform. The use of ICT changes the content and/or processes of learning
but it could not have been achieved in a classroom without a computer
Twining’s criteria help us focus on the purpose of the use of ICT when examining it
in schools settings although we do not necessarily intend to classify the observed
cases. In his analysis of ICT use in schools, Twining discusses the need to develop a
shared vision of the role of ICT in education and he shares the view of those who have
Salomon (1993) has described the concept put forward by Gibson as follows: “Affordances” refers to
the perceived and actual properties of things, primarily those functional properties that determine just
how the thing could possibly be used.
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stressed that the importance of the vision should be based on consideration of the
purpose of education and the nature of teaching and learning.
Findings
How is ICT used with the youngest pupils, age 6 – 8?
Among the youngest it is most common to use educational programs to practise basic
skills such as arithmetic, reading and spelling. Teachers claim in the interviews that
those are useful for drilling and a good way to provide diversity in learning
approaches. They also stress that the computer programs are good for training
attention and coordination of mind and body. We have cases where pupils are taught
to use PowerPoint presentations to set up text and pictures and one example where 8
year-olds are independently collecting information and presenting it in the form of
their own drawings and text on the web-site of the class.
In about half of the cases we see a learner-centered approach where the pupils move
forward at their own pace while in other cases the teacher controls the pace with an
overhead projector and pupils are supposed to follow her and all do the same thing at
the same time. In those cases the risk is that many pupils are wasting their time
waiting.
“Many pupils knew this program and had finished way ahead the others”
The affordance of using educational programs for practice is the interactivity which
automatically gives the right answers and rewards and motivates pupils with
multimodal representations which often combine play and learning. The risk of this
affordance can though be that instead of thinking before they act, pupils use the
mouse-click to do just anything and see if it works.
“Most of them were doing their best, counting on their fingers before they
answered while some just put some numbers in some boxes”
Collaboration and access to diversity of learning materials, age 9-12
In classrooms of 9-12 year-olds ICT is most commonly used for accessing educational
webs on the Internet. The webs are used as resource of information and pupils are
supposed to find relevant information, and present them in the form of text and
pictures, both their own drawings and/or photos they may find on the web, using word
processors. A learner-centered approach is common setting. The teacher normally will
start the lesson with some input on organization of the work, then the pupils work
independently and in groups on projects using ICT among other tools. Here we often
see teachers collaborating, for example the school library teacher or the IT teachers
and the class teacher. Here is one description of ideal computer-supported
collaborative learning of 9 year-olds:
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“One group was browsing books in the library, finding pictures
of whales; another group was sitting at a computer and one of
the pupils was typing in handwritten text in a word processor.
Another group was trying out what kind of text they should use,
the text itself was ready but they had not decided the lay-out. A
group was finishing the final look of their poster, printing out a
picture of the kind of whale they had been working on. Two
pupils were browsing a web on whales in the computer,
checking if the information they had found in books were right
and if there was something new to be found….. One was at a
computer looking for pictures and another was drawing a whale
on his poster.”
In this case the atmosphere is described as relaxed; pupils even sing while working
and the librarian puts a music CD on and the pupils continue to sing along.
In half of the cases though, we see the teacher controlling the pace at which pupils
work, expecting them to work all at the same task at the same time.
The risk of temptations when having access to the Internet
The affordance the use of ICT offers here is again access to more diverse learning
material, presented in multimedia and hypertext form which are perhaps likely to
motivate pupil interest. The risk of these affordances is that it is easy to duplicate
texts, photos and even sound. Teachers will have to think carefully about how the
pupils are supposed to first evaluate and then process the information they get. What
are they supposed to do with the information in order to learn? In our cases we see
many examples where pupils are supposed to find information on the web and
reproduce their own text on what they learned in a word format. In a case like that the
danger lies in the easy (and for them strategic) way pupils can choose – namely cut
and paste.
Another risk that follows independent or collaborative work of pupils where they can
access the Internet from a computer in the classroom is the easy access to all kind of
temptations on the Internet. Here the gender differences become striking in our cases.
“Most of the boys are not doing what they are supposed to do,
but are on the msn, on the Internet looking at games or looking
at pictures on the schools’ web-site. […] They write two lines
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and then they go to the Internet to fetch pictures. They enlarge
one of the pictures so that it covers the entire page. […] They
play with fonts and colors and duplicate the pictures.
Most of the boys stop working on the project when the teacher is
not observing them. The girls work conscientiously on what they
are supposed to do.”
In cases like this the teacher has to deal with new forms of discipline or control and
this is something teachers have to deal with seriously. The traditional way of
controlling might not work in these conditions. What kinds of learning tasks are likely
to interest pupils, both boys and girls, enough to keep them working on tasks that are
self-rewarding? The school might have to reconsider the stress on text for processing
knowledge and widen their text concept to embrace multimodal representations.
ICT supporting and extending traditional teaching methods
Many have predicted that ICT will transform the pedagogical settings in schools. It is
therefore interesting to point out that two of our cases show what seems to be effective
and powerful use of ICT-tools in traditional school settings. In one of the cases we
have an art teacher using a PC and a projector to access an educational web on art with
6 year-old boys. She is standing in front of the class, presenting the material
empowered by multimedia web which no doubt evokes interest. She uses the web
material to open a dialogue about forms and colors and they can suggest actions that
show changes on the screen. Although the teacher is in control the boys are interacting
with the program and actively participating in what happens. At the end they see a
drawing modeled on the screen and then they make a drawing on a paper for
themselves. The risk that lies in the affordances of that tool is that the teacher controls
too much and does not engage the pupils in discussion and activity.
Another case is an English teacher who does not have enough access to the computers
in the school to be able to use it effectively.
“Like I use the computer, I am in connection with the pupils on
the Internet, e.g. those who need extra assignments I would send
them web-pages or interactive assignments. Then they are
supposed to do the assignments at home and send to me by email. In fact they send me all their assignments, essays and stuff
by e-mail. They work at home, send me their solutions by email, then I correct using track changes in word and then I send
it back to them by e-mail. That is the way I use the computer in
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my teaching. Those who do not have access to Internet at home
can use the computers at the library. It is a good thing not to
have to deal with all the papers flowing around any more.”
In this case the English teacher is in a privileged situation because there is so much
diversity of material to be found on the Internet that can ease the job of the teacher as
just as it can be very useful for the pupils. What is new in this setting is the way the
teacher uses the communication-tools afforded on the Internet to contact her pupils.
The risk could be in limiting personal contact when the sphere of communication
between teachers and pupils is no longer the public sphere of the classroom.
Innovative use of ICT in schools
If we look at the criteria for innovations presented in the introduction – how do these
cases live up to them?
In many cases we see that ICT is used to enhance collaboration among students.
Access to the Internet is used for information searches and the computer for
information processing but we might need more sophisticated methods and consider
what kind of learning tasks are likely to bring about learning.
In some cases we see new kinds of collaboration between students emerging and
collaboration of teachers seems to be a good way to organize learning with ICT.
When it comes to development of collaboration projects outside the schools we do
not in this study have any example of that, but some years ago projects built on
communication between kids all around the world were quite common e.g. the Kidlink project.
We have one example in our study where the emphasis is entirely on creative
products. This is a music teacher using a computer program to teach pupils to
compose their own music. In the other cases the use of creative programs or the use
of computer programs for creative purposes seems to be under-utilized. In that sense
we does not seem to have made much progress since 1998 where the results of the
SITES study concluded that
“ICT was mainly used in traditional settings and the diversity of
programs used was below the average of the countries taking
part. Traditional programs like word processors were more
commonly used than use of e.g. creative programs for artistic
work and virtual simulations.
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Lack of access to computers as well as lack of IT skills with
teachers was hindrance to use” (Brynhildur Sch. Thorsteinsson
2002)
In the interviews with the teachers in our cases it is clearly stated that lack of access to
computers in the schools is still the biggest hindrance. The teachers express interest in
using ICT more and in a more diverse way e.g. as a creative tool. But the problem is
not only insufficient access to computers but also that the computers are too old or not
good enough to manage the creative music and picture-processing programs.
To conclude:
 Many teachers see the possibilities and are ready too use them with their
pupils
 Lack of access to computers in the schools is a problem
 Old and not powerful enough computers are barriers to use of more creative
multimedia programs
 An articulation of affordances risk of ICT in pedagogical settings is important
in dealing with new problems or unintended consequences when ICT is used
in classrooms and when a learner centered approach is used.
References
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