The 23rd Nordic Symposium On
Tourism And Hospitality Research
THE VALUES OF TOURISM
2-4 October 2014
Editors:
Adriana Budeanu, CBS
Marie Möckel, CBS
Szilvia Gyimóthy, AAU
PREFACE
Onbehalfoftheorganizingcommittee,wewishyouawarmwelcometoCopenhagen
and the Nordic Research Symposium in Tourism and Hospitality! About 200 Nordic
andinternationaltourismresearchersaregatherednowforthe23rdyeartoprogress
tourism scholarship towards new frontiers. Nordic tourism today is increasingly
affected by global conditions. Decelerating economies, climate challenges, networked
communitiesanddigitaltechnologiesaresettingtheirtracesontheindustryofmobile
consumption. Such transformations call for reflexive approaches in order to
understand and eventually, make a difference in the wider contemporary context of
tourism.
Thisyearwewantedtoencouragetransdisciplinarydiscussionsrepresentingdifferent
empirical,conceptualormethodologicalapproachesontheValuesofTourism,relevant
to tourism businesses, local communities and destinations, education as well as
tourism research. The Call for Papers has generated an unprecedented interest that
indicatesthetimelinessofourfocus.,with162abstractbeingsubmittedandarecord
of190delegatesregisteredtoattendthesymposium,reflectingaremarkablediversity
ofcontemporaryscholarship.Tourism’sprogresstowards(trans)disciplinarymaturity
and relevance to society is also reflected in the four keynote speeches. Professor
MonikaBüscherwilldiscussthecharacterandconsequencesoftransportsurveillance
throughaddressingembodiedsecurity,freedomandjustice.ProfessorThomasO’Dell
willtalkaboutmethodologicalapproachesandthevaluablecontributionsethnography
can offer for tourism research. Professor Jafar Jafari will take a cautionary note of
inbreeding tourism scholarship and knowledge transfer to practitioners. Finally,
Associate Professor Bodil Stilling Blichfeldt will encourage tourism scholars to pay
more attention and conduct research regarding ordinary and mundane tourism
experiences.
Apartfromstrivingforexcellenceintheacademicprogramme,wehavealsosetusthe
ambitiontocreatethefirstresponsiblesymposiuminthehistoryofNORTHORS.Asfar
as it was possible, all merchandise, food and beverages have been ordered from
ecological, fair trade or local Danish producers. You will also notice that we will not
provide bottled water during breaks and meals. We hope that we will launch a
traditionofresponsibleeventsandstandoutasanexampleforfuturesymposia.
Finally, we would like to thank everyone who helped us in making NORTHORS23
possible.WeareindebtedtoeachmemberoftheScientificCommitteewhoreviewed
individualcontributions,thechairswhoofferedtheirassistanceand,nottheleast,the
collaboratingteamsofthehostUniversities,CopenhagenBusinessSchoolandAalborg
University.
Wishingyouafruitful,inspiringandnottheleast,funconference!!!!
AdrianaBudeanuandSzilviaGyimóthy,Co‐chairsofthe23rdNordicSymposium
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
2
3
OURRESPONSIBILITYMANIFESTO
4
ORGANIZERSOFTHECONFERENCE
5
OVERVIEWOFTHECONFERENCE 7
PARALLELSESSIONS
10
PAPERSPROCEEDINGS
25
LISTOFPARTICIPANTS
146
AUTHORINDEX
156
TABLEOFCONTENTS
3
OUR RESPONSIBILITY MANIFESTO
TheResponsibilityManifestoattheNordicSymposiumfor
TourismandHospitalityResearch
Copenhagen,2014
Knowinglyawareofthemultipleimpactsgenerated,initiatedorstimulatedbyour
privateandprofessionalactions,we,theorganizingteamofthe23rdNordic
SymposiumforTourismandHospitalityResearch,havedecidedtotakeresponsible
action.Operatinginlimitingcircumstancesofreducedresources,wearenotclaiming
tohavecompletelyeliminatedtheenvironmental,social,oreconomicalnegative
impactsgeneratedbyourorganizationorbyourparticipant’sattendance.
However,weareproudtogiveaccountofthefewareaswherewedidthings
differently,withthehopethatourinitiativeisafirststeptowardscreatinganew
responsiblepracticeamongNORTHORSorganizers:
1) Efficientuseofmaterialresources:Weadoptedanenvironmentally
responsiblepurchasingpolicyandreducedCO2emissionsgeneratedbythe
transportationassociatedtoourevent.
2) Responsiblescholarship:Weputthestudyofsustainabledevelopmentin
tourismasacoresubjectfordiscussionduringtheconference.
3) Ethicalprinciples:Wearethefirstinternationalconferencethatopenlyand
wholeheartedlyadoptedthe(draft)TEFIguidelinesforGenderEquityand
BalanceinTourismConferences.
Moreinformationaboutthechoiceswehadandthedecisionswemadeunderthese
focusareasisavailableontheconferencewebsite(www.noridctourism2014.cbs.dk)
andwewillalsobehappytoshareourpersonalexperiencewithpursuingthesegoals
uponrequest.
Withopenheartandmind,wethankallthatsupportedthisinitiativeatCBSand
beyond,andallourparticipantsforsupportingourgoalsofdeliveringaNordic
symposiuminaresponsiblemanner.Wehopethatorganizersoffuturesymposiums
willbuildonourexperienceandhelpresponsibleactiontobecomecommonpractice
intheNORTHORScommunity.
Theorganizingcommittee:
AdrianaBudeanu,CanSengOoi,SzilviaGyimóthy,AnaMariaMunar,
GabriellaS.Munch,MarieMöckel,LeneMetteSørensen,LærkeKristensen
Copenhagen,October2014
4
ORGANIZERS OF THE CONFERENCE
ConferenceChair
AdrianaBudeanu,CenterforLeisureandCultureService,CopenhagenBusinessSchool
Conferenceco‐chair
SzilviaGyimóthy,AalborgUniversity
Membersofthescientificcommittee
AvitalBiran,SeniorLecturer,BournemouthUniversity
J.C.Brezet,Professor,TechnicalUniversityofDelft,NL
MadsBødker,AssociateProfessor,CopenhagenBusinessSchool,Denmark
ErikaAnderssonCederholm,AssociateProfessor,LundUniversity,Sweden
DonnaChambers,ReaderinTourism,UniversityofSunderland
DianneDredge,AssociateProfessor,GriffithUniversity
EduardoFayos‐Solà,PresidentoftheUlyssesFoundation/Professor,UniversityofValencia
WilliamC.Gartner,Professor,UniversityofMinnesota/Fellow,InternationalAcademyforthe
StudyofTourism
HenrikHalkier,Professor,AAU,Denmark
EdwardH.Huijbens,Director/Professor,IcelandicTourismResearchCentre/Universityof
Akureyri
TazimJamal,AssociateProfessor,TexasA&MUniversity
ØysteinJensen,Professor,UniversityofNordland,Norway
CatalinaN.JuanedaSampol,Professor,Vice‐ChancellorinInternationalServices,Universityof
theBalearicIslands
JaneWidtfeldtMeged,AssistantProfessor,RoskildeUniversity
AldaMetrassD´AzevedoMendes,TemporaryInstructor,UniversityofAkureyri
DieterMüller,Professor,UmeåUniversity,Sweden
ReidarJohanMykletun,Professor,UniversityofStavanger,Stavanger,Norway
AnnettePritchard,Professor,DirectoroftheWelshCentreforTourismResearch,Universityof
Cardiff
YaelRam,Lecturer,AshkelonAcademicCollege,Israel
SigbjornTveteras,AssociateProfessor,UniversityofStavanger,Norway
BrianWheeller,AssociateProfessor,NHTVBreda,TheNetherlands
HonggenXiao,AssistantProfessor,HongKongPolytechnicUniversity
CarinaRen,AssociateProfessor,AAU,Denmark
CanSengOoi,Professor(MSO),CopenhagenBusinessSchool,Denmark
AnaMariaMunar,AssociateProfessor,CopenhagenBusinessSchool,Denmark
CarinaAntoniaHallin,AssistantProfessor,CopenhagenBusinessSchool,Denmark
KristianAndersHvass,AssistantProfessor,CopenhagenBusinessSchool,Denmark
SzilviaGyimothy,AssociateProfessor,AAU,Denmark
AdrianaBudeanu,AssociateProfessor,CopenhagenBusinessSchool,Denmark
JohanR.Edelheim,Professor,UniversityofLapland,Finnland
Dr.ConstantiaAnastasiadou,ReaderinTourism,EdinburghNapierUniversity,UK
DortheEide,AssociateProfessor,UniversityofNordland,Norway
UlrikaÅkerlund,Phd,CenterforTourismStudies,UniversityofEasternFinland
5
Membersoftheorganizingcommittee
GabrielaStephanieMunch,CopenhagenBusinessSchool
MarieMöckel,CopenhagenBusinessSchool
LærkeKristiansen,CopenhagenBusinessSchool
CarinaRen,AalborgUniveristy(coordinatorofPhDworkshop)
Supportersoftheconference(withlogosifpossible)

DanishSocietyforEducationandBusiness(formerFUHU)

Department of International Economics and Management INT) at Copenhagen
BusinessSchool

CrownePlaza,CopenhagenTowers
6
7
OVERVIEW OF THE CONFERENCE
8
9
conference venue (stop at station “Lindevang”)
*** Participants staying at the Crowne Plaza Hotel can take the metro
Admiral.
(direction Vanløse) directly to the
** Bus transfers are provided for participants staying at hotels Danmark, Babettes Guldsmede, Neptun and
University-Campus Copenhagen is A.C. Meyers Vænge 15 – B3 | Copenhagen
* For participants who want to come directly to the welcome reception venue, the address of Aalborg
NOTES:
PARALLEL SESSIONS
ValuesOfTourismResearchAndScholarshipI.
Chair:JohanEdelheim
Thursday2ndOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V020
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
12:10–12:30
ScientisingTheStudyOfTourism
KazuyoshiTakeuchi
ReconceptualisingValueInTourismAndHospitality
MarkFrancis,RonFisher,AndrewThomasand
HefinRowlands
DecolonizingTourismEpistemology:EnvisioningADemocratic
HorizonOfInterpretation
AnaMaríaMunar
ExperienceFacilitationAndTouristValueExperience
ChoukiSfandla,MetinKozak,AntoniaCorreia
Value,wasteandtourism:atopologicalinquiry RichardEk
Thevalue(s)oftourism:aliteraturereview
José‐CarlosGarcía‐Rosell,MariaHakkarainen,SannaKyyrä,Esther
Dorsman
ValuesOf/ForTheTouristI.
Chair:PeterBjörk
Thursday2ndOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V023
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
Practicesandmeaningbehindthewordsofserviceself‐
representationsinthehotelindustry
ChristerKarlEldh,JohnFMonhardt
Slowtravel:thevalueoftimeintourism TinaRoenhovdeTiller
10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
12:10–12:30
Theeffectofculturalvaluesandtravelmotivesinlifestyle
segmentationoftourist
NinaMarianneIversen,LeifEgilHem
Tourismdestinationsatisfaction:therelativeimportanceoffirmand
attributelevelsatisfaction MaritGundersenEngeset,JanVelvin
Valueco‐creationintourismexperiences EvaMariaJernsand,HelenaKraff
Whatisthisrelationshipworth?Gift‐givingandemotionalworkin
thehospitalitybusiness
ErikaAnderssonCederholm
ValuesInBusinessI.
Chair:DortheEide
Thursday2ndOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V041
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
Valueco‐creationmodellingforbigdataanalytics–thedestination
managementinformationsystemÅre
MatthiasFuchs,TatianaChekalina,WolframHöpken,MariaLexhagen
Explainingperformanceinhotelandrestaurantbusinesses
JieZhang,AstridE.Enemark
11:10–11:30
Howscienceandtechnologyaffectbusinessinnovationsintourism
Anne‐MetteHjalager
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
Measuringtheimpactofaperformancebenchmarkingsystemon
hotellabourproductivity SigbjørnTveteraas,RagnarTveterås,HelgeJørgensen
MultiplenationalismandSouthKoreanwarmemorialmuseu Young‐SookLee
12:10–12:30
Theinnovationjourneyofnew‐to‐tourismentrepreneurs
IsabelRodriguezSanchez,MatildeBrotons,AllanWilliams
11
ValueChainsAndNetworks
Chair:MalinZilinger
Thursday2ndOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V029
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
DestinationdevelopmentintheBotnia‐Atlanticaregion:same,same
anddifferent KajsaGrandicsÅberg,KritinaSvels
Tourismactors’socialrepresentationsofcollaborationsinIdre,
Sweden:acognitivemappingmethod
IoannaFarsari
Valuinginnovationindestinationnetworks
HåvardNess
ExploringNordicwaysoftourismcooperationaroundcanals,rivers
andin‐landwaterareas
AnnaKarinOlsson
TheNGO‐TourismNexus‐Mappingthe‘Doings’oftheNGOization
ofTourismandtheTouristificationofNGOsinLaAntigua
Guatemala
SarahBecklake
ValueOfTourismForSustainableDevelopmentI.
Chair:MaríaJoséZapataCampos
Thursday2ndOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V044
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
Conservationandtourism:Acomparativeanalysisofprotectedarea
policyandplanninginNorwayandNewZealand.
JamesHigham,JanVidarHaukeland,DebbieHopkins,KregLindberg,
OddIngeVistad
Valuesoftourismdestinations“inthemiddleofnowhere”
MariaHakkarainen,SannaKyyrä
Sustainablefoodsystems,impactsoftourismonlocalvaluecreation
JanHenrikNilsson,StefanGössling,Ann‐ChristinAndersson
12
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
12:10–12:30
Islands’tourismandeventsasco‐designerforsustainability‐
experiencesfromtheNorthSeaWaddenRegion
HanBrezet
Resourcifyingtheunique–Collaborativevaluationpracticesinrural
tourismdevelopmentinSweden ManuelaKronen
“Deconstructing”SustainableTourism(ST)andCommunity‐Based
Tourism(CBT):TowardsaRobustFrameworkofSustainable
Community‐BasedTourism(SCBT)
TekB.Dangi,SoyeunKim,TazimJamal
Value‐basedTourism
Chair:TommyAndersson
Thursday2ndOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V108
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
ConflictsbetweentourismandpowerproductioninIceland:
Discourseanalysesonlanduseandthechangingideaofnatural
resources
AnnaDóraSæþórsdóttir
Effectsofresourcedeclineandstricterfishingregulationsonthe
behaviorofsalmonfishingtourists
StianStensland
ToPreserveorEnhancePreciousMemories:ASegmentedMarket
Analysis
SharonChang,RenukaMahadevan
Changingemployeerolesintheserviceencounterfortourismvalue
creation:educational,managerialandorganisationalimplications
ClaireForder,FlemmingSørensen,JensFriisJensen
11:50–12:10
Futurevisionsofthetourismproducts
AndersSteene
13
ValueOfTourismForDestinationDevelopmentI.
Chair:JulieWilson
Thursday2ndOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V049
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
12:10–12:30
12:30–12:50
Operationalizingtheperformanceofatourismnetwork.Acasestudy
ofNetworkLimfjorden,Denmark UrbanGråsjö,MartinGellerstedt
IfJesushadlivednowhewoulddefinitelyhaveattendedthe
Gladmatfestival
ReidarJohanMykletun,AmbassadorMeretse
GenderrelationsintourismintheRussianarctic:representations
andpractices
SusannaHeldt‐Cassel,AlbinaPashkevich
Finnishcountrysideasasettingforruralwellbeing‐caseFinRelax®
AnjaTuohino
Therolesofeventsindestinationbranding
IraLahovuo,JenniMikkonen
Events'"deserved"mediacoverageanddestinationbranding KariJæger,TrineKvidal
ValuesForCulture
Chair:CarinaBregnholmRen
Thursday2ndOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V110
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
Thedynamicsofnatureandcultureintourism–thecaseofIlulissat,
Greenland KarinaMadsenSmed
Transformed“bythewindandthesea”–exploringvisitoremotions
towardswarheritagealongtheDanishWestCoast
LuluAnneHansen
ThecompetencyprofileofculturaltourismemployeesinRussia
ElenaSakharchuk,SergeyIlkevich
14
11:10–11:50
11:50–12:10
Theconstructionandexperienceoficon‐cities
AnneKlaraBom
Heritagization‐Tourismimpactontourists
PerÅkeNilsson,DianaAlexandru,Babesj‐Bolyai
ValueOfTourismEducation
Chair:ReidarJ.Mykletun
Thursday2ndOct./15:00–17:00
Room:D1V020
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
15:40–16:00
16:00–16:20
16:20–16:40
Whatarethecorrelatesofworkvaluesfor16yearoldstudents:
focusonprofessionswithinhospitalityandtourism
ÅseHeleneBakkevigDagsland,ReidarJohanMykletun,StåleEinarsen
Students’enrolmentpreferencesinhighereducation:motivations
forchoosingtourism,economics,businessorlawstudies.
CatalinaJuaneda
Skillsandformaleducationwithinthetourismsector
AndersHedetoft,TagePetersen
Thevaluesofworkinginthefrontlineofthetourismindustry–the
caseoflicensedlocalguides
JaneWidtfeldtMeged
TheProfessionalSocietalAcademicNetwork(PSAN)ofTourism
DepartmentPartners–ASwedishCaseStudyTriangulatedwiththe
EU‐ProjectTARSI GöranAndersson
ValuesOf/ForTheTouristII.
Chair:PeterErikaAndersson‐Cederholm
Thursday2ndOct./15:00–17:00
Room:D1V023
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
‘ExperienceEuropewithoutborders’:Interrailfrictionsand
regulatedmobilities MartinTrandbergJensen
Antecedentsoftouristexperiencevalue PeterBjörk
15
15:40–16:00
16:00–16:20
Theviewofmasstouristsonsustainabilityvalueatdestinations
AnnaSörensson
Thevalueoftouristexperiences:Rediscoveringtheselfindynamic
spaces
CarolaMay,Dr.
16:20–16:40
Theeffectofnormativeface‐to‐facefeedbackoncustomers´process
enjoymentandtheirsatisfactionwiththeoutcome
MayIreneFurenes
ValuesInBusinessII.
Chair:MariaLexhagen
Thursday2ndOct./15:00–17:00
Room:D1V041
15:00–15:20
Thevalueofstakeholdersintourismproductdevelopment:Insights
fromLapland
José‐CarlosGarcía‐Rosell,JennyJanhunen
15:20–15:40
Tourismentrepreneurshipinchangingclimate‐attitudesand
enterprisevaluesinadaptationtoclimatechange
KaarinaTervo‐KankareCANCELLED
15:40–16:00
16:00–16:20
OutputgrowthandpricesofestablishmentsintheSwedishhotel
industry
MartinFalk,EvaHagsten
Pilottesting/testingasmethodsininnovationprocesses
DortheEide,ElisabetLjunggren
16:20–16:40
16:40–17:00
Valuecreationofnetworksandnetworkingforsmallenterprisesand
destinationdevelopment IreneCeciliaBernhard,KerstinMarianneGrundén
Mealqualityasvalueaddedtoeventandfestivalexperience KaiVictorHansen,ReidarJMykletun
16
SpecialTrack:PopculturalTourism+
Chair:AvitalBiran
Thursday2ndOct./15:00–16:00
Room:D1V029
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
15:40–16:00
Broadeningtheexperiencescape/servicescapeconcepts:evidence
frompopularculturedestinations ChristineLundberg,KristinaLindström,MariaLexhagen
Filmtourismcollaborations–acriticaldiscussionofstakeholdersin
Interregdestinationdevelopmentprojects
LenaEskilsson,MariaMånsson
BollywoodbytheBalticSea
SzilviaGyimothy
FoodplacenexusI
Chair:SzilviaGyimóthy
Thursday2ndOct./16:00–17:00
Room:D1V029
16:00–16:20
16:20–16:40
16:40–17:00
Takingstockofthe‘Noma’‐effectFoodimagesandpreferencesat
Danishcoastaldestinations AnetteTherkelsen
Therelationshipbetweenfoodandplace PaulEdwardCleave
Businessofculture:useoffoodandwalkingtourstoaddvaluesto
tourist’sexperience ChristineLim,GladysLam,GiacintaSaw,ZhanghuiYe
ValueOfTourismForSustainableDevelopmentII.
Chair:TazimJamal
Thursday2ndOct./15:00–17:00
Room:D1V044
15:00–15:20
SamplingmethodsinIcelandictouristdestinations
GydaThorhallsdottir,AnnaDoraSaethorsdottir,RögnvaldurÓlafsson
17
15:20–15:40
15:40–16:00
16:00–16:20
16:20–16:40
16:40–17:00
BiospherereserveecotourisminLakeVänernArchipelagowith
Kinnekulle,Sweden FredrikHoppstadius,CeciliaMöller
TheUseoflocalknowledgetoimprovegeotourismplanning–acase
studyfromKatlaGeopark,Iceland RannveigOlafsdottir
Becomingacreativedestination.Theoriesforpromotingandmake
useofinnovation EddyNehls
Guidedtoursforsocio‐environmentalchange MaríaJoséZapataCampos,PatrikZapata,MariaJylkkä
Normsandbehaviouralintentionsinthecontextofsustainable
tourism
RouvenDoran,SveinLarsen
ValuesOfTourismForSocietyAndCommunitiesI.
Chair:AnnaDóraSæþórsdóttir
Thursday2ndOct./15:00–17:00
Room:D1V108
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
15:40–16:00
16:00–16:20
16:20–16:40
Samiintourismareas:howtoadaptatraditionallifestyletoa
tourismlandscape ChristinaEvaEngström
Theuseandnon‐usevaluesofevents:aconceptualframeworkfor
eventevaluation
TommyD.Andersson,JohnArmbrecht,LarryDwyer,ErikLundberg
Thevaluesoftourismformulti‐ethniccommunities:acasestudyof
BaluchisinIran
AhmadRezaSheikhi,AgustínSantanaTalavera,HeredinaFernandez
Tourismentrepreneurship:NGOs,clientismandprojectitis
IngeborgMarieNordbø
Comparingtourismstatisticsofacountrywithinternational
standards:EvidencefromIceland CristiFrent
18
ValueOfTourismForDestinationDevelopmentII.
Chair:ConstantiaAnastasidou
Thursday2ndOct./15:00–17:00
Room:D1V049
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
15:40–16:00
16:00–16:20
16:20–16:40
16:40–17:00
AnIntegrativeModelofMedicalTourism:Exploringthe
RelationshipsbetweenHospitalReputation,DestinationImage,
Physician,ServiceQualityandPhysicalFacilities,TouristSatisfaction
andWordofMouthRecommendation
YuhanisAbdulAziz,ZaitonSamdin,KhairilAwang,ZulhamriAbdullah
Co‐creatingdestinationbrandinSouth‐Savo
IraLahovuo,JenniMikkonen
Internaldestinationbrandingandthecaseof'FreshEyes'
PeterKvistgaard
MarketingofrecreationalsalmonfishinginIceland:Experiencesof
fishinglicenseoutfitters ThorgilsHelgason
Tourismdestinationevolution:whatroledo'moments'havein
change?
JulieWilson,CintaSanz‐Ibáñez,SalvadorAnton‐Clavé
Thevalueofnon‐megasportingeventsforahostdestination:
Evidencefromthe2012Girod'ItaliainDenmark
GrzegorzKwiatkowski
SpecialTrack:SecondHomes
Chair:UlrikaÅkerlund
Thursday2ndOct./15:00–17:00
Room:D1V110
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
Secondhomeowners’andlocals’waystoutilizeenvironment–
conflictingandconsensualissuesfromFinnishLapland SeijaTuulentie,AstaKietäväinen
Secondhomes,lifestylemobilityandmultilocalliving:Acritique
DieterK.Müller
19
15:40–16:00
16:00–16:20
16:20–16:40
16:40–17:00
´Mobilityaslifestylestrategy:lifestylesatisfactionandplace
attachmentamongtemporaryandpermanentEUlifestylemigrants
inSpain´
MariaAngelesCasado‐Diaz,AnaBelenCasado‐Diaz,JoseManuel
Casado‐Diaz
“Wecouldifwewould”‐Searchingforfreedomthroughlifestyle
mobilities
MarieVestergaardMikkelsen
Acriticalexplorationofanemerginglifestylemobilityindustry
UlrikaÅkerlund,MarcoEimermann,InêsDavid
In‐migrationtoruraltourismdestinations‐theoreticalpointsof
departure MariaThulemark
Value‐basedManagementOfTourismOrganizations
Chair:PeterKvistgaard
Friday3rdOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V020
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
Value‐basedmanagementoftourism‐andhospitalityorganizations:
Areperceptionsofculturerelatedtojoboutcome?
TorvaldØgaard,OlgaGjerald,SveinLarsen,EinarMarnburg
Fromdestinationmanagementorganisationstodestination
organisationsinScotlandandDenmark:multi‐levelgovernance
versuslocalism.
ConstantiaAnastasiadou,HenrikHalkier
RelationshipsbetweentravelhabitsandEuropeanidentity
formation
ConstantiaAnastasiadou,EmesePanyik
Anexplorationofemployees’organizationalpracticeperceptionsin
thehospitalityindustry.
OlgaGjerald,ToraldØgaard,EinarMarnburg,SveinLarsen
Internaljobsatisfactioninfluencingselectedfive‐starhotel
employees’overalljobsatisfaction
Lisa‐MariCoughlan
20
ValuesOf/ForTheTouristIII.
Chair:JaneW.Meged
Friday3rdOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V023
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
Thevalueofexperiencesatamusicevent JohnArmbrecht,TommyDAndersson
Avisualanalysisofaculturaltourismdestination
KlaesEringa,SherryShenghanZhou
Valuesintravelguidebooks:tourismandanti‐tourismtouris AndersSørensen,VickiPeel
Conflictingrealitiesintouristdecision‐making:Personalvaluesor
socialpractice?
ClareWeeden
Storytellingandvaluecreationinextraordinarytouristexperiences
DortheEide,FrankLindberg
ValuesInBusinessIII
Chair:KaiVictorHansen
Friday3rdOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V041
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
TheruralhotelsinNorwayandtheflexibilitystrategy AgnesBrudvikEngeset
Howpositivepeakexperiencescanbeusedasapowerfuldriverof
innovationintourism:exploringadifferentsourceofinnovation
JohanLilja,IngridZakrisson,BoSvensson,MalinZillinger,Robert
Pettersson
Entrepreneurshipinexperience‐basedtourismfirm
EinarLierMadsen,OddnyWiggen
TheprofitabilityoftourismbusinessesinNorway
NigelHalpern
Doesgenderaffectthelevelofcashholdingsintourismfirm
MarkkuVieru
21
12:10–12:30
Measuringtheefficiencyofheritageinstitutions:Acasestudyof
historicalbuildingsinCzechRepublic
ZdenekPatek
Special Track: Alternative Ontologies and Epistemologies for Tourism
andHospitalityStudies
Chair:SoileVeijola
Friday3rdOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V029
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
Thesubjectofwelcome
EmilyHöckert
Fixyou:theemergenceandconsequencesofpost‐disastervolunteer
tourism
ChrisMcMorran,HarngLuhSin,XuejuanZhang
Auto‐touristography–therelationalpositioningoftheresearcher‐
touristinthevalues,frameworksandscalesofmasstourism VilhelmiinaVainikka
Topologicalreflections:marketinglandscapesfortourists
EdwardHákonHuijbens
Relationalontologiesandepistemologiesintourismstudies
SoileVeijola
SpecialTrack:TheFood‐PlaceNexusII
Chair:AnetteTherkelsen
Friday3rdOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V044
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
Astudyonthenatureofthefoodtourist’sexperience:thetourist’s
viewpoint SandhiyaGoolaup,LenaMossberg
Placing’thelocal’intheruralfoodexperience
JosefineÖstrupBacke
22
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
Professionalizationofhospitalityandculinaryarts
LotteWellton,IngerMJonsson,UteWalter
Destinationfoodscape‐defined,modelled,andanalysed
PeterBjörk,HanneleKauppinen‐Räisänen
Image,experienceandproduction:strategiesfordevelopingthe
valueoffoodtourisminDenmarkandEngland
HenrikHalkier,LauraJames
ValuesOfTourismForSocietyAndCommunitiesII
Chair:LuluHansen
Friday3rdOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V108
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
11:50–12:10
Exploringthevalueofanevent:comparingconsumersurplus,
willingnesstopayandvaluesofsubjectivewellbeingforthePeace&
LovemusicfestivalinSweden
TobiasHeldt,RezaMortazavi
Sustainabilityindicatorsfortourism:Frameworkformonitoring
indicatorsofsustainabilityinthetourismsystemVatnajökull
NationalPark,Iceland
KristínRutKristjánsdóttir
Eurovision2014aspotlatch?Exploringmegaeventsascultural
demonstrationsofcomplexoutcomes
CarinaBregnholmRen,MortenKroghPetersen
Thevalueofcruisetourism–somecriticalissues
SveinLarsen,RouvenDoran,KatharinaWolff,TorvaldØgaard
Destination branding in coastal communities: entrepreneurs’ sense
ofplace
MiaLarson
23
SpecialTrack:TheWondersOfNature
Chair:BenteHeimtun
Friday3rdOct./10:30–12:30
Room:D1V049
10:30–10:50
10:50–11:10
11:10–11:30
11:30–11:50
Choreographiesoflightanddarkness:compositionsofnorthern
lighttourism GunnarThórJóhannesson,KatrínAnnaLund
Navigatingthestorm:embodiments,experiencesandreflectionsof
northernlightsfieldwork BenteHeimtun,GunnarÞórJóhannesson,TiinaKivelä,KatrínAnna
Lund,NigelMorgan,SeijaTuulentie
Closertothewhales;thestoryofcreatingWhalesafariatAndenes
ArvidViken,AnnikenFørde
Definingadventuretourism
OutiRantala
ValuesOfTourismResearchAndScholarshipII.
Chair:AnaMariaMunar
Friday3rdOct./15:00–16:00
Room:D1V020
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
15:40–16:00
WhatdowemeanbyExperienceProduction?‐Asuggestedecology
forthediverseconceptsofproducingandanalyzingtourism
experiences. HansGelter
Axiologyoftourism,hospitalityandevents(TH&E)
JohanREdelheim
Mobilityandrealtimeexperiences–thestudyofpersonal“hot
spots” IngridZakrisson
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ValuesOf/ForTheTouristIV.
Chair:AndersSørensen
Friday3rdOct./15:00–16:00
Room:D1V023
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
15:40–16:00
TheAbsoluteImportanceOfStudyingTheRelativityOfRisk
PerceptionsWithRegardToTravelDestinations
KatharinaWolff,SveinLarsen
Co‐creationasamoderatorontheexperiencevalue–satisfaction
relations
NinaPrebensen,HyelinKim,MuzzoUysal
CountingvisitorsinVatnajökullNationalPark
RögnvaldurÓlafsson
TechnologyAndValueCreation
Chair:HåvardNess
Friday3rdOct./15:00–16:00
Room:D1V108
15:00–15:20
15:20–15:40
15:40–16:00
Theimpactofonlineinformationsourcesondestinationimage
formation:destinationNorwayintheeyesoftheBrazilianmarket
AnastasiaMariussen,ChristineHafnorHåvoll,MartinWeibye,Pernille
Roberts
InternetandsocialmediausageamongvisitorsintheSwedish
mountainregions ChristineLundberg
Thechallengesofcollectingtourismdata MalinZillinger
25
PAPERS PROCEEDINGS
ValuesOfTourismResearchAndScholarshipI.
ScientisingTheStudyOfTourism
KazuyoshiTakeuchi
Ithasbeenmorethanacenturysincethestudyoftouristicphenomenawasfirst
introducedinEuropeinthelate19thCentury.Amyriadoftreatisesabouttouristic
phenomenawerepublishedinanenormousnumberofjournals,andyetthestudyof
tourismhasnotledtoacommonconvincingexplanationofwhyhumanstravel.The
authorproclaimsthatthereasonstemsfromahabitualbehavioroftourismresearchers
whoparalleltheirheuristicconceptsoneafteranother,sometimeswithsimilarconcepts
indifferentterms,andpaylessattentiontoaholisticvisionoftouristicphenomena,
becausethefundamentaldiscussionofholisticvisionseemscomplicated,involvinga
varietyofneighboringdisciplinaryfields.It,however,isnotastudyastokeepdisplaying
indistincttheoriesindifferenttermswithatimidattitudetowardaconsensusofholistic
description.
Thepurposeofthispaperistoproposeatheorywhichprovidesacluetothedescription
oftouristicphenomenabydemonstratingamechanismofhumantravel,supportedwith
thefindingsofanecologicalapproachtovisualperceptionandarecentthermodynamic
theoryofinformationenergy.Thecorediscussionisfacilitatedwithlogicalassistancesof
naturalscience,ratherthanwiththepreviousachievementsofsocialscience.Thetarget
oftourismresearchisdividedintotwo‐anintrinsiccorrelationbetweentouristand
entities,andacaseoftourismbusiness,justaseconomicsdealswithconceptualmodels
whilebusinessstudypursuitsrealisticresults.
Themotivationofhumanlocomotionisbasedonabiologicalreactiontoastimulusfrom
environmentalentities.Whenhumansareborn,theyalwaysstartsearchingaroundtheir
ownenvironmentandexpandtheirhabitatforfoodormatingpurposes.Justaslifeforms
receiveinformationfromtheirneighboringentitiesthroughlight,sound,smell,taste,or
textureforsurvival,humanshaveimprovedhowtoreceivedetailedinformationthrough
language.Amessagedeliveredbylanguagecontainsastrokeofinformationenergy,and
eachstimulusofenergy,aftertheimpacttothereceptorofhumansensation,generatesa
pertinentseriesofactions,oneofwhichishumanlocomotion.
Thedefinitionoftouristisnotdeterminedbyastatisticorheuristicconceptbutbythe
momentofahuman'sencounterwithentitiesorevents.Atouristdoesnotalwayshaveto
travelbutcanstayathometoencounteranentityorevent,tangibleorintangible,through
digitaldevices.Touristicexperiences,consistingofactualoron‐sitetouristexperiencesat
26
destinationandmentaloroff‐sitetouristexperiencesathome,alwaysoccurwhenever
andwhereverhumansencounteranentityorevent,eitheronpurposeorbyaccident,
eveninthemiddleoftravelingorwatchingvisualimages.Suchanentityoreventis
regardedastouristattraction.Thepaperconcludesthatstudiesoftourismbusiness
belongtothefieldofbusinessadministrationandthatanintrinsiccorrelationbetween
touristandtouristattractionshouldbethetargetoftourismresearch.Therefore,the
studyoftourismshouldbeginwiththestudyofcorrelationbetweentouristandtourist
attraction.
ReconceptualisingValueInTourismAndHospitality
MarkFrancis,RonFisher,AndrewThomasandHefinRowlands
Purposeofthispaper:Theconceptofvaluehassufferedfromalackoftheoreticaland
definitionalrigourformorethantwothousandyears.Holbrook(1994)helpfully
distinguishesbetweentheterms'value'and'values';withtheformerreferringto
preferentialjudgementandthelatterreferringtothecriteriabywhichsuchjudgements
aremade.Previousresearchontheconceptofvaluehasmainlyfocusedonapproaches
thatinvolveeitherattemptstomeasureit(e.g.Wangetal.,2012,Jamaletal.,2011)ora
searchforatheme(e.g.GjeraldandØgaard,2008,GnothandMatteucci,2014),while
methodologiesandmethodshavefollowedasimilarpattern.Thepurposeofthispaperis
todiscusshowvalueintourismandhospitalitymaybeunderstoodthroughstakeholders'
conceptionsbasedonexperiences.Buildingonthisapproachweproposeaframeworkto
guideresearchersandpractitionersinmovingtowardsanunderstandingofhowthe
experientialnatureofvaluemaybeusedinempiricalstudiesintourismandhospitality.
Design/methodology/approach:Thisisatheoreticalpaperinwhichweconsiderthe
natureofvalue.Asnoessenceofvaluehasbeenidentifiedinanextensiveliteraturewe
arguethatvalueshouldinsteadbeconceptualisedintermsoffamily
membership(Wittgenstein,2000).Reconceptualisingvalueasafamilyallowsittobe
understoodthroughthequalitativelydifferentwaysinwhichpeopleexperiencevaluein
theirlifeworld.Inaddressingthemethodologicalissuesarisingfromour
reconceptualisationofvalueweproposeathree‐stageframeworkthatprovidesan
effectivemeansofresearchingvalueintourismandhospitalitycontexts.
Findings:Thereconceptualisationofvalueintermsoffamilyresemblancesaddressesthe
lackoftheoreticalanddefinitionalrigour,andthelargevarietyoflinguisticusagesthat
currentlyexist.Theframeworkweproposeprovidesameansofimplementingthe
findingsbasedonanexperientialapproachthatconsidersthequalitativelydifferentways
inwhichactorsintourismandhospitalityexperiencevalue
Value:Reconceptualisingvalueasafamilyhasnotbeenconsideredinpreviousresearch,
whichhastraditionallyfocusedonasearchforessencesoronmeasurement.Thispaper
providesanewperspectiveforacademicsandpractitionersintourismandhospitality
andassistsunderstandingofphenomenaassociatedwiththeconceptofvalue.The
theoreticalmodelprovidesameansofadvancingempiricalresearchintourismand
hospitalityfromtheperspectiveofstakeholders.
27
Researchlimitations/implications:Conceptualisingvalueasafamilyisthefirststepinour
proposedframeworkthatprovidesresearcherswiththephilosophicalbasisto
understandthenatureofvalueinagivencontext.Theframeworkandmethodologyare
consistentwiththemovetowardsqualitativeresearchasameansofunderstandingthe
natureofvalue(Edvardssonetal.,2011)andbuildsonPetrickandBackman's(2002)call
forfurtherresearchintoperceivedvalueintourism.
Practicalimplications:Theproposedframeworksupportsanapproachtoempirical
researchthatcanadvancetourismandhospitalitystudiesthroughanewunderstanding
ofthenatureofvalue.Theframeworkprovidesasoundbasisfordiscussingvalue
creationandco‐creationgroundedinaclearunderstandingofthenatureofvaluein
differentcontexts.Tourismandhospitalitypracticeshouldchangetoreflectthe
experientialapproachtounderstandingandresearchingvalueproposedbyourmodel.
CANCELLED: Decolonizing
Tourism Epistemology: Envisioning A
DemocraticHorizonOfInterpretation
AnaMaríaMunar
Thedebateoftourismresearchparadigmsoftenrevolvesaroundadivisionbetweenwhat
hasbeennamedthebusinessoftourismandtourismstudiesor(post‐)positivistand
critical/interpretivistapproaches.Thischaptersuggeststhatthelevelofanalysisofthis
debatehassomemajorlimitationsandthatweneedtomovebeyondthisbasicdivision.
Thesedifferentscholarlytraditionsdonottakeplaceinavacuum,theyevolveunderthe
influenceofpowerfulmeritocraticandmarketizedhorizonsofinterpretation.Thisstudy
advancesthethesisthattherearetwodominantcontemporaryandparadigmatic
horizonsofinterpretationinacademicepistemology,meritocracyandthemarket,andit
presentsdemocracyasanalternativewaytoenvisionandrevitalizethevaluesoftourism
epistemology.
Thearticleexamineshowtheinternallogicsofthesedominantparadigmatic
interpretationsareconsolidatedinaninstitutionalrealityandcolonizewaysof
understandingtourismresearchandscholarship.Inspiredindemocratictheory,thestudy
introduceskeydimensionsofdemocraticphilosophysuchasthepublicsphere,the
principleofautonomy,theontologyofcitizenshipandthetheoryofcosmopolitan
democracy.Itexaminesinwhichwaysthesedimensionsrelatetotheparadigmatic
hegemonyofmeritocracyandthemarketandpresentsanepistemologicalproposalbased
onthelogicsandvaluesofdemocracy(rebellion,dialog,communicativeaction,inclusion
andequity).Finally,thechapteraimstoraiseascholarlydebatebydisplayingutopian
anddystopianvisionsofacosmopolitantourismacademy.
28
ExperienceFacilitationAndTouristValueExperience
ChoukiSfandla,MetinKozak,AntoniaCorreia
Inthelightofmanagerialchallengingprocessesintourismexperiencemarketing,the
purposeofthisresearchpaperistoscrutinizetheimpactofthreemanagerialexperience
resources;namelyexperiencefacilitationprocess,substanceofexperiencefacilitationand
experiencefacilitationassessment,ontheperceptionofvalueasexperiencedby
resourcefultourists‐socio‐economicactors.Especially,thepaperinvestigatesthevalue
ofexperiencefacilitationprocessbyaddressingtherelationshipsbetweenrelevant
constructsandtoproposeamodel.ThroughaStructuralEquationModel,theproposed
modelwasempiricallyandstatisticallytestedamonginternationalgolfvisitorsofVictoria
Golfcourseservicein2014,Algavedestination,Portugal.
Theresultfindingssuggestthatalltheconstructsareinrelationshipsandmulti‐
dimensionalindicatingthemostsignificantrelationshipsofthemodel.Andthisresultcan
sufficientlybeviewedasevidenceinsupportingthe15researchhypothesespresentedin
thispaper.Furthermore,theserevealedfindingsareofutmostimportantforacademic
andtourismserviceindustryastheyinformtheimportanceoftheexperiencefacilitation
process.Also,theyhighlightthefacilitativeinteractionsofaproviderwithatourist
viewedasfree‐conscious,independentandresourcefulinvaluingtheexperienceandboth
arepartofexperiencefacilitationprocess.
TheempiricalstudywaslimitedtoVictoriaGolfcourseasaMediterraneanGolf
experiencesite;howeverthestudyisaninspirationforotherMediterraneanGolfservice
sitessuchasinMoroccoandinTurkeytosustaininthechangingtourismdestination
development.FutureresearchstudycouldapplythismodeltoexaminedifferentGolf
courseexperiences,traditionsandculturesfromotherdifferingtourismregionsto
improvethegeneralityoftheresultfindings.
Thepaperadvocatesthatexperiencefacilitationprocessanditssubstanceforresourceful
touristsarerelatedtothematicexperientialeventsandfacilitativeinteractions,andthe
arrangementformsintheexperiencefacilitationprocessontheperceptionofvalue
experienceandsatisfactionofinternationaltourists.Thispaperfurthermorecontributes
innurturingourunderstandings,asitadvancesourcurrenttheoreticalknowledgeon
factorsthatthevalueofexperiencefacilitationprocess,invaluelineofthinking,embraces
engagementandempowermentinthesubstanceofthefacilitationprocess.Inthisregard,
theevaluationisimportanttojudgethemeritofcompetingfacilitatedexperience
processes.
29
Value,wasteandtourism:atopologicalinquiry
RichardEk
Thisisaconceptualpaperthatdoesnotpresentempiricalfindings,butratheractsasa
philosophicalinquiryconcerningwaste.Intourismandhospitalitystudieswastehasbeen
atopicandphenomenonthathasbeencarefullyaddressedinseveralways(thequestion
ofwasteinthehotelindustry,sustainabilityassessmentcriteriafortouristdestinations,
municipalsolidwasteoriginatingfromthehospitalitysectorinparticularcities,food
wasteinrestaurantsandCSRintheairlineindustry,amongothers).However,thereare
fewattemptstodiscusswasteperseinrelationtotourismandtourismandhospitality
management(oneexceptionbeingLeiper1997).Ifthetaketheclaimthattourismisan
orderingforceinsociety(Franklin2004)seriously,andalsoadmitprecariousecological
andenvironmentalsituationtoday,wecaneasilyconcludethatwasteinatouristcontext
needsfurtherelaboration.
ThisisthecasenottheleastsincetheEUhasintroducedthedirective2008/98/EC
regardingthefive‐stepwastehierarchywhichmustbeintroducedintonationalwaste
managementlawsamongthememberstates(Hultman&Corvellec2012).Waste
preventionisthemostvaluedalternativeinthishierarchy,butalsothealternativethatin
amostprofoundwaychallengesthehabitualunderstandingofwasteasofnovalue,as
somethingvalue‐less.Thewastepreventionalternativealsochallengesthehabitual
understandingofplanningandmanagement(ofthetourismandhospitalityindustries
andoftourismdestinations).Suddenly,theplanningforandmanagementoftourist
activities,places,mobilitiesetc.isaboutsomethingthatispresentinitsabsencerather
thansomethingthatneedstobeputinitsrightplaceinphysicalspace.Thewaste
hierarchy,iftakenserious,questionshowwevaluewastebutalso,intheend,howwe
valuatetourismasaresourcedrivensociomaterialpractice.
Thepurposeofthispaperistopresentarelationalreadingofwasteinatouristand
hospitalitycontext.Inthisrelationalreading,wasteisnotpossibletodisentangleinneat
ways(asfoodwastethatistakenoutthebackdoorintherestaurant)fromtourismand
hospitalityassociomaterialpractices.Rather,wasteisaninherentpartofthetourism‐
andhospitalityindustriesandconsequentlyneedstoberevalued(wasteismorethan
somethingofnovalue).Theoriesthatareinvokedinthisinquiryaremainlyphilosophical
takesonwaste(Lynch1990,Thompson1979)andthecurrentscholarlydialogueonthe
meritsofatopologicalunderstandinginthesocialsciences(Shields2013).
30
Thevalue(s)oftourism:aliteraturereview José‐CarlosGarcía‐Rosell,MariaHakkarainen,SannaKyyrä,EstherDorsman
Althoughtheconceptofvalueiswidelyusedintourismstudies,ithasbeenseldom
elaboratedfromatheoreticalperspective.Theprevailingbeliefamongtourismscholarsis
thatvalueissomethingsingular.Yet,therearenumeroustheoreticalperspectivesthat
canbeusedtoexplainthemeaningofvaluewithinatourismcontext.Forinstance,value
maybeapproachfromdifferentperspectiveslikeneoclassicaleconomics,labortheory
andmoralphilosophyamongothers.Alsoadistinctioncanbemadebetweentheusesof
valueinsingularorpluralform.While“value”isunderstoodastherelativeworththata
societyconfersonanobjectorpractice,“values”areusedinreferencetocommon
principlesthatguideouractions(Arvidsson2011).Aclearunderstandingofthenotionof
value(s)andtheirintegrationintodecisionmakingisacriticalpreconditionfor
developingtourismpracticesthatpromoteabalancebetweenpreservationanduseof
resources(Crick‐Furman&Prentice2000).
Theaimofthisstudyistopavethewayforstudiesonthevalue(s)oftourismbyinquiring
intohowthenotionofvalue(s)hasbeendiscussedinthetourismstudiesliterature.In
particular,weexaminethefocusandnatureofvalue(s)intourismbyconductinga
systematicliteraturereviewbysearchingsevenonlinedatabases(Tranfield,Denyer&
Smart,2003).Databaseswerescannedusingapredeterminesetofsearchwords.Fromall
theidentifiedreferences,weselectedonlythosethatusetheterm“value(s)”inthetitleor
keywords.Asaresult,weendedupwithafinalsampleof580paperspublishedinover50
differenttourismandhospitalityjournalsbetweentheyears1976and2014.Thepapers
foundwereanalysedthematically,forinstance,accordingtohowthenotionofvalue(s)in
tourismwereconceptualizedandunderstoodfromatheoreticalandphilosophical
perspective.
Preliminaryfindingsshowthatalargenumberofstudiestendtoframevalue(s)in
economicandpsychologicalterms,whilefewstudiesdiscussvalue(s)inrelationto
morality,aesthetics,spiritualityandenvironmentalism.Understoodinthislight,it
becomesobviouswhyindigenousculture,traditionallivelihoods,heritagesitesand
naturemaybeviewedasvaluableintourismaslongastheymeettheprinciplesofprofit‐
maximisationandcustomersatisfaction.Byillustratingthedominantperceptionsof
value(s)intourism,thestudyseekstodrawattentiontounderresearchedaspectsof
value(s)thatneedtobeaddressinordertopromotefurtheradvancementsinthis
researchareaandthuscontributetotheconstructionofabettertourismworld.
31
ValuesOf/ForTheTouristI
Practicesandmeaningbehindthewordsofserviceself‐representations
inthehotelindustry ChristerKarlEldh,JohnFMonhardt
Theaimofthisstudyistounderstandtheontologybehindthedevelopmentofhead
quarterdictatedserviceself‐representationsinhotels,withaspecificfocuson
recruitmentprocesses.Inwhatwaysaretheseself‐representationsvaluecreatingfor
customersandcompanies?Inwhatwaysdotheycontributetomeaningandmodeof
productioninhotels?
Inthistextserviceself‐representationshouldbeunderstoodasstatementofaservice
conceptinhotelsthatincludeswhatisoffered,howtoperformservices,actions,
treatmentofcustomersandhotelimage.Thisdefinitioniscapturingboththebaselineof
servicesbutalsothecustombearingandvalueofferings(Eksell2013).
Inotherstudiesithasbeenpointedoutthatthereisarelationbetweenprocessesof
learning,instructionsandservice‐scripts(Valkonenetal2013).Standardizingservice
processesaresupposedtominimizethetimeandeffortsinvolvedinteachingthe
employeestodothework.Ifservicescriptsdescribeshowandwhattosaytocustomers,
serviceblueprintingdefineshowstandardizedservicesineverydetailshouldbe
performedtooptimizeintermsofcostsandservicedeliveryprocedures(Kostopouloset
al2012).InthehotelindustryandHiltonhotelsisoneexample,itiscommontouse
servicescriptsandserviceblueprintingbecausetheneedofskillednewemployeesis
minimizedandthecompanywillnotbedependentonspecificindividualsamongthestaff.
However,theconceptsofservice‐scriptsandblueprintingisratherrecentlycriticizedin
termsofeconomicefficiencyandcreatedvalue.Studieshavedemonstratedthat
customersathotelscaneasilydiscernwhenanemployeeisfollowingaservicescript,and
consequentlywillhaveagenerallynegativeviewofscriptedservices.Onestudydiscusses
howamoderatelyandrelaxedscriptingaffectscustomersperceptionofquality.A
suggestionpresentedinthisstudyistogetemployeesinvolvedintheprocessof
developingascript.Bythisahotelcouldperformabettertreatmentofcustomers
(Victorino2012).Aconsequenceofthisisofcoursethatthehotelismoredependent
uponacoreofstaffandpresumablyamoreflexiblerelationtoservicerepresentations.
Firststepinthisstudy,whichwillbepresentedinthispaper,istocompareserviceself‐
representationswithqualitiesaskedforinrecruitmentprocessesamongfourmajor
Scandinavianhotelchains(450hotels).Themethodologyhasbeenquantitativetext
analysis.Theresearchisbasedontwocategoriesoftexts.Onecategoryisserviceself‐
representationastheyarepresentedatwebpagesandpamphlets,anothercategoryis
recruitmentadvertisements.Thesecategoriesarecomperedtoseeinwhatextensionthey
arematching.Preliminaryresultshowsdissonancesbetweenself‐representationsand
desirablestaffskills.Thehotelsdifferwhenitcomestoself‐representationsandwhat
kindofservicepositioninthemarkettheystrivefor.Therearemoreofsimilaritieswhen
itcomestorecruitmentadvertisements.Theself‐representationsaredifficultto
distinguish.
32
Slowtravel:thevalueoftimeintourism
TinaRoenhovdeTiller
Slowtravelasaresearchfieldhasincreasedinpopularityinthelastdecade.Theconcept
startedtogainattentionthroughonlinecommunities,andtourismresearchershave
becomeinterestedinthepossiblebenefitsthatslowtravelmayhaveonglobaltourism's
contributiontoclimatechange(Dickinson&Lumsdon,2010).Theterm'slowtravel'is
howeverfraughtwithambiguity,andattemptstoshapeadefinitionhavethusfarnot
resultedincommonlyacceptedtheories.Thusfaritiscommonlyagreedthatsomeaspect
oftheholidayjourneymustincludeaslowpace,decideduponbythetraveller,creatinga
contrasttobusyandstressfuleverydaylifeinwesternsocieties.Thecurrentslowtravel
conceptisusedasanantecedenttothisresearch,forthesakeofexplorationoftime
perspectivesandthevalueoftimeintourism.
Thisresearchwillfocusonpeoplewhoconsiderthemselvesslowtravellers,andpeople
whoaccordingtotheliteraturewouldbeconsideredslowtravellers.Thistypeoftourists
isespeciallyinteresting,astheyseemtohaveauniqueperspectiveontimeduringtravel,
inthattheypurposelyseekoutapacewhichisrelaxing,perhapscontrastingthepaceof
theirhomeenvironment.Thedriversbehindtheslowtravelphenomenonareunder‐
researchedtodate,anditistheintentionoftheresearchertoclarifytheroleoftime
perspectivesindrivingtheincreaseinpopularityofsuchtravelformsandidentifyifthere
arealternativekeydrivers.
Takingonestepbackfromtheliterature,theresearcherisemployingagroundedtheory
approachtofurtherexploretheslowtravelphenomenon.Seeingasresearcherstodate
havestruggledtoverifytheirhypotheses,itisdeemedthemostappropriatemethodfor
formingatheoryonthetopic.Twostagesofdatacollectionhavebeencompleted,
includinganalysisofblogs,andparticipantobservationandinterviewsatacycleholiday
organisedbyatouroperator.
Blogsofpeoplewhoconsiderthemselvesslowtravellersweresoughtoutforinclusionin
thesample.Resultsfromthebloganalysisshowsthatthebloggersarenotconcernedwith
theirtravelmode,frequency,durationorenvironmentalimpact,ashasbeenthefocusof
researcherstodate.Theirmainmotivationsincludepersonalgrowth,andtemporal
integrationinthesocietytheyarevisiting.Timebecomesverycentraltotheexperience,
asthemoretimetheyhaveforexplorationandbecomingfamiliarwiththeirdestination,
thehighervaluetheyplaceontheexperience.Forthosewhohavelesstimetotravel,time
isofevenhighervalue,astheystrivetosavoureverymomentoftheirtrip.
Currentlytheresultsfromthecycletriparebeinganalysed,andpreliminaryresultsshow
thatthefocusonactualpaceandtravelmodeisquiteinappropriateforshapingthe
definitionofslowtravel.Thispresentationwillfocusonthevalueoftimeandthe
experienceinslowtravel.
33
Theeffectofculturalvaluesandtravelmotivesinlifestyle
segmentationoftourist
NinaMarianneIversen,LeifEgilHem
Theincreasingglobalizationofmarketsandthecriticalityofreachingtherightlifestyle
segmentsmaketherelationshipbetweenpersonalmotivesandculturalvaluesan
importantareaforacademicresearchandmanagerialpractice.Theauthorsseekto
provideanunderstandingofthisrelationshipinatourismcontext,specificallyintermsof
thelinksbetweentravelmotivationsandasetofculturalvalues‐materialism,
uncertaintyavoidance,horizontalandverticalindividualism,andhorizontalandvertical
collectivism.Thestudyexaminedwhethertheimportanceratingsofculturalvaluesdiffer
acrosssegmentsoftouristsgroupedonthebasisoftheirtravelmotives.AnInternet
surveywasusedandthesampleincluded1546potentialtouriststoFjordNorway.WE
conductedaclusteringtechniquetogrouprespondentsaccordingtotravelmotivesand
culturalvalues.Resultsshowedthattravelmotivesandculturalvaluescanserveas
discriminatorsbetweenlifestylesegments.Thethreemotivesegmentswerethenature
andnovelty,thestatus,andtherelaxationsegment.Thesegmentsevaluatethe
destinationdifferentlyandvaryinbehavioralintentions.
Tourismdestinationsatisfaction:therelativeimportanceoffirmand
attributelevelsatisfaction MaritGundersenEngeset,JanVelvin
Background:Touristdestinationsandtourismcompanies’focusontheirguests’
satisfaction.Managersareconcernedwithbothensuringthattheirguestsaresatisfied
andthatthissatisfactionresultsinincreasedspendingrepurchasebehaviorandpositive
wordofmouthreferrals(Mittal,Katrichis,andKumar2001;Oliver1993).Inorderfora
tourismdestinationtoenjoyrepeatvisitsandpositivewom,theirguestsmustbesatisfied
withtheexperience.Thereisaneedforknowledgeabouthowdifferentaspectsof
tourists’experiencesatadestinationrelatetooverallsatisfactionwiththedestinationas
awhole.Suchknowledgewillenabletourismdestinationstofocusonimprovingaspects
thathavemoreweightintheformationofoverallsatisfaction.
Theoreticalperspective:Satisfactionliteraturehasfocusedontherelationshipbetween
satisfactionwithdifferentaspectsofanexperienceandoverallsatisfaction(Mittaletal.
2001;Mittaletal.,1999).Thetourismexperiencehaveleasttwodimensions(Quan&
Wang,2004):Topexperiences–reflectingtheunderlyingmotivationordrivetoseekthe
particularexperience(i.e.,inthecaseofwintersportdestinations–theski‐hilland
relatedproducts),and(2)supportexperiences–reflectingthefundamentalneedswhile
travelling(i.e.,bed,transport).Touristsatisfactiondependsongainedexperiencestiedto
bothtopandsupportexperiences.Further,differentaspectsofthetourismproductgive
raisetotourists’satisfaction.FollowingGrönroos(1984)theseaspectscanberelatedto
thephysicalproductaswellastothemannerinwhichtheproductisdelivered–i.e.,the
34
service.Theobjectiveofourresearchistoidentifytherelativeimportanceofdifferent
aspectsrelatingtobothfirmsthatfallintothecategoriesoftopandsupport
experiences,andattributesrelatingtobothserviceandphysicalaspectsoftheproductfor
overallsatisfactionandrepurchaseintentionsatthefirmanddestinationlevel.
Dataandresults:Datafrommorethan4000touristsvisitingthewinterresortdestination
HemsedalinNorwayoverthreeseasonsareusedtotesttherelationshipsbetween
attributesatisfaction,firmsatisfaction,anddestinationsatisfaction.Resultssuggestthat
intermsoftop/supportexperiences,consumersplacefarmoreweightontheir
satisfactionwithproductsrepresentingtopexperiencesthansatisfactionwithsupport
experienceswhentheyformoverallsatisfactionandbehavioralintentionsatthe
destinationlevel.Further,satisfactionserviceaspectshavestrongerimpactthanphysical
aspectsonoverallsatisfactionatbothdestinationandfirmlevel.Managerialimplications
anddirectionsforfutureresearcharediscussed.
Valueco‐creationintourismexperiences
EvaMariaJernsand,HelenaKraff
Thevalueoftourismfromaconsumerperspectiveoccurswhenthetouristinteractswith
people,objects,andsurroundingsbefore,duringandafteranexperience.Howeverthese
encountersarenotonlyimportantforthetourist'svalueoftheexperiencebutitalso
createsvaluefortheserviceprovider,othertourists,localresidentsandthedestination
asawhole.Thevalueoccursintheco‐creation,andanunderstandingofthisco‐creation
ofvalueisakeyissueinordertodeveloptheoryontourismexperiences.
ThepaperpresentsanexampleofhowaconceptualgridproposedbyEideandMossberg
(2013)canbeusedtounderstandco‐creationofvalueintourismbyreferringtoacaseof
destinationdevelopmentinDungabeach,Kisumu,Kenya.Thepurposeistounderstand
differentdegreesofco‐creationintourismofferingsandtogiveimplicationsforhowthe
gridcanbeusedasabasefordevelopingco‐createdexperiences.
Themainimplicationsarethatthegridvisualisestheperformanceoftourismofferingsin
bothaholisticandparticularway.Bythesevisualisationsitispossibletostudyand
analysethepresentstateofthetouristofferingsaswellastoelaborateonmovementsin
thegridtoenhanceideageneration,whichmayresultinneworimprovedco‐created
experiences.Usingdifferenttypesofinteractionsinthegridsrevealsforexamplethatthe
rolesoftheguidesarecloselyrelatedtoanddifferdependingonthedegreeofco‐
creation.Inafullyco‐createdexperience,theguides'rolesarenotonlyfacilitatorsbutas
friendsonanequallevelofknowledgeandperformance.Italsoexposesthattourists'
interactionswithresidentsareimportantformutualunderstanding,notleastin
developingcountriessuchasKenya,whereitisseenasimportanttoincludelocal
residentsintourismdevelopment,fromplanningtoimplementation.
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Whatisthisrelationshipworth?Gift‐givingandemotionalworkinthe
hospitalitybusiness ErikaAnderssonCederholm
Serviceinteractionshaveanimportantroleinthedevelopmentofnewformsofintimate
relationships,suchas“commercialfriendships”.Thisisparticularlypertinentinthesmall
scalecommercialhome,suchasBed&Breakfastandotherformsofhomestays,wherethe
homeistheworkplaceandasenseoftogethernessbetweenhostsandguestsisregarded
asanexperiencevalueandattractiononitsownterms.Theaimofthispaperistoanalyse
theemotionalworkinsmallruralbusinessesinthetourismandhospitalityindustry.
Morespecifically,thepaperdiscusseshownarrativesofclosenessanddistancemayactas
ameanstosustainambiguityortensionbetweengift‐givingandselling,andbetween
emotionalandeconomicvalues.Thestudycomprisesethnographicinterviewswith
ownersofsmallruralbusinessesinthetourismandhospitalityindustry,aswellas
observationsanddocumentanalysisofthebusinesswebsites.Thepaperfocusesonthe
narrativepracticesofambiguitywork,wherethecommercialhomeentrepreneursare
balancingtheprofessionalandthepersonalandthusretainatensionbetweencloseness
anddistancebetweenhostsandguests.Thepaperadoptsaninteractionistperspective,
drawingontwostrandsofliterature;emotionalworkandthenotionofvaluation
processesemployedineconomicsociology.Itisarguedthatthenotionofsociological
ambivalence,andmoreparticularlythenotionofambiguitywork,mayenhancean
understandingofemotionalworkamongself‐employedhospitalityworkers.Itisfurther
arguedthatthedemarcationofthecommercialhomeasazoneofambivalenceiscrucial
inordertosociallyconstructthenotionoftogethernessasamarketizedexperience
value.
ValuesInBusinessI
Valueco‐creationmodellingforbigdataanalytics–the
destinationmanagementinformationsystemÅre
MatthiasFuchs,TatianaChekalina,WolframHöpken,MariaLexhagen
Thepaperpresentsaknowledgeinfrastructurewhichhasrecentlybeenimplementedas
genuinenoveltyattheleadingSwedishtourismdestinationÅre.ByapplyingaBusiness
Intelligence(BI)approach,theDestinationManagementInformationSystemÅre(DMIS‐
Åre)drivesknowledgecreationasapreconditionfororganizationallearningattourism
destinations.Afterintroducingtheconceptofthe‘KnowledgeDestination’,thepaper
describesmajorelementsoftheBI‐basedknowledgeinfrastructure,suchasdata
warehousing,knowledgegenerationthroughDataMiningandOnlineAnalytical
Processing(OLAP),aswellasthevisualizationofdataanddataminingmodelsinthe
DMIScockpit.
36
Thecustomer‐basedbrandequityconceptappliedinatourismdestinationcontextserves
asthetheoreticalbaseoftheunderlyingdatamodel:bytakingintoaccountavalue‐co‐
creationapproach,themodelconsistsofthecustomers’evaluationofthedestination
promiseintermsoftransformingtangible,intangibleandsocialdestinationresources
intotourists’value‐in‐use.Moreover,destinationbrandawarenessisassumedtoaffect
thecustomers’evaluationofthedestinationpromise,which,inturn,determinestourists’
behaviouralintentionstowardsthedestination.Byimplementingaweb‐basedsurveyand
usingalinearstructuralequationmodellingapproach,themodelisempiricallytestedfor
theSwedishskidestinationÅre.
Resultsshow,forinstance,thesignificantcontributionofcustomerbenefitsandvaluefor
moneytocreatedestinationloyalty.Afterhavingdiscussedthedevelopmentand
validationprocessofsurveyitemsmeasuringcustomerexperience,thepaperhighlights
howDMIS‐Årecanbeusedbytourismmanagerstogainnewknowledgerelatedto
customers’value‐co‐creationprocessesatthedestinationÅre.Firstofall,itisshownhow
apersonalizedDMISdashboardsummarizesusefulsurveyinformation,suchas
customers’useofbookingchannelsandguestprofiles,suchasdemographics,travel
group,travelmode,sendingcountry,etc.Secondly,customers’feedbackdatareflecting
perceiveddestinationbrandawareness,satisfactionwithwintersportservices(i.e.skiing
andnon‐skiingactivities),destinationfeaturesandservices,anddestinationloyaltyis
visualizedandcanbegroupedbymanagersthroughOLAPfunctionalitiesbyvarious
dimensions,suchascustomers’profileandtripbehavior.
Finally,byapplyingDataMining‐basedmethods(i.e.machinelearning)thedriversbehind
overalldestinationsatisfactionandguestloyaltycanbeempiricallyidentified.Thepaper
demonstratesthatbymonitoringuniquedestinationandtourist‐specificexperience
dimensions,destinationmanagementcancontrolboththevalue‐in‐useforcustomersand
customerloyalty,therebyupgradeandevaluateitsmarketingstrategy,and,finally,
discoverinnovationpotentialsforhighlyexperientialtourismproducts.Aftera
concludingdiscussionofmajorcomponentsbuildingtheprototypicallyimplementedBI‐
basedDMISinfrastructure,theagendaoffutureresearchissketched.Thelatter
comprisestheapplicationofreal‐timeBusinessIntelligencetogainreal‐timeknowledge
ontourists’on‐sitebehaviorattourismdestinations.
Explainingperformanceinhotelandrestaurantbusinesses JieZhang,AstridE.Enemark
Thepurposeofthepaperistoinvestigateperformanceinhotelandrestaurantbusinesses
inDenmark.Theanalysisplacesaspecialemphasisonfactorsthatinfluencebusiness
performance.Weexplorethefactorsfrombothinternalbusinessfactors,suchas
investmentandprofitsofbusinesses,aswellasthelevelofemployee'seducation;and
externalfactors,suchasproductivityofhotelsandrestaurantsinthemunicipalitywhere
thebusinessesaresituated,anddemandsidefactorssuchastourismdemandforhotels
andrestaurants.Alocationfactorandfactorforbusinessagglomerationarealsotaken
intoconsideration.
37
ThedataappliedforthisanalysisisthebusinessregistereddatabasefromStatistics
Denmark.Thereareapproximately13,000hotelsandsimilarbusinessesand102,000
restaurants,caféandsimilarbusinessesinthedatabase.Thisdatabaseismergedwith
personalregistereddatawheretheemployedpersonsatbusinessesareincluded.The
externalvariablesareobtainedfromregionalproductionaccountsandregionaltourism
satelliteaccounts.
Wetestourhypotheseswithaneconometricmodelonthebasisofmicrobusinessdata.
Preliminaryresultsshowthatperformanceinhotelsandrestaurantsispositivelyrelated
withprofits,levelofinvestmentofbusinesses,productivityofhotelsandrestaurantsin
theirregionsandconcentrationofbusinesses.Itisfoundthatprofessionaleducation,for
example,asacookhasapositiveimpactontheperformanceinrestaurantbusinesses.A
higherlevelofeducationinhotelbusinessesalsohasimpactsontheperformance.
Demandfromtouristsplaysaroleinthebusinessperformance.Itisfoundthatthemore
tourismexpendituresathotelsandrestaurantsinthemunicipalities,thebetterthey
perform.Thelocationfactortellsusthatthehotelsandrestaurantssituatedinthecity
centresperformbetterthanthoselocatedelsewhere.Furthermoreitseemsthe
businesseshavedifficultyinperformingwellwhenlocatedintheperipheralregions.
Thecontributionofthisarticletothescientificresearchisthatweapplymicrobusiness
datawithinhotelandrestaurantbranchestoexplorethebusinessperformancein
tourismindustry.Thereisnotmuchresearchsofarthatappliesbothmicrobusinessdata
andpersonalregistereddataforanalysinginhotelandrestaurantbusinesses.Ithasalso
allowedustocomparetheperformancebetweenhotelbusinessesandrestaurant
businesses.Thepotentialimplicationofthisresearchistounderstandtherelationship
betweenthebusinessperformanceandaseriesoffactors,eventuallyhelptourism
businessestoimprovetheirmanagement.
Howscienceandtechnologyaffectbusinessinnovationsin
tourism
Anne‐MetteHjalager
Thispaperattemptstoexpandthecomprehensionofimportantdrivingforcesinthe
developmentoftourism.Theaimistomapandcategorizeinnovationsthatbasically
happenedoutsidethetouristsectorinscienceandtechnologymoregenerally,but
neverthelesshaddecisiveimpactsintourism.Accordingly,itaddressesthederived
developmentsthattakeplaceintourismasaconsequenceofscientific,technological,
institutionalandotherinnovationsoutsidethetourismsector.Thepaperrecognizesthat
materialandimmaterialvaluesarecreatedinothersectors,anddisseminatedtotourism
businesses.
Thepaperisacontributiontotourismhistory,andgoesbackmorethanacentury.The
tricklingdowndependsoninstitutionalchangesandabsorptivecapacityinthetourism
sector.Theimpactscontributemainlytothesocialandphysicalefficacyoftourists,
includingreductionofrisksandimprovedmobilityandaccessibility.Innovationsalsolay
thegroundforentirelynewtouristicexperiences.Numerousinnovationsare
38
implementedtoincreasetheproductivityandperformanceoftourismenterprises.The
paperprovidesexamplesofinnovationsthatledtotheopeningofnewdestinations.
Institutionalandinformationalinnovationsproliferatedintocriticalmodernization.A
deepercomprehensionofdisseminationpatternscanbeusefultowardsfuturetourism
innovationpolicies.
Whydosomeinnovationsaffecttourismrapidlyandsubstantially,whileothersstagger
foralongtimebeforetheyareexploitedinatourismcontext?Thediffusionofinnovation
impliesorganizational,cognitiveandinstitutionalboundarycrossing,throughmoreor
lesspermeableboundariesandwithmoreorlessrigidgatekeepers.Thepaperdiscusses
thepossibilitiestounderstandthediffusionofsciencethroughtheoriesofboundary‐
spanning.
Measuringtheimpactofaperformancebenchmarkingsystemon
hotellabourproductivity
SigbjørnTveteraas,RagnarTveterås,HelgeJørgensen
RisinglabourcostsmakeitincreasinglychallengingforhotelsinNorwaytobeprofitable.
Simultaneously,hotelroomcapacityisrapidlyexpandinginseveralNorwegiancitiesand
willlikelyreducehotelroomprices.Thesetrendswillpressureprofitmarginsandmake
itmoredifficulttooperatewithoutlossesinthemediumtolongtermunlesshotelsfind
newwaystoimproveprofitability.Oneareathatcancontributetoimproveprofitabilityis
enhancementoflabourproductivity.Thisareahasreceivedlimitedattentionin
hospitalityresearchandinthehotelindustrypractice.
However,inamorerecentstudybyKimes(2011)leadersinthehotelindustryrespond
thattheyexpectfocustoshiftfromrevenueperavailableroom(REVPAR)togross
operatingprofits(GOPPAR)asthekeyperformancemeasure.Ifthisistrue,thenitreflects
achangefromthetraditionallymarketing‐orientedperspectiveinthehotelindustrytoa
moreequalemphasisontheproductivityandcostsideoftheprofitequation.Bakerand
Riley(1994)pointedouttheimportanceforproductivityofscalinglabouruseaccording
todemandlevelssincestorageofhotelroomsisnotfeasible.Thisimpliessomelevelof
intergrationorcoordinationofsales(marketing)andoperationsfunctions.
InthisstudyweusedailydatafromoverfiftyhotelsinaleadingNorwegianhotelchainto
estimateaneconometricstochasticfrontiermodeloflabourproductivity.Inparticular,
weareinterestedinvestigatingwhetherhotels’useofPerformanceManagement
Intelligence(PMI)softwarepackage,aperformancebenchmarkingsystem,leadtohigher
productivity.Theinformationfromthesystemissupposedtomakeiteasiertomatch
salesforecastwithlabourneedsandtherebyfacilitateimprovedplanningofstaffing.
Hence,themainhypothesisisthathigherfrequencyuseoftheperformancemeasurement
system’sforecastingandbenchmarkingcapabilitiesincreaseslabourefficiency.Thedata
isorganizedasanunbalancedpaneldatawithdailydataspanningfrom2003to2014.We
areabletorankthe50+hotelsaccordingtolevelofefficiencyinlabouruse.Furthermore,
ourresultsindicateastatisticallysignificantproductivityimprovementbasedonhigher
frequencyuseoftheperformancebenchmarkingsystemPMI.
39
MultiplenationalismandSouthKoreanwarmemorialmuseum
Young‐SookLee
Museumsandtheircontents,usedasastrategicinstrumentbypoliticalpowersofa
country,oftenpromotenationalism.WarMemorialofKoreaisoneofthelatestvenuesto
nurtureandpromoterightwingnationalismintheSouthKoreansocietyassuggestedby
researchinpoliticalsciences.Thispaperaimstoa)uncovertheelementsofnationalism
expressedintheexhibitionsonKoreanWaratWarMemorialofKorea;andb)locatethis
formofnationalismamongotherformswithinthesocietyanddrawimplicationsfor
visitorsatisfaction.Drawnfromsocialsciencedisciplines,multipleanddifferent
nationalismsisthetheoreticalunderpinningofthisstudy.Basedonthecontentsofthe
exhibitions,anin‐depthinterviewwiththemuseummanagerandmemosleftbythe
visitorsintheguestbook,thispaperidentifiestwofacetsofnationalismintheexhibitions.
Locatingthisformofnationalismamongothersinthesociety,thispaperarguesthatthis
formofnationalismisanexpressionofstatismandhasbeentheideologicalbasisforthe
securenationbuildingdrivesuntil1989.Thisidentifiednationalismdemonstratesa
uniquepositionthattheSouthKoreangovernmentexperiencescomparedtoits
neighboringcountryChina.
InChina,diversityofitsnationalsposeschallengesintheirexpressionsofconsolidated
nationalism.AstrategyemployedbytheChinesegovernmentisresortingtopatriotism‐
likenationalisminitsefforttolegitimisethepowerofthegovernment.Whatiswitnessed
inSouthKoreainitsexpressionofnationalismisthedilemmaowingtothesociety’s
monolithicrace,historyandculturalbackgroundbutdifferentpoliticalideologies.The
nationalismpromotedbytheSouthKoreangovernment,somehow,neededtoillegitimise
thesamerace,historyandculturedNorththatwasestablishedoncommunistideology.
ThestrategytakenupbythedominantSouthKoreansocietyuntil1989isanti‐communist
andpro‐Americastatismexpressedasrightwingnationalism.Since1989,however,the
SouthKoreansocietysawdifferentformsofnationalismspringingup,demonstrating
multiplenationalismphenomenaintheEastAsiansociety.Thispapersuggeststhat
nationalismexpressedinmuseumsshouldnotbeviewedhomogeneouslyandmultiple
facetsneedrecognizedinresearchingtourismpractices.Tourismmarketersandplanners
arerecommendtousetheconceptofmultiplenationalismintouristestablishments,
becausetheoveralltouristexperiencescanbemanagedeffectivelywithaspecificmarket‐
focusedapproach.
Theinnovationjourneyofnew‐to‐tourismentrepreneurs
IsabelRodriguezSanchez,MatildeBrotons,AllanWilliams
Theroleofentrepreneursasinnovatorsandagentsofchangeintourismisstilla
neglectedtopicwithintheemergentresearchagendaoftourisminnovationstudies.The
processofinnovationhasoftenbeenreferredtoasa"blackbox"andthestudiesof
tourisminnovationhavemainlyfocusedattentionontheinput(knowledge,capitaletc.)
andoutputoftheprocess(natureandtypesofinnovation,impactonperformanceetc.).
Thispaperfocusesontheentrepreneur,thekeyactorintheinnovationprocesswhichis
40
conceivedasdifferentstagesofajourneythatbeginsfromideagenerationandendswith
itsimplementation,withvaryingdegreesofsuccessorfailure.Tourismresearchershave
demonstratedtheconsiderablediversityamongsttourismentrepreneurs,butthat
researchhasfocusedmoreontheirmotivationsandresourcesthantheirrolein
innovation.Oneespeciallyneglectedstrandofentrepreneurshipisthosewhoarenew‐to‐
tourism.Consequently,thisstudyhastwoaims.First,itexploresthecharacteristicsand
motivationsofasampleofmainlynew‐to‐tourismentrepreneurs.Whatmotivatesthese
entrepreneurstoinvestintourismandwhatdistinctiveknowledgeandexperiencesto
theybringtotourisminnovation?.Italsoemphasizestherelationalnatureofinnovation,
forinnovationisnottheoutcomeofheroicindividualism,butisasocialandinteractive
processinvolvingindividualswithdiversetalentsandskills.Second,thestudyalsoaims
tounderstandthecomplexityoftheinnovationprocessorjourney,thebarriers
encounteredatdifferentstages,andhowtheseareovercome.
Thetwo‐stepresearchmethodisbasedonasampleofentrepreneursparticipatingina
publicprogrammeinSpain,theEmprendeturProgramme,whichprovidessubsidized
loanstofundentrepreneurswithinnovativetourismprojects.First,thepreliminarystop
istoidentifytheentrepreneurs'professionalprofilesandcareers,usingbusiness
networkssuchasLinkedIn,withdatabeingcorroboratedbytheentrepreneurs
themselvesthroughSkypevideointerviews.Secondly,semistructuredinterviewswill
provideopportunitiesfortheentrepreneurstonarratethestoriesoftheirinnovation
journeys,andreconstructthechallengesencounteredateachdecisivestage,andhow
thesewereovercome.
Innovationhasbecomeapolicymantrainrecentyears,buttheprocessofimplementation
ispopulatedbydiversegroupsofentrepreneurswhomarshalvariedresourcesinorder
toovercomearangeofinternalandexternalbarriers.Thisstudyidentifieskeyfeaturesof
thedistinctivenon‐linearinnovationjourneysoftheenigmaticgroupofnew‐to‐tourism
entrepreneurs.Thesedemonstratenotonlytheimportanceoftheirdistinctivehuman
capital,butalsohowthisisvalorizedthroughcomplexinteractionswithotherindividuals
andagencieswithcomplementaryresources,whichcollectivelyconstituteaninnovation
ecosystem.
ValueChainsAndNetworks
DestinationdevelopmentintheBotnia‐Atlanticaregion:same,
sameanddifferent
KajsaGrandicsÅberg,KritinaSvels
Duringthelasttwentyyears,tourismhasbeenpromotedasawaytosustaineconomic
activitiesinperipheralareassuchasallthreepartsoftheBotnia‐Atlanticaregion
includedinthisstudy:thecountiesofNordlandinNorway,VästerbotteninSwedenand
ÖsterbotteninFinland.
41
Theregionalgovernmenthasleftitsformeridentityofcontrolandcommandbehindand
enteredthestageofdestinationdevelopmentasanactoralongsidetheprivatesector.The
underlyingviewontourismisthatitisadirigibleanddefinablecommercialactivity
whosedevelopmentmustbesupervisedandregulatedinorderfortheexpectedgainsto
bereapedandriskstobeavoided.However,researchclaimtherearecomplexitieswithin
thebusinessoftourismthatmakeitdifferentfromotherindustriespreviouslypointed
outasatoolsforregionaldevelopment.Onthepro‐sideofthisistheaspectthattourism
isanindustrywhichmaybebasedonnaturalresourcesnotinneedoflargeeconomic
investmentstoberefinedintocommoditiesandlabor‐intense.Theconsaremuchlinked
tothemulti‐facetednatureofthetourismproductanditsproducers.Priorresearchon
destinationdevelopmenthaspresentedthecommunityapproach,wheretourismisan
integratedpartofthelocalcommunity,asopposedtothecorporateapproachwherethe
developmentisbeingledbyonestrongcommercialactor(Flagestad&Hope,2001).The
formeremphasizestheviewondestinationdevelopmentascollaborationinneedof
mediatorsbridginggapsbetweenactors(Murphy&Murphy,2004).
Thispaperpresentsastudyfocusingonthemulti‐actornatureoftheproducer‐sideof
tourismanditsrelationtoregionaldevelopment.Thematerialwascollectedthrough
interviewswithstakeholdersfrompublicaswellasprivatesectorofthethreecaseareas.
Oneofthekeyaspectsofthemanymodelsandstrategiesaimedatcreatingplanned,
touristicdevelopmentistherelationbetweentheinvolvedactors:Whoistoholdthe
decisivepowerandwhoisgivenpossibilitiestoinfluenceonthesettingofstrategies?
Aspectsoftrustandpartnership(e.g.Glasbergen,2011)arescrutinized,pronouncingthe
differencesinlocalunderstandingandperformanceofhierarchyandcollaboration.
Theresultshowsdisparitiesbetweenthedifferentcaseareas,infactthedifferencewasso
striking that the original comparative research approach had to be revised. Beside the
factualdifferencesbetweentheregions,thisstudyevokesquestionsforfurtherresearch
concerningtheuseof"bestpractice"andnormativemodels.
Tourismactors’socialrepresentationsofcollaborationsinIdre,
Sweden:acognitivemappingmethod IoannaFarsari
Theaimoftheresearchistoexaminetourismactors’perceptionsofcollaborationsin
Idre,Sweden,andrevealdifferencesandsimilaritiesinthewaythatindividualactors
valuetheoutcomesofcollaborations,inwhattheyconsiderasimportantin
collaborationsandhowcollaborationsintheareatakeplace.Thisisexaminedwith
cognitivemappingtakingasocialrepresentationstheoryapproach.
SocialrepresentationsdevelopedbyMoscovichiareaboutacognitivesystematthesocial
levelallowingthemembersofacommunitytoshareacommonunderstandingofthings
communicateandactcohesively(Nicolini1999).Socialrepresentationsintourismhave
beenusedsofarmainlyinexaminingattitudesofhostcommunitiestowardstourism.
Socialrepresentationsinthestudyoftourismplaceemphasisonthesocialconstruction
oftourismallowingmorepowertothemembersofthecommunityandthusenabling
42
sustainabledevelopment(Moscardo,2011).
Cognitivemappingoffersamethodtoelicitandanalyseperceptionsanindividualholds
aboutaparticulardomain.Comparisonsbetweencognitivemapscanrevealsimilarities
anddifferencesinthewaythedomainunderinvestigationisconstructedandunderstood
whiletheanalysisofthecognitivemapscanrevealvaluesandcentralconstructsin
individualcognition.Thesecharacteristicsmakecognitivemapsparticularlyattractivein
examiningsocialrepresentations.Surprisinglyhowever,hardlyanystudyhasattempted
todoso.
Usingakeyinformantssamplingtechniquetogetherwithsnowballing,thestudy
identifiedeighttourismactorsintheareacoveringseveraltypesoftourismstakeholders.
AcognitivemappingmethodbasedonSODA(EdenandAckermann,2001;Farsari,Butler
andSzivas,2010)approachusingsemi‐structuredinterviewswasusedtostudy
perceptionsoftourismactorsinIdre,Sweden,aboutcollaborations.Datawereanalysed
usingDecisionExplorer’sanalyticaltools.Value,hieset,potency,domain,centralityand
clusteranalysiswereusedtoanalysecognitivemapsandrevealgoals,keyissuesand
clustersintheperceptionsoftourismstakeholdersaboutcollaborationsinIdre.
Consequently,theindividualmapswerecomparedagainstthesefindingstoreveal
similaritiesanddifferencesintheperceptionsoftourismactors.
Thisisstillaworkinprogress.Resultsareexpectedtorevealkeyissuesincollaborations
betweentourismactorsinIdre,aswellassimilaritiesanddifferencesinthewayactors
constructtheirperceptionsofcollaborations.Thiscomparisonwillallowrevealingwell
establishednotionsincollaborationsintheareaaswellasdifferencesandgapsthatmight
hinderthem.Resultsarediscussedinlightofrepresentationstheorytohighlightwhether
thereissomeconsensusintheunderstandingofcollaborationsinthearea.
Practicalimplicationsincludetheidentificationofimportantaspectsinactors’
collaborations.Inthiswaycollaborationsmightbestrengthenedenhancingsustainable
tourismdevelopmentinthearea.Theoreticalcontributionoftheresearchemanatesfrom
thestudyingofsocialrepresentationsincollaborationsandmoreoverusingacognitive
mappingmethod.Hardlyanystudyhasusedcognitivemappingtoexaminesocial
representations.Thisresearchaimsatexploringtheuseofaspecificcognitivemapping
methodtothisdirectionandthuspotentiallyofferthegroundformoreresearchinthe
area.Veryimportantly,withthismethod,findingsarenotonlybasedonthecontentbut
alsoonthewayactorsstructuretheirperceptionsallowingamorethorough
understandingandstudyingofthem.
Valuinginnovationindestinationnetworks HåvardNess
Iexplorehowadministerednetworksenhanceindividualfirmanddestinationlevel
innovationintourismnetworks.Thefindingssuggestthatnetworkcharacteristics
matters,andthatmeetingplacesbetweenfirmsareimportantforbothfirmand
destinationlevelinnovation.
43
Tourismdestinationsmightbedefinedas"ageographical,economic,andsocialunit
consistingofallthosefirms,organizations,activities,areasandinstallationswhichare
intendedtoservethespecificneeds"ofthetourist(Flagestad&Hope,2001,p.449).Thus,
tourismdestinationsareco‐producingnetworkswhereindividualtourismfirmsare
interdependentonotherfirmsastheyonlyprovidea(small)partofthevisitors'
experience(Buhalis,2000;Murphy,Pritchard&Smith,2000).Furthermore,destinations
arethemselvespartofregions,wheredifferentdestinationsalsomightcomplementeach
otherinprovidingtouristswithatotalexperience.Thus,itbecomesimportantto
understandhownetworkscan(tosomeextent)beadministeredtoenhancedestination
networkinnovation(Novelli,Schmitz&Spencer,2006;Saxena&Ilbery,2008;Scott,
Cooper&Baggio,2008).
Innovationisexploredfromtheperspectivesofnetworksandabsorptivecapacity(ACAP;
Cohen&Levinthal,1990;ZahraandGeorge,2002).Absorptivecapacityisdefinedas"a
setoforganizationalroutinesandprocessesbywhichfirmsacquire,assimilate,
transform,andexploitknowledge"(Zahra&George,2002,p.186).TheACAPperspective
hasbeenappliedtodifferentlevelsofanalysis(Zahra&George,2002),andhasbeen
arguedtobeaparticularusefulperspectiveinatourismnetworkcontext(Shaw&
Williams,2009).Networksmightbedefinedas"asetofnodesandthesetofties
representingsomerelationship,orlackofrelationship,betweenthenodes"(Brass,
Galaskiewicz,Greve&Tsai,2004,p.795).Acoreargumentinnetworktheoryisthatties
(ie.relationships)betweenfirmsfunctionasinformationconduits,andresearchhas
shownthatnetworktiesspeeduplearning,innovationandspreadofefficientbusiness
practices.However,administerednetworks,definedasnetworksthatarepartlymanaged
bysomeformof"hub"orcoordinatingorganizationalunit,provideadditional
opportunitiesfororganizedinformationandknowledgesharingthatmightspur
innovation.Thus,thepaperaddresshowtourismdestinationnetworkinnovation
dependsoninformationandknowledgeflowsbetweenfirms,andhowadministered
networksofferaparticularopportunityforestablishingdifferentkindsofknowledge‐
enhancingcontexts(VonKrogh,Ichijo&Nonaka,2000),ormeetingplaces,forfirmsto
interact.
Toexploretheseissues,asingleembeddedcasestudywasconducted.Thefindings
suggestthattherelationalcharacteristicsofthenetworkmatters,andthatorganized
arenasforinteractionandknowledge‐sharinghaveapowerfulpotentialforenhancing
innovationbothinindividualfirmsandparticularlyatthenetworklevel.Furthermore,
thefindingssuggestthatactorsfromdifferentinstitutionalcontexts,aswellasrich
variationinknowledge‐enhancingcontexts,areimportantandthatpositive
complementaritiesbetweendifferentactorsandknowledge‐enhancingcontextsexist.
Finally,thefindingssuggeststronginterdependenciesbetweenthelearninglevels.
44
ExploringNordicwaysoftourismcooperationaroundcanals,
riversandinlandwaterareas
AnnaKarinOlsson
Thereisanincreasinginterestforexploringand/re/developmentofwaterand
waterwayssiteswithsurroundingareasusedforleisure,recreationandtourism(seee.g.
Erfurt‐Cooper,2009;Jennings,2007).Waterhasalwayshadgreatimpactonhumanlife
andthedevelopmentofcitiesandregions.Marine(ocean)andcoastaltourismisavery
fastgrowingareawithincontemporarytourism(Hall,2001)hencethereisalsoan
increasinginterestforinlandwaterareassuchaslakes,riversandcanalsasvaluable
resourcesfordestinationdevelopment(HallandHärkönen,2006;Prideaux,Timothyand
Cooper,2009).Lakes,rivers,canalsandotherwaterareasareusedasvitalkeyelements
indestinationmarketing(HallandHärkönen,2006).Manydestinationsencourage
developmentofwaterfrontfestivalsandeventsaswellasotheractivitiesbothwater‐
basedandland‐based(Erfurt‐Cooper,2009).
Competitionamongdestinationshasincreasedandsohastheneedforwell‐coordinated
tourismofferings.Callshavebeenmadefortourismofferingsthatcontributetooverall
destinationdevelopment(Morgan,PritchardandPiggott,2003).Atmanydestinations
andeventscooperationandcreationofvalueisbasedoncooperationandtheabilityto
organizingbetweenorganizationssincealargenumberofvariousstakeholdersfrom
private,publicandvoluntarysectorsofteninteract(seee.g.Garrod,Fyall,LeaskandReid,
2012;Getz,AnderssonandLarson,2007).Earliertourismstudiesshowthatcoordination
ofnetworksarecrucialsincesuccessfuldestinationsarebasedoninterrelated
stakeholdersthatunderstandtheconceptofthedestinationandarecommittedto
cooperatebyknottingtogetherthedifferentofferingsintoholisticexperiencetovisitors
andlocalresidents(seeBornhorst,RitchieandSheehan,2010;Morgan,ElbeandCuriel,
2009;Swarbrooke,2001).Waterandwaterwaysitesmayhencebeofvalueindeveloping
destinationsanddestinationmarketingalthoughwatermayalsoactasdividesbasedon
geographical,politicalorculturalboundaries.Despitetheincreasinginterestthereis
limitedtourismresearchoncanals,riversandin‐landwaterareas(seee.g.Halland
Härkönen,2006;Prideauxetal.2009;TangandJang,2010).
Thepresentstudyreportsonworkinprogress.Theaimistoprovideanexplorative
Nordicstudyontourismcooperationanddestinationdevelopmentaroundcanals,rivers
andin‐landwaterareas.ThepaperisbasedonselectedNordiccasesandfocuson
identifyingstakeholdersandnetworksthatareinvolvedincooperationandcreationof
tourismofferings.Theirwaysofcooperation,viewsofcooperationandchallengesfaced
arestudied.
Thisstudytakesitspointofdepartureinamarketingapproach.Acombinationofexisting
theoriesandresearchontourismexperiences,stakeholdertheoryanddestination
developmentandmarketingisapplied.
Thedatacollectionincludesacombinationofdifferentmethods:interviewswithmain
stakeholders,collectionofexistingdocumentsrelatedtotheselectedregions,and
45
observations.
Thestudyisongoingbutsofarseveralstakeholdersareinterviewedandtheirinsights
aregained.Potentialfindingspointouttheimportanceandvalueofco‐ordinationof
tourismofferingsandcreationoflastingnetworksalthoughalsoobstaclestoinvolvement
andmanagementofdestinationstakeholderswithmixedvisionsforpreservationof
culturalheritageversusexplorationandcreationofwater‐basedtourismexperiences(c.f.
ConzenandWulfestieg,2001;Donohoe,2012,TangandJang,2010,Vanhove,2002).
TheNGO‐tourismnexus–mappingthe‘doings’oftheNGOizationof
tourismandtouristificationofNGOsinLaAntiguaGuatemala
SarahBecklake
ThispaperstartswiththeargumentthatthereisagrowingNGO‐tourismnexus.NGOsare
increasinglyinfluencingtourismdiscoursesandpractices.ThroughcampaigningNGOs
are(in)formingdebatesanddirectionsintourismdevelopment(Barnett2008;Butcher
2007)andthroughpromotingcertainformsoftourism(e.g.volunteertourism)and
places,theyareinfluencingtourists’desiresandtouringpractices(KennedyandDornan
2009;Keese2011;Mostafanezhad2013).NGOsarealsoincreasinglyorienting
themselvestowardstourism.Theyareenrolledintourismdevelopmentprojectsand/or
usingtourismasakeystrategytosustaintheirownprojects(Butcher2003/2007)and,as
studiesofdevelopment,volunteer,andslumtourismhaveshown,someNGOsare
becoming‘destinations’intheirownright(seeFreire‐Medeiros2013;Frenzeletal.2012;
Salazar2004;Spencer2010).Followingtheseinsights,wecanspeakoftheNGOizationof
tourismandthetouristificationofNGOs.ThispapermapstheNGO‐TourismNexusandits
wider‘doings’inoneparticularplace:Guatemala.Basedonfivemonthsofethnographic
researchinthesmalltouristictownofLaAntiguaGuatemala(Antiguaforshort),it
highlightsthepivotalentanglementofNGOsintheAntigüeñantourismeconomy.Antigua
NGOsareincreasinglyengagingwithandlinkingtotourismasameansofattracting
compassionandfunds.InsodoingtheytellNGOstoriesofpovertytotourists;they
providetouristicservices,suchasfacilitatingandhostingvolunteertouristsandoffering
slumtours;and,theyareopening‘profitfornon‐profit’tourismbusinesses,suchasNGO‐
runSpanishschools,hotels,andrestaurants.Whilemuchcouldbesaidaboutthese
differentNGOtouristicpractices,inthispresentationIfocusonhowtheyarehelpingto
(re)create‘destinoGuatemala’morebroadlyasapopular‘developmenttourism
destination’andhowtheyareopeningupnewlinesofemplacedcompetitionbetween
‘(im)moraltourismeconomies’.Following,itisarguedthattheNGO‐TourismNexusin
Antiguaishelpingto(re)configureGuatemala’spositiononthe‘globaltourismstage’,
wherebypovertyandneedandtheopportunity‘tohelp’havebecomeoneofitskey
‘tourismexports’.
46
ValueOfTourismForSustainableDevelopmentI.
Conservationandtourism:Acomparativeanalysisofprotected
areapolicyandplanninginNorwayandNewZealand. JamesHigham,JanVidarHaukeland,DebbieHopkins,KregLindberg,OddIngeVistad
Thispaperreportsonepartofaresearchprojecttitled‘ProspectsforManagingTourism
DevelopmentinProtectedAreasinaPeriodofTransition’.Theresearchaddressesthe
potentialforfosteringnature‐basedtourismandrecreationinassociationwith
Norwegiannationalparks.Todayprotectedareasrepresent17%oftheNorwegian
mainland.Withafocusonnatureprotectioninrecentyears,littlemanagementattention
hasbeengiventothepotentialfornature‐basedtourism,althoughinthelastdecade
politicalsignalsatthenationallevelhaveindicatedgrowingsupportfortourism
developmentinassociationwiththenationalparks.
ThemanagementofthenaturalresourcebaseinNorway,bothwithinandoutside
protectedareas,hashistoricallybeenfoundedonthegeneralprincipleof‘common
access’(allemannsretten),onwhichNorway’sOutdoorRecreationAct(Friluftsloven)is
based(Miljøverndepartementet2007).Thisallowsforunrestrictedfootaccesstoallin
wildernessareas(areaswhicharenotregardedascultivated)suchasnationalparks.The
principlesoftheallemannsrettarethefoundationformostlyself‐organisedindependent
outdooractivitieswithatraditionoflimitedfacilitydevelopmentandcommercial
activitiesinitsnationalparks(Haukeland&Lindberg,2001).Existingnationalpark
managementplansdocumentmanagementrulesandregulationsforuseoftheparks.The
majorityofexistingnationalparkmanagementplansmakelittleornoreferenceto
tourism,recreationandeconomicdevelopment(Heiberg,Hagen&Christensen2006)or
tovisitorstrategies(Haukeland2011).
ThispaperpositionsNorwegianprotectedareapolicieswithregardtotourismand
recreationintheinternationalcontext.NewZealandprovidesacomparativecasethatis
uniqueinthelongstandingandformalizedrelationshipbetweentourism/recreationand
conservationmanagement.NewZealand’sConservationAct1987formalizesalong‐
standingassociationbetweennatureconservationandtourism.Itrequiresthe
DepartmentofConservationtofostertourismandrecreationaluseofheritageresources
(Cahn&Cahn1989)“sofarasitisconsistentwiththeconservationofnaturalandcultural
heritagevalues”(ConservationAct1987).AmajorrestructureoftheDepartmentof
Conservationin2013hassignificantlyshiftedthegovernmentdepartmentfurtherinthe
directionofpublicandbusinesspartnershipsforconservationmanagement,recreation
andtourism1.
Adoptinganexploratoryqualitativemethodologyexpertinterviewswereconductedin
NewZealand(March/April2013)withseniorDepartmentofConservationstaffacrossthe
three‐tiergovernmentaldepartmentstructure;central(national),regional,anddistrict
offices.Theblindedinterpretationofinterviewtranscriptsrevealedfivekeythemesin
currentNewZealandconservationmanagementpolicyandpractice;Philosophical
47
transitions,liberalconservation,recreationaltransitions,publicownershipand
engagement,andtrust.ThesethemesarepresentedanddiscussedinrelationtoNew
Zealand‘conservationanduse’dualmandate.Guidedbylesson‐drawingtheory(Rose,
1991),wepresentcomparisonswithcurrentNorwegiannationalparkmanagement
practicesbeforedrawingconclusions.
1DOC’sStatementofIntent2013‐2017highlightsthestrategicdevelopmentof
conservationpartnershipswithtangatawhenua(indigenouspeople);landowners;
regionalandlocalgovernment;businesses;scienceproviders;recreation,outdoorand
conservationorganisations;philanthropists;andcommunitygroups.
Valuesoftourismdestinations“inthemiddleofnowhere”
MariaHakkarainen,SannaKyyrä
Inthispresentationwediscusstourismnumericalindicators,especiallyrelatedtogrowth
andprogressivedevelopment,andtheirconnectionstothevaluediscussionsinregional
development.
Nowadays,responsibilityisoneofthemainvaluesofoursocietyinwhichtheaimsof
responsibletourismistocreatebetterplacesforpeopletoliveandtovisit.Societyasa
wholecanbepresentedthroughfivedimensionsofresponsibility:social,cultural,
economic,ecologicandpolitical.Inthiscasestudy,weexaminethevaluesoftourismina
Nordicdestinationbyfocusingontheeconomic,socialandculturalaspectsof
responsibilityorresponsibletourism.Weillustratethediscussionsonthevaluesof
tourismbyusingSalla,aremotetourismdestinationsituatedinFinnishLaplandclosedto
theRussianborder.Ourstartingpointinourresearchistherecentlycalculatedeconomic
impactoftourismtotheregionaldirecttourismincome,employmentandtaxrevenuein
Lapland.Thesenumbersareusuallypresentedtodescribethegrowthoftourism.Our
aim,however,istolookbeyondthenumberstoillustratewhatthenumbersrepresent‐
orfailtorepresent–inrelationtotheeconomic,socialandculturalaspectofresponsible
tourism.
Thecasestudyisaresearchstrategywithathickdescriptionofaresearchobjectwith
versatiledataandaimingtoanswerthequestionsofhowandwhy.Theanalyticaltransfer
oftheoreticalpropositionstootherobjectsorphenomenaintegratesfindingswith
existentliteratureanddescribeshowrelatedobjectsaresimilar.Thegeneralproblemcan
beseenaslocalbycontextualizingittoacertaintime,placeandcommunity.Inour
research,theempiricaldataconsistsofregionaltourismstrategies,municipalpolicy
documents,previoustourismresearchesdoneintheregion,andsomethematic
interviews.
TourismentrepreneursinSallaarewellorganized,themunicipalityofSallainvestsand
supportstheindustryanddifferentstakeholdersintheregionareactiveandinnovativein
regionaltourismdevelopment.Sallaisalsoanactivestakeholderinthedifferent
48
discussionsaboutthepromotionofRussiantourisminFinlandandthereductionof
borderregulations(e.g.visafreedom).Thereareseveralreasonswhichshowthatthere
aremanyothervaluesthanprogressiveandexpansivetourismdevelopmentinSalla.Salla
haschosenmerelyvaluebasedapproachinsteadofprogressivegrowth.Themunicipality
ofSallahasputintopracticeaveryuniquedevelopmentstrategyfordevelopingand
promotingSallaasatourismdestination.Thedestinationhas,forinstance,beenvery
successfulinturningchallengessuchasremotenessandseasonabilityintoopportunities.
Salla’sslogan“inthemiddleofnowhere”andthecommercializationofoff‐seasontime
periods–e.g.Salla’sevent“nothingshappensweek”–aregoodexamplesofSalla’s
developmentstrategy.
Sustainablefoodsystems,impactsoftourismonlocalvalue
creation
JanHenrikNilsson,StefanGössling,Ann‐ChristinAndersson
Therelationshipbetweensustainabilityandfoodhasattractedconsiderableattentionin
variousresearchfieldsduringthelatestdecades.Ithighlightsthefactthatfoodsupplyis
oneofthemajorfunctionsofthesocietyandeconomy.Thefoodsystemreachesallthe
wayfromagriculturetotheplates,anditisrelatedtogovernanceandpolicy,health,
animalwelfare,bio‐security,etc.(Marsden&Morley,2014).Theimpactonclimate
changefromfoodproductionanddistributionhasalsobeendiscussedlately(Björklund,
Holmgren&Johansson,2009).Productionofecologicalfoodcanbeviewedasonewayof
improvingthefoodsysteminrelationtosustainability.However,ecologicalproduction
oftenneedstobemoreexpensivethanconventionallargescalefarming.Tourismand
hospitalitycouldbeseenasawayofbringinghighend,ecologicalgoodstothemarket,as
partsoflocalfoodnetworksorgastronomicpromotion(Hall&Gössling,2013).Thereare
howeveranumberofissuesinmanagingandmarketingsustainablefoodsystems
concerningregulations,knowledge,cultureandrelationswhichmakethesesystems
highlycomplex.Tourismandhospitalityarepartsofthis.
Thispresentationreportsthefindingsofaqualitativestudyofactorswithinsustainable
foodsystemsinSmåland,SouthernSweden.Inall,50semi‐structuredqualitative
interviewswereconductedduringspringandsummerof2013:20withecological
farmersand/orproducers;20withchefsincertifiedrestaurants;and10withspecial
interestconsumers.Thestudyexplorestherespondents´practices,perceptionsand
attitudesinrelationtoeating,cooking,buying,producing,distributingandservingfood,
especiallyinrelationtolocalfoodresourcesandsustainability.
Themainresearchissueconcernstherelationbetweenthesethreecategoriesofactors
andhowtheirrelationshaveimpactonthefunctionsoflocalandregionalsustainable
foodsystems.Distributionofecologicalfood,ofteninsmallbatches,fromfarmersto
consumers,athomeorasrestaurantguest,isoneofthemostdifficultquestions.Large
commercialsystemsarenotadjustedtosmallscalefarmingwithirregularsupply.
49
Irregularitywastogetherwithweakknowledgelevelsinrestaurantsfoundtobemajor
problemsintherelationbetweenfarmersandrestaurantmanagers.Instead,personal
relationsbasedonfriendshipandtrustoftenmadedeliverychainsworkdespite
“businesslogic”.Consumershadinmanycasesdifficultiestofindecologicalfoodintheir
localstores.Insteadtheyoftenboughttheirfoodatfarms,meaningtheyneededtodrive
togettheirsustainablefood‐almostacontradictioninterms.Ontheoftenhand,this
emphasizeshowdependentecologicalfarmersoftenareonpeoplecomingtovisitthem
tobuyfooddirectly,itcutsdistributioncostsandimprovesmargins.Itwasalsofound
thattourismhadbecomeamajorsourceofinnovation;thelocalpopulationwasoften
foundtobemoreconservativeandlessqualityconsciousthanurbanpeople,whoarethe
touristsinSmåland.
Islands’tourismandeventsasco‐designerforsustainability–
ExperiencesfromtheNorthSeaWaddenRegion
HanBrezet
Thecreationandtestingofnovelsustainableproductsandservicesusuallytakesplacein
industrialsettingsandchainsorincityrelateddesignandserviceconsultanciesandliving
labs.Often,thedesignforsustainabilityprocessisdrivenbyenergyandmaterialsimpact
orientedlegislationandunderconditionsofstrongbusinessandmarketcompetition,
leavingminorspaceforuserorientedexperimentation.But,extensivelearningand
probingarecrucialfortheeventualsuccessoftheproposednovelproductsandservices.
(Hellman,2005;Celik,Joore&Brezet,2014)
Natureorientedtourismandrecreationregionscancreaterelevantandextensive
possibilitieshereforuserexperienceswithsustainableinnovations,duetotheir
characteristics,cultureandrelaxpotential,enablingabetterunderstandingofuser
requirements,benefitsetc.
Recently,industrialdesignersandarchitectshavediscoveredtheco‐designpotentialof
islands’tourismandrecreationasasignificantsourceofinspirationandlearning.The
paperdescribestheexperiencesof“designersforsustainability”onseveraltouristic
NorthSeaWaddenIslands’programsandevents,fromTexel(NL)toSpiekeroog(GE).
Thefindingsofthedifferentco‐designprojectsontheislandswillbetheoretically
positionedandinterpretedfromtheperspectiveofthe“multileveldesign”model(Joore&
Brezet,2014)aswellastheEcocostsValueRatiomodelfortheirenvironmental‐economic
assessment(Vogtlaenderetal,2013).Inadditiontopopularmodelssuchas“multi‐
governance”and“sustainabletransitionmanagement”,thefocusherewillbemoreon
entrepreneurshipandtourism’sco‐designpotentialasbuildingblocksforsuccessful
sustainableinnovation.Theempiricalcasesinvolvedwillbeamongstothers:
•
SustainablePublicLightingSystemDesign(Texel)
•
Do‐it‐yourselfFruitGardenservice(Texel)
•
BikeFreightTransport–Vrachtfiets(Ameland)
50
•
•
•
•
•
LocalPicnicSetDesign(Ameland)
3DBiomaterialbasedPrinting(VlielandPopFestival)
AlternativeDrinkingWaterSystems(VlielandPopFestival)
SelfSufficientEnergyPopPodium(VlielandPopFestival)
SustainableSpa(Spiekeroog)
Resourcifyingtheunique–Collaborativevaluationpracticesinrural
tourismdevelopmentinSweden ManuelaKronen
Ruraltourismdevelopmentisannouncedtobebasedonlocalresources.Stillfewstudies
engageinanalyzinghownature‐,culture,andothervaluesareproactivelyturnedintoa
resource.Theaimofthisstudyistoinvestigatinghowuniquevaluesareturnedintoa
resourcebycollaborativevaluationpractices.Theresearchisbasedonfieldworkonthree
SwedishinitiativesforruraltourismdevelopmentcalledSilenceville,Pathfinderand
Evenbetter.TheprojectsareEUco‐foundedbytheLEADERmethodforrural
development.ThetermLEADERisanacronymfor"LiaisonsEntreActionsde
Développementdel'ÉconomieRurale"(Linksbetweentheruraleconomyanddevelopment
actions).Allthreeruraltourisminitiativesdepartfromtheambitiontoidentifyandapply
theuniquevaluesoftheareaasaresourceforruraltourismdevelopment.Myfieldwork
investigateshowtheparticipantsoftheprojectsfillthenotionoftheuniquevalueswith
contenttotheendoftourismdevelopment.Uniquevaluesisheretreatedasanempty
signifier,meaninganopentermthatisfilledwithsignificancebysocialinteraction.The
materialforthestudyisgeneratedinparticipantobservations,qualitativeinterviewsand
acollectionofprintedanddigitalmedia.Thestudyindicatesthatthenotionofunique
valuesisrelationalinthesensethattheuniquevaluesofoneareaarevaluatedin
comparisontootherareas.Yet,amoreprevalentcreativeforceinthecollaborative
valuationpracticeofresourcificationisthecollectiveexperiencesandmemorieslivingin
thegeographicalareathataremaintainedandrevivedbysocialinteraction.
Resourcificationofuniquevalueshencebuildsonthecompetencesofpeopleinawide
sense.Thisunderlinestheimportancetoappealtothepersonalmotivationofindividuals
andtobringcompetencestogetherinphysicalmeetingplaceswherecollaborative
valuationispossible.Forruraltourismdevelopmentthisindicatestheusefulnessofa
widerangeofcollectivecompetencesforenhancingintegratedruraltourism
development.Initsextension,thecollectivevaluationpracticesthatleadto
resourcificationmayalsobeanassetforsocialandeconomicsustainabilityoftherural
communities,notatleastintheaspectofqualityoflife.
51
“Deconstructing”SustainableTourism(ST)andCommunity‐Based
Tourism(CBT):TowardsaRobustFrameworkofSustainable
Community‐BasedTourism(SCBT)
TekB.Dangi,SoyeunKim,TazimJamal
DefinitionsanddescriptionsofSustainableTourism(ST)andCommunityBasedTourism
(CBT)abound.TheUnitedNationsWorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO),forinstance,
definesSTas:"Tourismthattakesfullaccountofitscurrentandfutureeconomic,social
andenvironmentalimpacts,addressingtheneedsofvisitors,theindustry,the
environmentandhostcommunities".Bricker&Schultz(2011)offerauseful
categorizationoffourpillarsofST:effectivesustainabilityplanning;maximizingsocial
andeconomicbenefitstothelocalcommunity;andreductionofnegativeimpactson
culturalandenvironmentalheritage.Meanwhile,"Community‐Basedtourism"(CBT)has
gainedsomeprominence,butwhatdoesitmeanandhowdoesitrelatetoST?Ellisand
Sheridan(2014)believeCBTappliestheobjectivesofST"combinedwithanemphasison
communityengagementanddevelopment".However,multipledefinitionsanddiverse
principles,indicatorsandcriteriaineachmaketheconceptsofSTandCBThighly
problematic.Wearguefortheneedofarobustframeworkof"SustainableCommunity‐
BasedTourism"toguideresearchandpractice,andundertakeacomprehensiveliterature
analysisasthefirststep(Stage1)toexplorethisclaim(thesis).Thisinvolvesasystematic
gatheringandcompilingofpublishedliteratureonST&CBTtoidentifyarelevant
"sample"ofarticles.Withinthesearticles,definitions,principles,criteriaandindicatorsof
sustainabilityfromorganizationssuchasUNWTO,GSTC,variouscertificationschemes,
academicresearch,plusotherlocal‐globalorganizations(forprofitandnot‐for‐profit)are
examinedandaproposedframeworkforSustainableCommunity‐BasedTourism"SCBT"
isforwardedfordetailedreview.
TheSCBTframeworkdevelopedisexploredfurther(Stage2)throughapplicationtoa
casestudysettingofcommunity‐basedtourisminasustainabilityorientedcontext.
Extensiveempiricalcasestudyresearchbyoneofthepaper'sco‐authorsinrural
community‐basedKoreanagriculturalcontextwillbeexaminedusingtheproposedSCBT
framework,andareasofcorroborationanddifferencesidentified.Koreahasmade
remarkableadvancesinrural(community‐based)tourism,whichisoftentermedas
green‐tourismandagro‐tourisminKorea,ratherthansustainabletourismorcommunity‐
basedtourism.Inaddition,sensitivetotheEurocentrismandmodernisticvaluesthat
imbuewesternnotionsofSTandCBT,thisstageoftheexploratorystudywillalsoaimto
identifythe"ethos"ofKoreanfarmersandcommunities,whattheyvalueandcareforin
termsof"well‐being",ofland,community,environment,etc.(whatmightconstitute
"sustainable"tourismdevelopmentand"sustainable"communitydevelopmentin
westernterms).
ThepreliminarySCBTframeworkwillbefurthercontemplatedinthecontextofthe
Koreancasestudyresults,whichraiseschallengingethicalandpragmaticquestions.Is
thereaglobalSCBTframeworkthatcanbegroundedandjustifiedbyasetofuniversal
52
ethics(likethe"GlobalCodeofEthics"WTOproposes)?HowdoessuchSCBTframework
accountfor,ortakeintoconsideration,diverseculturalvalues,human‐environmental
relationships(alsocultural),participatoryandpowerrelations,thatvaryinplacesand
spacesfromthelocaltotheglobal?Thisstudyfillsanimportantgapinresearchand
practiceby:(i)addressingimportant,intangiblevaluesandissues(e.g.culturalvalues)
thathavebeenomittedbefore,and(ii)forwardingarobustframeworkthatbridgesST&
CBTincorporatingcriticalelements,values&ethicalprinciplesthatapplytoboth.
Value‐basedTourism
ConflictsbetweentourismandpowerproductioninIceland:Discourse
analysesonlanduseandthechangingideaofnaturalresources AnnaDóraSæþórsdóttir
Demandfornaturalresourcesandenergyhasincreasedworldwideandincreased
pressureonnaturalareas.Tourismisgrowingandisoneofthesectorsthatutilisenature
andcanrunintoconflictswithotherindustriesthatutilisenaturalresources.InIceland
natureisthemostimportantresourceforthetourismindustryandthemajorityof
internationaltouristscometheretoexperiencenature,includingwilderness.Rapid
growthoftourismhasraisedconcernsaboutmaintainingthequalityofnature.Atthe
sametimeplansformorehydroandgeothermalpowerproductioncausechallengesand
conflictsasmanyoftheproposedpowerplantsarelocatedinnaturalareas,someof
whicharedefinedaswilderness.ThefactthatIcelandisanislandfarawayfromthe
EuropeanandAmericancontinentshassofarhinderedthedirectexportofelectrical
power.However,ideasconnectingIceland’selectricitygridwiththeEuropeangrid,viaa
submarinecable,havenowbeenfoundtobehighlyinterestingduetoglobalchangesin
theenergymarket,higherelectricitypricesinEuropeandincreaseddemandfor
renewableenergy,Europe´s“20‐20‐20”targetshavefurthermoreaddedtotheviabilityof
thecableplan.
Bothnaturetourismandthepowerproductionindustryhavechangedtheideaofnatural
resources,buteachoneinitsownway.Astheideasdonotharmonizeandbothare
developingfastconflictsarise.Whatisa‘naturalresource’isdefinedbysociety,culture
andeconomyanddependsonthestageoftechnology.Thisisinfluencedbyinternational
processes,suchastechnology,productioncosts,pricingandpolicies.Worldwidetheidea
ofnaturalresourcesistransforming,includinghowtheyshouldbeutilizedandwhere
utilizationisappropriate.Thepurposeofthispresentationistoanalysethedevelopment
ofnaturetourismandpowerproductioninIceland,futureprospectsandthechallenges
createdbythechangingideaofnaturalresources.Itfurthermoredescribestheworkand
politicaldevelopmentsthatareinprocessandareintendedtosolvethechallenging
conflictsabouttheuseofnaturalareasinIceland.Discoursefromthepoliticalarena,the
powerproductionindustry,thetourismindustryaswellasinterviewsfromover50
Highlandtravellerswillbeanalyzedwiththefocusontheirdifferentviewsonwhatare
naturalresourcesandhowtheyshouldbeutilized.
53
Effectsofresourcedeclineandstricterfishingregulationsonthe
behaviorofsalmonfishingtourists
StianStensland
Britishsalmonanglersarrivinginthemid‐1800sstartedoffmoderntourisminNorway.
Salmonfishingtourismiseconomicallyimportantformanyrivervalleysandholdersof
fishingrightsaswellasarecreationalactivityforanglerspursuingthe"kingoffish".
Annuallyaround100.000peoplefishinNorway's400salmonriversspending
contributingtoaturnoverofaround1.2billionNOKinlocalcommunities.However,
currentlyworldwideAtlanticsalmonstocksareatanall‐timelowleadingtoclosedrivers,
shortenedseasonsandcatchrestrictions.From2010on126Norwegianriversareclosed
tofishing,andrestrictionsareimposedonmanyrivers.Inthesameperiodtherehasbeen
adeclineinnumberofanglersandanestimatedexpenditurelossof250millionNOKper
year.Theliteratureindicatesthatlocalandvisiting(tourist)anglersmayadapttothese
changesindifferentwaysdependingontheirplaceattachmenttothespecificriverin
question.
Theobjectiveofthisstudyistoinvestigatetowhatdegreelocalandvisitingsalmon
anglersfishingtheVerdalriverofMid‐Norwayfindotherriversasasubstitutefollowing
resourcedeclineandstricterfishingregulations.Thefactorsimpactingsubstitution
perceptionareinvestigated.Implicationsfortourismarefurtherdiscussed.
Thispaperdrawsontheleisuretheoryofsubstitution.Insocial‐psychologyasite
substitutionwouldoccurifthereplacementistobeperceivedassatisfyingoneneed's
andprovidesimilaroutcomesastheoriginalsitefortheactivity.Substitutionarisesfrom
changes/constraintsintherecreationallandscapethroughe.g.changingpolicies(fishing
regulations),changingenvironmentalconditions(lowerfishruns),costsof
fishing/alternatives(money,time,gettingtoknowaplace),andchangeinsocio‐
demographic/lifestage(income,education,age,householdsize).
Datatobecollectedbyamixedmode(web+postal)surveyofanglersfishingtheVerdal
riveratleastoneoftheseasonafter2009.Acomparisonoflocalandtouristangler
characteristicsandfishingexperienceusehistorywasdonebyusingt‐tests.Amultiple
regressionapproachwillbeusedtoinvestigatehowplaceattachmenttotheVerdalriver,
fishingexperienceusehistory,localvs.touristanglerandothersocio‐demographic
variablesimpactsubstitutionbehavior.
Itisknownthatsitesubstitutionsarefrequentamonganglers,butforanglershavinga
specialpsychologicaloremotionalattachmenttoasiteorspeciestheremaynotbean
acceptablesubstitute.Considerableworkremainsinunderstandingthevariables
affectinganglers'willingnesstosubstitutesites.Thisstudywillincreaseour
understandingofvariablesimpactingsitesubstitution,andhencebeusefulformanagers
andpolicymakersworkingwithfishingtourisminparticular,butalsogeneralnature
basedtourismdevelopmentandoutdoorrecreation.
54
ToPreserveorEnhancePreciousMemories:ASegmentedMarket
Analysis SharonChang,RenukaMahadevan
Thisstudyexaminesthevalueplacedonmuseumsbypatronsandnon‐patronsand
investigatesthefactorsthataffectthisvaluationwithaviewtoboostvisitorship.Thetotal
economicvalueofSingapore’sHistoryMuseumattheveryleastUS$57millionandthisis
highrelativetoothercountries,justifyingincreasedgovernmentfundingtowards
preservingandenhancing‘preciousmemories’asculturalcapital.Femalesandhigh
incomepeoplearethetargetgroupforincreasedvisitationwhileamongthenon‐patrons,
theethnicmajorityisanotherpotentialclientele.Somewhatsurprisingisthefindingthat
neitherpatronsnornon‐patronsseetheHistoryMuseumashavingsignificanttourist
value,andcontrarytotheprospecttheory,thereisapreferenceforenhancingtheHistory
Museum’sservicesoverkeepingthemuseum.Thesefindingsprovidesomedirectionfor
themanagementofthemuseumtoimproveitsvisitorappeal.
ChangingemployeerolesintheserviceencounterfortourismValue
creation:educational,managerialandorganizational
implications
ClaireForder,FlemmingSørensen,JensFriisJensen
Thetopicandobjectiveofthepaperistodiscusshowdifferentgenerationsofvalue
creationintourisminducenewemployeeroles,andhowthishasprofoundeducational,
managerialandorganisationalconsequencesfortourismcompanies.
Thetheoreticalperspectiveincludeviewsonservicequality,experienceeconomy,co‐
creationandorganisationalandemployeerolesintourism.
Mainstreamresearchfocushastypicallyfocusedonservicequality,withtheNordic
SchoolrepresentedbyGrönroosandtheNorthAmericanschoolrepresentedby
Parasuraman,ZeithamlandBerry(Brogowiczetal,1990).However,experiencesare
todayarguedtobecoredriversofvaluecreation(Pine&Gilmore,2013),anditisclaimed
thatacompany‐centricapproach,inwhichcompaniesautonomouslydesignandmarket
products,mustbereplacedwithaco‐creationapproach,inwhichvalueisjointlycreated
ininteractionbetweencompaniesandusers(Prahalad&Ramaswamy,2004).Joiningthe
twoperspectives,co‐creationisarguedtobecentralforcreatingvaluable,personal,and
meaningfulexperiences(Boswijketal.,2012).Thisseemsparticularlyrelevantintourism
whereproductionandconsumptionareinseparable(Crang,1997)andservice‐
encounterscrucialfortouristexperiences(Baum,2005)whichareco‐produced(Eketal.,
2008)through'performances'oftourismemployeesandtourists(Edensor,2001).
Nevertheless,examplesofco‐creationintourismcompaniesseemscarce(Binkhorst&
Dekker,2009)becausetourismserviceencountersmainlyfacilitatestandardised,cost‐
efficientservicedeliveriesratherthanco‐creation(Sørensen&Jensen,2012).
Whenappliedtotheexperienceeconomy,theaforementionedcompany‐centricmodel
canbecomparedwithPineandGilmore's(2013)approachwhichsuggestscompaniesto
55
'stage'experiencesforconsumers.ThishasbeentermedaFirstGenerationofthe
experienceeconomywhereasco‐creationofexperienceshasbeencoinedasSecond
Generation(Bosjwijketal.,2012).Wetranslatethisintoamodelofthreemodesofvalue
creationintourismcompanies.Thefirstmodefollowsatraditionaltourismservice
paradigm;inthesecond,experiencesarestagedfortourists;andinthethird,co‐creation
oftouristexperiencesdrivesvaluecreation.
Futurevisionsofthetourismproducts
AndersSteene
ThispaperdiscussnewexpressionslikeExperienceEconomyandDreamSociety,both
expressionsimplythatthesocietyarenowfacingotherdemandsfromcustomers
concerningtourismproducts.Inmanywayswearetalkingaboutaprogressionof
economicvaluesfromthetourist’spointofviewaswellasfromtheviewofthe
producers.Inthefuturetheproducershavetofocusmuchmoreonmakinganddeliveran
experienceforindividualsthentodayandinolderdays.
In the future producers have to deliver much more complex product offers then before,
thecomplexityofthetourismproductwillincreaseandhowtohandlethatrequiresalot
ofknowledgeaswellaswelltrainedemployees.Wewilltrytofindoutwhatthenextstep
will be, from Experience Economy or Dream Society offering complex products ‐ to,
maybe, transformation which is an offering to the individual that he or she only can be
guided,thecustomerwillbetheproduct.
Tosummingupthefuturewillfocusmuchmoreonindividual,tailormadeproductsand
edutainment.
ValueOfTourismForDestinationDevelopmentI.
Operationalizingtheperformanceofatourismnetwork.Acasestudyof
NetworkLimfjorden,Denmark UrbanGråsjö,MartinGellerstedt
Partnershiparrangementsinordertoachievesustainableeconomicgrowthisnowadays
amoreandmorecommonfeatureofdevelopingstrategiesindifferentsectorsofmodern
society.Thisisalsothecaseinthetourismsector,wherevalueoftourismfordestination
developmentishighlighted.Manyofthesepartnershiparrangementsareformalized
throughtheconceptofthe"network".Althoughthereareusuallyseveralaims,the
declaredpurposeofcollaborationinanetworkorpartnershipisalmostalwaystocreate
synergyoraddedvalue.Themembersofthenetworkarerealizingthattheyhavea
commongoal,whichcannotbereachediftheyactindividually.Instead,ifthemembers
pooltheirresourcesandacttogethertheprobabilitytoreachthegoalincreases.
Sometimessituationsarisewhenactorstakeadvantageofwhatothersgive,butdonot
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themselvescontributeequally(networkproblemsariseintheformof"freeriders").This
canthencreateanattitudeinthenetworkwheremembersarereluctanttocommunicate
experienceandinformationtoothermembersandthenthemutualexchangeof
experiencethatissoimportantforsuccessfulnetworkscanbelost.Hence,itisimportant
toacknowledgethatanetworkbesidecooperationalsomayincludeacompetitive
dimension.
Evenifscholarshavestudiedtourismnetworksingeneral,methodsofhowtoevaluate
tourismnetworkshavebeenrelativelyneglectedasanareaofacademicstudy.Inthis
respect,theobjectiveofthepresentpaperwastostudyperformanceofatourism
network.ThecaseofourstudyisapartnershipcalledNetworkLimfjorden,whichisa
cooperationwiththeaimtodevelopthetourismaroundLimfjordeninDenmark.The
networkwasestablishedin1995andconsistsoftworegions,eightmunicipalitiesand
touristofficesaroundLimfjorden.ThetourismactivitiesintheLimfjordenregioncanbe
characterizedas"slow"activities.Inspring2010NetworkLimfjorden,adoptedanew
actionplan"Towards2015".TheactionplanstatesthattheLimfjordencontinuestobea
strongbrand.Thiswillbeachievedthrough:
•
•
•
•
Developmentofcoherentusefulproductsandactivities
Launchprojectsanddevelopuntiltheycanrunontheirown
Marketingofproductsandactivitiesunderthecommonbrand
Aconcertedefforttopromotenetworkdevelopment
Thesegoalsareconventionalformostnetworks.Inordertostudyifthedifferentnetwork
partnersarecommittedtouseandexpressthecommonbrandingonecanstudyeither
whatissaidorwritten.Wehavechosentostudywrittenmaterialandinthiscasethe
traditionaltourismbrochures.Becausebranding,beyonditsownoperations,isabout
describingthecommon;commonvalues,specificjointprojectsdevelopedetc.Ourstudy
includesfivetourismbrochuresfromfivemunicipalitiesaroundLimfjorden.We
operationalizedthestudyofbrochureswiththefollowingmeasures:
•
•
Theportionofsentenceswitha"networkumbrelladescription".Sucha
sentenceincludesforinstanceadescriptionofanareaoranactivityoutside
theirownmunicipalbutwithinthenetworkareaLimfjorden.
Yes/Nowhetherornotthebrochureinclude:thenetworklogo,theaddress
tothenetworkwebsite,mapovertheLimfjordenarea,commonlaunched
networkactivities(oldsailshipregatta,storytelling,etc.)
Inthiswayweexaminedtowhatextentanetworkmember(municipality)initsown
brochurepromotesi)theirownactivities,andii)othermembers'activities.Theresultsof
thestudyindicatethatitismorecommontopromotetheownspecificactivityorlocation
evenifsimilaractivitiescanbefoundalsoinothermunicipalitiesaroundLimfjorden.
Severalpartnersdidnotincludenetworklogo,linktowebsiteorcommonnetwork
activities.Consequently,theopportunitytocreatepositivesynergyeffectsamongthe
networkpartnersisnotfullyexploited.Themacroperspectivefoundamongtheaims
withthenetwork,wassimplynotadoptedbyseveralpartners.Perhapsthismaybe
explainedbyalackofunderstandingandhandlingthebalancebetweencooperationand
57
competition.Inconclusion,eventhoughthenetworkwereambitiousandhadwell
thought‐thrownaims,ourfindingsindicatethattheseambitionswerenotsuccessfully
adoptedbypartners.Thismightwellbethereasonforwhyitwasdecidedtodiscontinue
thenetwork.
IfJesushadlivednowhewoulddefinitelyhaveattendedtheGladmat
festival
ReidarJohanMykletun,AmbassadorMeretse
Whatdovisitors,exhibitorsandownersbenefitfromparticipatinginanon‐profitfood
festival?Festivalbenefitis'theultimatevaluethatpeopleplaceonwhattheybelievethey
havegainedfromobservationorparticipationinactivitiesandinteractionwithsettings
providedbyfestivals'Lee,Arcodia,&Lee(2012,p.335).Extantresearchlackstudies
focusingonthesethreestakeholders'benefitsimultaneouslyandinthesameevent,thus
indicatingthecontributionofthispaper.
ThecontextofthisstudywastheStavangerFoodFestival(Gladmatfestivalen),anannual
eventestablishedinStavanger,Norway,in1998.Thenamemeans'happyfood',alluding
totheenjoymentofmeals,raisingtheawarenessaboutmealsandfoodquality,beinga
windowforregionalhighqualityfoodandmealexhibitions,andincreasingbothpublic
andprofessionalinterestsintheenjoymentandconsumptionofhighqualitymeals.Its
primaryobjectivesarepromotionoftheregion,itsproducts,foodcultureandconcept,
andRogalandastheFoodCounty.About100exhibitorsofferavarietyoffood,beverages,
andmeals.ItisarrangedlateJulyandlastsfromWednesdaytoSaturday,andisattended
byapproximately250.000visitors.Thefestivaliswellknownacrossthecountryandin
theNordicregion(Author&author,2009;Author,2011).
Datafromvisitorswerecollectedbyquestionnairethatincluded20'benefititems',(5
pointsLikert‐typescales),and17itemsaskingforfestivalparticipationhabitsand
demographics.Thedatacollectiontookplaceduringthreetwo‐hourssessionsperday
duringtheentirefestival.Atotalnumberof350respondentsfilledthequestionnaires'in
situ'.Datafromexhibitorsandownerswerecollectedbysemi‐structuredinterviews.
Forthevisitors,six"Benefitfactors"couldbeextractedwhenapplyingOrthogonal
solutionswithVarimaxrotation,accountingfor50%ofthevariance.Sixfactor‐based
sum‐scoreswerecomputed,namedI‐Seekingfornovelty,II‐Localtraditionand
celebration;III‐Buyingandtasting;IV‐Foodenjoymentandatmosphere;V‐Networking
andsocializing;andVI‐Personalprivilegeanddestinationimage.Frequencyofattendance
predictedfactorsII,IV,V,andVI.AgepredictedfactorVI,whilelevelofeducation
predictedfactorsIIandV.
Benefitsfortheexhibitorsincludedbrandingandmarketing,meetingcustomersand
understandingtheirneeds,educatethecustomers,destinationpromotion,showing
«citizenship»andcorporatesocialresponsibility,andforownpleasureandamusement.
Benefitsfortheownersincludedpositioningofownbusiness,thecity,creating
58
storytelling,increasingfoodandmealcompetencies,fascinatingtheaudiences,attracting
tourists,creatinggoodrelationshipstocustomers,makinganexhibitionwindowfor
producers,andfacilitatingfeedbackfromthepublictoproducers.
Thebenefitfactorsrevealedmaybeappliedforimprovingtheeventdesign."Foodies"
(Getz&Robinson,2012)seemstobepresent,whichmaycontributetothequalityofthe
festivalbyincreasingthevisitors'demandsforassortedhighqualityproducts.Theevent
hasgaineda"folkfestival"ambience,overridingtheinitialintentionoftheeventand
contributingtothewell‐beingoftheregionalresidents.Thestakeholdergroupsgaintoa
largeextentthesamebenefitsfromtheevent.
GenderrelationsintourismintheRussianarctic:representationsand
practices SusannaHeldt‐Cassel,AlbinaPashkevich
RemoteterritoriesoftheRussianArctichavehistoricallybeensubjecttoconquestand
explorationanddepictedasaperipheryforresourceextractionandmaleadventures.
Tourismhasrecentlybeenintroducedasanalternativesourceofincomeforindigenous
groupsthatpreviouslylivedsolelyonreindeerherding.However,thetourismsectoris
stillverysmallandunder‐developedintheareadespitepublicpoliciesanddifferent
nationalandregionalprojectstopromotetourism.Thisstudyanalyseshowtourism
operationsinNorthwesternRussiauserepresentationsoftheArcticandofgender
identitiesintheproductionandpromotionoftourismexperiences.Therepresentation
andpracticesofnature‐andindigenoustourismoperationsstudiedthroughparticipant
observationsmadeduringfieldtripstotheterritoriesofNenetsAutonomousOkrug.The
observationscomplementedwithtourismstakeholders’interviewsandcontentanalysis
ofpromotionalmaterialfromthetourismbusinessesinthearea.Thepurposeofthestudy
istogetanunderstandingofthecontentandmeaningofrepresentationsandpracticesof
tourismintheRussianArctic.
Weanalysetheculturalconstructionsofplacesshapedbygenderedrepresentationsof
peopleandindigenousculture.Inwhatwaysareindigenousmenandwomendepicted
andwhattypesofplaceidentitiesareconstructedthroughrepresentationsandpractices
intourismoperations?WefollowRoy(1997)andEdensor(2000)allowingthehoststo
speakandbecomeagentsintheportrayalofthecontemporarytouristpractices
accommodatingthedemandsofmoderntourists.Wefindthatthereisastrictgender
divisionoftasksandresponsibilitieswithintourisminthecasestudyarea.Service
operationsinvillagesandinthisregionpredominantlyemploywomen(hotels,
restaurants,shops,andsoon);however,outinthetundra,menpredominateinhigh
statusservicefunctionssuchasguideswithinhuntingandfishingtrips.Theresultsshow
thatthepromotionandtourismoffersintheareastrengtheningthenotionof
(re)productionofcolonialrepresentationsandexperiencesoftheplaceanditspeoplesas
exoticandthe“Other”.Themarketingoftheareastressesthepossibilitiestoexplore
unspoiltandremoteareas(“snowscapes”).ThetourismpracticesintheRussianArcticare
focusedonphysicalenduranceandmasculinecodedactivitiesandbehaviour.
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Finnishcountrysideasasettingforruralwellbeing‐caseFinRelax®
AnjaTuohino
Tourismisoftenseenasanopportunityforruraleconomicdevelopment.Theruralis
nowadaysunderstoodasaspaceforconsumptionandthecountrysidehasbecomea
tourismlandscapethatisappreciatedforitsrecreationalandaestheticvalues.Despite
manyattempts,definingruralareasisdifficult.Mostdefinitionsarebasedonathree‐level
divisionintoremote,coreandclose‐to‐centreruralareas,withdifferenttermsusedin
differentstudies.Inthispaperruraltourismisdefinedastourismoutsidedensely
populatedareasandtourismcentres.
InFinland,inthenationaltourismstrategypublishedbytheMinistryofTradeand
Industrywellbeingtourismwasdefinedasaproductthemetobedeveloped.Inaddition
theFinnishTouristBoardhasrecognisedtheimportanceofdevelopingwellbeingtourism
inFinland.Onthenationalleveltheyhavemadelong‐termandorganiseddevelopment
effortssince2002.In2005thefirstnationalreviewofwellbeingtourismwasconducted.
Thereviewhighlightedthegrowthpotentialofthewellbeingsectorbaseduponthe
stronginherentassetsofasafe,highqualitynaturalenvironmentwithinwhichawide
rangeofoutdooractivitiesarepossiblewhilestillretainingthepeaceandtranquillityof
thecountrysideandthecultureofthesauna.In2007astrategyworkinggroupfor
wellbeingtourismdevelopmentwasestablishedandasaresultthenational
'DevelopmentStrategyforFinnishWellbeingTourisminInternationalMarkets,2009‐
2013'waslaunchedinDecember2008.Atpresentthestrategyisintheupdatingprocess.
Againstthisbackground,thenewprojectFinRelax®‐aFinnishcountrysideasacore
resourceandanoperationalenvironmentforFinnishWellbeingtourismwaslaunchedin
December2013.
ThispaperpresentsthefirstresultsoftheprojectandgivesexamplesofhowtheFinnish
countrysideasaruralsettingisusedtograsptheconceptualandsymboliccharactersof
FinRelax®.
Thedatagatheringisonprogressatthemoment.Theelectronicsurveyistargetedmainly
atthosewellbeingtourismbusinessesthathavethepotentialityforinternational
markets.Thegroupof37businessesisselectedtogetherwiththeFinnishTouristBoard.
Supplementarydataisgatheredthroughinterviewsamongdestinationmarketing
organizationsandtouroperatorssellingFinnishwellbeingtourismproductsfortheir
customers.Theaimofthesupplementarydataistofindthefuturepotentialityof
FinRelax®productsandservices.Thedatawillbeanalyzedbyusingcontentanalysis.
Duetothefactthattheprocessison‐going,thetotalsamplesizeatpresentisopen.The
preliminaryresultswillbepresentedlaterintheconferenceaswellasinthewritten
paper.
Thestudyalsohaspracticalimplicationsbyprovidingadditionalinformationforboth
businessesandFinnishTouristBoardinthedevelopmentworkofFinRelax®.
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Therolesofeventsindestinationbranding
IraLahovuo,JenniMikkonen
Accordingtoanumberofstudies,eventshaveasignificantimpactondestination
brandinganddifferentiationfromotherdestinations(i.e.Jagoetal.2003;Lee&Arcodia
2011;Trostetal.2012).Majorityofstudieshavefocusedontheimpactsofsportormega
eventsonthedestinationbrandbuttheimpactofsmallerculturalandfreetimeevents
remainlessresearched.Eventscantakedifferentrolesrelativetothedestinationbrand:
i.e.asco‐brandingpartners,asextensions,orasfeaturesofthedestinationbrand.Co‐
brandingreferstothepracticeofpairingtheevent'sbrandwiththebrandofdestination:
eventswithwell‐establishedbrandscanbeusedtoenhancethebrandidentityofthe
destination.Sinceeachrolepresentsdifferentopportunities,risksandrequirements
eventsmustbeincorporatedstrategicallyintothemarketingplanofthedestination.
(Chalip&Costa2005)
TheaimofthisstudyistofindoutwhatkindofrolestheeventsoftwoFinnish
destinations,SavonlinnaandMikkeli,haveintheirdestinationbrand,andhoweventsare
integratedinthenewbrandstrategyoftheregion.Thedatawascollectedthrough
analysisofwebsitesandsocialmediachannels,andstakeholderinterviews.Thewebsite
analysisworkedasabackgroundstudytotheinterviewsandfocusedonhowandwhich
eventsweredisplayedontourismwebsitesofdestinations.Theinterviewssoughtto
revealthedifferenttypesofrolesofeventsinthecurrentbrandingprocess,andfindoutif
therearedifferencesbetweenthedestinationsand/oropinionsofstakeholders.The
intervieweesweredirectlyorindirectlyparticipatinginthebrandingprocess:fromlocal
destinationmanagementorganizations(DMOs),tourismplanningauthoritiesandevent
organizers.Altogether13semi‐structuredinterviewswereconducted,transcribedand
analyzedbyusingcontentanalysis.
Resultssupportformerresearchinthateventsplaysignificantrolesindestination
branding,andthereweremanykindsofrolesrevealed.Forexampleonemajorevent,
Savonlinnaoperafestival,hasadominantroleinwholeregion'stourismandisan
indispensablepartofdestinationbranding.Inthefuture,thefestivalwillbedoingmore
destinationmarketinginco‐operationwiththeDMO.Thisco‐brandingroleoftheevent
willspreadbenefitstootheractorstoo.Ontheotherhand,alsosmallerlocaleventshave
importantrolesforexamplesupportingcentralbrandfeaturesofdestination,and
workingmorelikeextensionsofdestinationbrand.
Thestudycomplementstheformerresearch,deepenstheunderstandingontherolesof
eventsindestinationbranding,andstudiesiftherearesimilaritiesintherolesofsmall
culturalandfreetimeevents,andsporteventsthathavebeenstudiedearlier.Theresults
canbeutilizedalsoindestinationbrandingprocessbyexplaininghowtheeventsareused
nowandhowtheycouldbeutilizedmoreeffectivelyinthefuture.Themoreislearned
abouttherolesofeventsandwaysofutilizingthemindestinationbranding,themore
effectivedestinationmarketingwillbecome.
61
Events'"deserved"mediacoverageanddestinationbranding
KariJæger,TrineKvidal
Hallmarkeventswithlong‐terminstitutionalstatus,and“Iconic”events,havehighvalue
assetsforadestinationorcity(Getz,2013).Inlinewiththisperspective,thispaperseeks
todiscusshoweventsor“iconic”eventscouldprovideuniquesellingpropositions,
throughreflectingbrandvaluesandplaceidentity.Itisachallengingcompetition
betweendifferentplacesseekingtobecomeuniquefavorabletraveldestinations,
somethingwhichrequirespotentialtraveldestinationstobecomeandstayvisible,unique
andwithadistinctanddefinedbrand.“Icons”presentaparticularkindofstory–an
identitymyth,thatconsumersusetoaddressidentitydesiresandanxieties(Holt,2006)
“Iconic”eventsaresocializingwithotherpeopleandeventsthatsharetheirvaluesand
interests.Theaiminthispaperistoexaminehowthesekindsofeventscouldcontribute
to”deserved”mediacoverage,acquiredfromwordofmouthinanewsocialmedia
context(Ellingsen,2013),andwhichimpactthishasondestinationbranding.
Inthispaper,wetakeaqualitativeapproachtoexaminingthetwoeventsFinnmarksløpet
inFinnmark,NorwayandIditarodinAlaska,USA.Finnmarksløpet(withits1000km
class)isEurope’slongestsleddograce,andhasbeenarrangedfor34years,while
Iditarod(1800km)istheworld’slongestsleddograce,andithasbeenarrangedfor42
years.ThesetwolongdistancesleddogracescanbesaidtocapturetheArcticwilderness
withtheinclusionofdogs,experienceddogdrivers,roughweatherconditions,northern
light,andtundra,mountainsandriverscoveredwithiceandsnow.Thetwoeventsin
differentwayscaptureandstageArcticnaturevalues,communicatedviamediacoverage,
socialmedia,mushers,volunteersandtourists.Thisattentionandpublicityisimportant
forthetworacesassportscompetitions,aswellasforthebrandingoftheirhostplaces.
Basedondatacollectedviaobservation,in‐depthinterviewsandmediaanalyses,
conductedinrelationtoFinnmarksløpetandIditarod,wediscusskeytourism‐relevant
aspectsoftheevents.
ValuesForCulture
Thedynamicsofnatureandcultureintourism–thecaseofIlulissat,
Greenland KarinaMadsenSmed
ThispaperprovidesnewinsightsintothetourismproductpromotedandsoldinIlulissat
inthelightofadynamicnature/culturerelationshippromotedbythenationalDMO,
Visitgreenland,inanationalbrandingframeworkfrom2010.In2004,theIlulissat
icefjordincloseproximitytothetownofIlulissatwasinscribedasanaturalheritagesite
totheUNESCOWorldHeritageList,andthedestinationofIlulissathasalwaysbeen
focusedaroundthisgrandiosenature,theicefjordinparticularwhichhasshapedand
influencedlifeinIlulissatforthousandsofyears.Assuch,natureplaysacentralroleinthe
62
promotionofIlulissattotourists,alsobeforetheinscriptiontotheWorldHeritageList.
Thecloserelationshipbetweentheicefjordandlifearounditsuggeststhatnatureand
culturearecloselyconnectedinIlulissat,whichmayseemtounderlinethedynamics
betweennatureandculturesuggestedbyVisitgreenland.However,thequestionishow
thelocaltourismenvironmentfacilitatesandusesthisstrategicpropositionofadynamic
nature/culturerelationshipinpracticetopromoteandselltheirproducts,ifatall?
Furthermore,thisstudyaimstohighlightwaysinwhichnatureandculture‐asdistinct
categoriesandincloserelation‐areanchoredinthedestinationandtherebyinfluencing
thetourismenvironmentinIlulissat.
ApointofdepartureistakeninthelocaltourismindustryinIlulissatinordertoexplore
whatisbeingsoldandpromotedtotouristsinthisrespect.Sincethecontentionisthat
theicefjordanditsinscriptionontheWorldHeritageListaswellasthehistoryoftourism
inIlulissatpresentanemphasisonnatureasadistinctfeatureofattraction,aparticular
focusonculturaldimensionsmaybelessevidentandwillthereforebeexploredfurther.
Thestudywillrestonatriangulationofmethodsentailing1)documents,suchasstrategy
papers,governmentreports,administrationplansandcommercialwebsites,thathave
formedtheinitialaccesstothisdestination'stourismenvironment,2)interviewswith
localtourismactors,specificallytouroperators,administratorsandhotelCEOs,and3)
participantobservationsofthetourismproductsofferedbyvarioustouroperatorsandof
thephysicalenvironment.Thetheoreticalfoundationforthispaperrestsonacentral
discussionofthenature/culturerelationship,particularlypertainingtobothpolar
tourismandheritage,whichmayreinforcecertainperceptionsofnatureandculture.In
addition,theconceptofvisitabilityisappliedinordertoexploretheprocessofinviting
touriststoconsumeplaceandsubsequentinfluencesonthedestinationanditscore
product.Findingssuggestthatexistingtourismpracticesarereinforcingthestrong
emphasisonnatureratherthanthedynamicsofnatureandculture,andassuch,the
papersuggeststhatanincreasedfocusontheculturaldimensionofthisrelationshipmay
strengthenproductdevelopmentnotonlytocomplywithVisitgreenland'sbrand
positioningbutalsotofacepresentchallengestotourismdevelopmentinIlulissat.
Transformed“bythewindandthesea”–exploringvisitoremotions
towardswarheritagealongtheDanishWestCoast.
LuluAnneHansen
ThispaperseekstoexplorehowtheremainsoftheAtlanticWallscatteredalongthe
DanishWestcoasthavebeenandcontinuetobeemotionallyappropriatedbytourist.Itis
nowcloseto40yearssinceFrenchculturaltheoristPaulVirilio,inalludingtothe
particularrelationshipbetweentheGermanbunkersandtheirphysicallocationalongthe
NorthSeacoastline,emphasisedthecapacityofthebunkerstoteachusnotonlyabout
theirerabutaboutourselves(Virilio1975,1994transl.).Eventodaytheconstant
interactionbetweenthedynamiccoastlineandthemassiveconcretebunkers,engulfedin
aseeminglyendlessstruggle,holdsimmensepotentialforinvokinghumanemotion.In
thiscasetheinteractionoflandandseaonlyservestostrengthenwhathasbeendeemed
themultipletemporalitiesofruins(Edensor2005).Atthesametimeahistoryofnational
63
conflictsbetweenDanesandGermans(themajorityofforeigntouristsvisitingtheDanish
WestCoast)makesthebunkersplacesofpotentialcontestation.Departingfroma
interpretationalframeworkthatperceivesemotionsassocialsentiments(Peterson2007)
thispaperusesbothhistoricalsourcesandcontemporaryinterviewsandfieldworkto
exploretheshiftingandoftenconflictinghistoricalandemotionallandscapessurrounding
thebunkersfromthemid1990'tiesuntiltoday.Inrecognisingthatculturalheritage
tourismofferingsaredynamicandconstantlyevolving(Kaminskietal.2014)itisargued
thateveninthisrelativelyshortperiodcompetingnarrativeshaveserved,andstillserve,
tocontinuouslyreconfigure(Smithet.al.2009)theemotionalconstellationsrelatingto
theirspace.Itis,furthermore,shownhowtheparticularinterrelationshipbetweenthe
coastallandscapeandthebunkersconstitutesaspacewithpotentialofengagingvisitors
inpluralisticinterpretiveinterventionsaddressingissuesofindividualvalues,moralsand
dilemmasinacoastaltourismcontextnormallynotassociatedwithnegativeheritage
(Meskell2002)experiences.
ThecompetencyprofileofculturaltourismemployeesinRussia
ElenaSakharchuk,SergeyIlkevich
Thecentralhypothesisofthestudyisthatthesharpdiscrepancybetweenhugepotential
ofculturaltourismandinsufficientcompetitiveadvantagescanbeexplainedbyvast
deficienciesinthecompetencyprofileofculturaltourismemployees.
Toconductaprimaryresearchofcompetenciesofculturaltourismemployeesinorderto
establishlevelsofproficiencyin4criticalforcompetitivenessareas:1)knowledgeof
culturalheritage;2)customerrelationsmanagement;3)marketingtechniques;4)
internationalvisitorandforeignlanguageproficiency.Andthusestablishmajorsetbacks
tobeaddressedinpubliceducationandcorporate/stateagencytraining/re‐training
programmes.
ThereisaverylimitednumberofsourcesbothinEnglishandRussianrelatedtocultural
andheritagetourismprofessionals’interviewing.Andtherearenocomprehensive
statisticsinthefieldofemploymentinculturaltourismobjectsaswelltosupportprimary
researchconclusions.Thestudiesarelimitedtodescribingculturalsites,theirheritage
valuewithoutaddressingvisitor‐relatedissues.
Competency‐basedstructuredinterviewingofemployeesatculturalsitesofMoscow
regionatentry‐levelpositions,establishedprofessionalandmiddlemanagementwith
167,102and89respondents,respectively.Foreachofthesethreegroupsweresuggested
separate,modifiedquestionnaireswithquestionsinthefollowingsections:
 Educationandlife‐longlearningexperience
 Practicalexperience
 Customerserviceandpassionforcustomersatisfaction
 Skillsinbasicandstrategicmarketingtechniques,culturaltourismproducts
distributionstrategies
 Foreignlanguageproficiency
 Internationalvisitorandmulticulturalawareness
64
Interviewingofemployeesissupplementedbysecondaryresearch(literaturereview)
andexpertestimatesfrom6leadingtouroperatorsforinternationalvisitorsinMoscow
region,specializinginculturaltourism.
Thestudyrevealsanacutedeficitofbasictrainingforculturaltourismemployeesnot
onlytourism,butincustomerservice‐relatedareas,withonly37%ofemployeesacross
thewholepopulationstudiedhavingformalqualifications.
Themostremarkableimbalanceisbetweenknowledgeofculturalheritage(with86%of
employeesstatingtheircontinuousbettermentinthefield)andstrategicmarketing
techniquesinculturaltourism(withonly6%ofemployeesbeingabletoprovidean
answerforacontrolquestionaboutthemeaningofstrategicmarketingapproaches),as
wellasforeignlanguageproficiency,withonly2%beingfluentEnglishspeakersand1%
beingfluentinotherEuropeanlanguage.
Thereisalowwillingnessforre‐trainingonthepartofemployees(26%respondents),
despitethe86%stressingtheimportanceofgoodqualifications.Themotivational
problempresentsaninterestingfieldforfurtherprimarystudies.
Theissuesofprofessionalpreparationinculturaltourismandestablishingindustrial
standardsandqualificationsarestillbeingneglectedinRussia.Thatlimitsthepotential
andcompetitivenessoftheindustryduetolowawarenessofculturalsites’sheer
existenceandinsufficientcustomersatisfaction,specificallyrelatedtopoorguidingand
foreignlanguageproficiency.
Theconstructionandexperienceoficon‐cities
AnneKlaraBom
TheworldfamousauthorHansChristianAndersenwasbornin1805inOdense,
Denmark.Thispaper'spointofdepartureisthethesisthatOdensehastheopportunityto
utilizeitspotentialasanicon‐city:Acitythatwillfullyintegratesitshistoricalrelationtoa
characterinitstourismstrategyandtherebysuppliesthecitywithsymbolicvalueby
brandingitselfasthecityofthecharacterinquestion(Bom,"Midt").Severalicon‐cities
areEuropean,forexampleShakespeare'sStratford‐upon‐Avon,Mozart'sSalzburgand
AstridLindgren'sVimmerby.Icon‐citieshaveahistoricalrelationtotheircharacters,but
theyalsohaveanopportunitytopresentthefamousworkofthesepeople.Odense,
however,hasuntilrecentlyfocusedonAndersen'sbiographyinitsbrandingoftheauthor
andtheinitiativespresentingtheworksofAndersenarealleitherveryneworstillinthe
pipeline.Thispapersuggeststhatinordertoexaminehowasustainablebrandofthe
icon‐cityOdensecanbecreated,researchfromthefieldofliterarytourismcanbeusedto
addresschallengesandopportunitiesthatcanbemadetopicalinrelationtothe
constructionandexperienceoficon‐cities.
Literarytourismpresentsauniqueopportunitytopromoteanauthor,aheritageanda
particularplaceatthesametime(Squire,"Literary"120).Asignificantthemeinliterary
tourismresearchisthetensionfieldbetweenfactandfiction,becauseliteraryplaces
65
containseveralplacesinoneplace(Herbert,"Heritage","Literary";TimothyandBoyd,
Heritage,"Heritage"):Touristsvisitliteraryplacestoexperiencewheretheauthors
actuallylivedand/ordied,butquitefrequently,theyalsoexpectthatthesameattraction
presentsthefictioncreatedbytheauthorinquestion.Severallevelsofauthenticity
therebycomeintoplayinliteraryplaces,where"imaginedworldsviewithreal‐life
experiences"(Herbert,"Heritage"33).Thispaperarguesthatasimilarsituationistakes
placeinliteraryicon‐cities.
Authenticityisadominantthemewithintourismresearchthesedaysandseveralscholars
havepresentedtheirsuggestionstohowtheconceptcanbedefinedandputtouse
(Chhabra;Cohen;Daugbjerg;FawcettandCormack;JamalandHill;ReisingerandSteiner;
TimothyandPrideaux;Wang).However,possiblerelationsbetweenhowliteraryplaces
appealtoauthenticity/in‐authenticityandhowthesameplacesareexperiencedas
authentic/in‐authenticbytouristsareyettobeexamined(Bom,"Affective").
Thepaperpresentsfourtypologiesofplacecategoriesthatcanexistinliteraryplacesand
itisarguedthateachoftheseplacesappealtodifferent"layers"intheexperiencesof
authenticity(Jansson;KnudsenandWaade;Wang;Waade).Furthermore,itis
demonstratedhowthetypologiescanbeputtouseinadiscourseanalyticalcultural
analysisoftheicon‐cityAstridLindgren'sVimmerbyinSweden.Theresultsofthe
analysisaresubsequentlyusedinadiscussionofthechallengesandopportunitiesthat
canbeprevailinginapossiblerealizationofOdenseasaliteraryicon‐city.
Theresearchpresentedinthepapercontributestoculturalstudiesinwhatisatstake
whenpeopleappraise"their"culturalphenomenaandtherebymakethemculturally
specific(Bom,Vores).
Heritagization‐Tourismimpactontourists
PerÅkeNilsson,DianaAlexandru,Babesj‐Bolyai
Impactoftourismonlocalresidentshasbeenobjectfornumerousstudiessincemass
tourismstartedinthe1960s,bothinformsofnegativeorpositiveimpactforthe
destinations.However,formuseumkeepers,tourismhasbecomethebackbonefortheir
economicsurvival.
Heritagizationasaculturalparadigmhasbeenusedandabused.Usedasaprotestto
politicalorideologicalcopingwithcultureheritageasaproductionandcollectionmade
bypastgenerationsandnowkeptinordertopreserve,elucidate,ormaintaincertain
politicalnormsandgoals.Abusedasaneducationofthepublicbyinvented,hidden,as
wellaspurposelychosenpast,withfocusonideasinsteadofobjectsandtouse
interpretationofhistoryforownadvantage.
Theideaofthispresentationistoexemplifyhowtheimpactoftheinterplaybetweenlocal
residents and tourists on themselves transforms both the cultural heritage and those
exposedbyit.
66
ValueOfTourismEducation
Whatarethecorrelatesofworkvaluesfor16yearoldstudents:focus
onprofessionswithinhospitalityandtourism
ÅseHeleneBakkevigDagsland,ReidarJohanMykletun,StåleEinarsen
ThispaperpresentsresearchonworkvaluesamongNorwegian16yearoldstudents
facingchoicesamongdifferentstreamsinhighereducation,includingstreamsleadingto
apprenticeshipinthehospitalityindustry.Thestudyinvestigatestherelationbetween
workvaluesandthepupils'intentionsregardingworkindifferentpositionsinthis
industry,andthestabilityoftheserelations.
Datawerecollectedfromtworandomsamplesofpupilsintheirfinalyearofthe
comprehensiveschool,atthetimetheyhadtochooseamongalternativetracksinthe
secondaryschoolsystemwithimpactontheirfuturejoboptions.Thepupilsfilledin
questionnairesduringtheirschoolhoursin2002and2011(n=1863and1842,
respectively).13possibleworkpositionswerelistedtowhichthepupilsshouldrate
his/herinterest;andworkvaluesweremeasuredby18items(fivepointLikert‐type
scales).Comparisonsbetweenthevaluestructuresofthetwosampleswerebasedon
factoranalysis.Fiveandfoursum‐scoreswerecreatedbasedonthefactorstructuresof
the2002and2011samplesrespectively,supportedbyreliabilityanalyses(alpha
coefficients).Thesesum‐scoreswerethencorrelatedwithinterestindifferentwork
positionsinthehospitalityandtourism
industries.
Basedonthefactoranalyses,fiveworkvalueswereidentifiedinthe2002‐sample,and
fourworkvaluesinthe2011‐sample,eachofwhichaccountingfor38%and36%ofthe
variance,respectively.Thefactorstructuresshowedmoderatecrosssamplesimilarities.
Correlationsamongtheninefactor‐basedsum‐scoresandtheworkpositionslistedwere
weaktomoderate,thehighestbeing.24.Thesumscoresoftheworkvalues"International
work"showedthehighestnumberofsignificantcorrelations.Thestrongestcorrelations
werebetween"Internationalwork"and:workastouroperator/travelagency,tour
guide,andmanagerbothinthe2002and2011samples.Furthermore,thevalue"Self‐
realization"(2011)correlatedtotheintentiontobecomeamanager.
Internationalvalueorientationamongthestudentswasclosestrelatedtointentionsof
enteringpositionsinthehospitalityindustry,followedbythevalueof"Self‐realization".
Comparedtothetypeofworkintheindustry,thefittothepupils'valuesarefarfrom
perfect.However,theinformantswereyoungandlackingworkexperience,andmightnot
beabletoreflectproperlyontheirworkvaluesandpossibleconnectionsbetweenwork
valuesandthedifferentworkpositions.Consequently,focusworkvaluesshouldbe
strengthenedintheschoolcurricula.Thehospitalityindustrymightprofitfrom
demonstratingtheirworkplacestothepupils,theschooladvisors,andpupils'parents,to
increasetheirunderstandingofthesetypesofwork,thusfacilitatingrecruitmentofyoung
67
workforcetotheirindustry‐relatedtraininginthesecondaryschoolandinhigher
education.
Students’enrolmentpreferencesinhighereducation:motivationsfor
choosingtourism,economics,businessorlawstudies. CatalinaJuaneda
Giventheimportanceoftourismasadevelopmentfactorinmanycountriesandits
growingimportancebotheconomicallyandsociallyintheworld,itiscrucialthathigher
educationintourismreachsimilarlevelsofqualityandmaturityasthoseofotherstudies
thatfocusontraditionalfieldsofknowledge.Inthissense,aconstantconcernfortourism,
bothinemergingcountriesandindevelopedcountries,isthedifficultyforhigher
educationinstitutionstoattractthebeststudentstotourismstudiesandtherefore
subsequentlyforthetourismindustrytoattractandretainhighlyskilledprofessionals.
Withtheaimofcontributingtotheunderstandingofthisparticularconcern,thisstudy
dealswiththemotivationsthatdrivehighschoolstudents,fromHumanitiesandthe
SocialSciences,tochoosethebachelorintourismfortheirfutureuniversitystudies.
Althoughtheirknowledgeabouthighereducationstudiesisnotverycomprehensive,
studentshavepartialinformationandperceptionsaboutitscontentsanditsreputation,
usuallyinfluencedbyfamily,teachers,friendsandthesociety.
Thisstudyanalyzesthemotivationsofhighschoolstudentstochoose,intheverynear
future,theirmainbacheloroption.FourparticularbacheloroptionsbelongingtoSocial
Sciencewereconsidered:Tourism,Law,EconomicsandBusiness.Thereasontoconsider
thesefourbachelordegreeswastoallowtheresearcherstocomparethemotivationsfor
choosingtourismstudiescomparedtothosewherethemoretraditionalandreputed
studies,suchasLaw,EconomicsorBusiness,areselected.
ThestudyisfocusedonthehighschoolstudentslivingontheislandofMallorcawhere
twospecialcircumstancesexist.ThefirstisthatinMallorcathereisonlyoneuniversity,
theUniversityoftheBalearicIslands,whichiswheretheinformationabouthigher
educationstudiesaimedatthestudentswhoarethetargetpopulationofthisstudyis
centralized.ThesecondoneisthatMallorcaisaveryimportanttouristdestinationinthe
Mediterraneanwhereeconomicactivityrelatedtotourismisfoundthroughouttheisland
andwheretheisland’sresidentsareconstantlyincontactwithit.Duetothisfact,itis
importanttonotethatstudents,aswithallresidentsontheisland,arebothfamiliarwith
andindirectcontactwithtourismactivity.
AsurveywasconductedinAprilof2014whenstudentsfromallthehighschoolsonthe
islandcometotheUniversityoftheBalearicIslandstoattendseveralinformation
sessions.Sixhundredstudentscompletedthequestionnaire,ofwhich180showeda
preferencefortourismstudies.
68
Skillsandformaleducationwithinthetourismsector
AndersHedetoft,TagePetersen
Knowledgeisbelievedtobeoneoftheprimarysourcesofeconomicgrowth,andthe
Nordiccountriesfocusstrategicallyoneducationasamajorparameterinensuring
continuedcompetitivenessinanincreasinglyglobalizedeconomy.Butwhatistheformal
educationallevelofowners,managersandemployeesintheDanishtourismsector?And
towhatextentdoestheprofessionalandtechnicalcontentofsuchformaleducations
correlatetotheneedsofskillsandcompetencesinthetourismindustry?Theseissueswill
beputintoperspectivethroughacase‐basedexaminationofhowcompaniesinaDanish
coastaltourismdestinationstrivetomaintainanddevelopcompanies'andemployees'
skills.
Thepurposeofthepresentationistwo‐fold.Thefirstispurelydescriptive,and
documentseducationlevelsanddevelopmentthereofovertimeinthevariousmain
branchesoftheDanishtourismsector.Isthere,asintendedbythenationalgovernment,a
gradualeducation‐drivenimprovementofskillsandcompetencesinthetourismsector?
ThesecondistoexplorepossiblecorrelationsbetweenHumanResource(HR)strategies
inanumberoftourismenterprisesandtheformaleducationlevelsintheindustryin
coastaldestinations.Thecasewillaimtogobeyondandrefinethewell‐known
explanationsforthegenerallylowlevelofformaleducationinthetourismsector,i.e.that
tourismenterprisesareeducationally‐challengedduetoseasonalityissuesandthehigh
proportionoflifestylebusinesses,particularlyinremoteareas.
CurrentlyinDenmarkthereisfocusonimprovingthequalityandcompetitivenessof
coastaltourism,definedastourismoutsideurbancenters.Thefocusofthepresentationis
thereforealsooneducationandtourisminageographicperspective.TheDanish
municipalitiesarecategorizedby'levelofurbanization´andformaleducationlevelsinthe
tourismsectorwithineachcategoryisdescribed.
Therationalebehindthe"highereducationpolicy"istocreatemorevalueandhigher
revenues,throughimprovedproductsorproductionprocessesthanitwaspossible
withoutaprofessionallyskilledandwell‐educatedworkforce.Inthisperspective,the
presentationwillexaminewhethereducationinfactdoescreatevalueintheformof
higherincomestothepersonswhopossessagiventourism‐relevantformaleducation
andintermsofimprovedfinancialperformanceinthecompaniesthatemployahigher
shareofhighly‐educatedworkers.
Methodologically,thepresentationisbasedonDanishregister‐dataincludingstatistical
cross‐correlationsbetweeneducationandbusinesssectorregistersinStatisticsDenmark.
Theregister‐basedanalysisoftheeducationlevelintheDanishcoastaltourismsectorwill
becomplementedwithacasestudyofhowBornholmtourismcompaniesareworkingto
maintainanddevelopskillsintheirenterprises.
Preliminaryresultsindicate‐perhapssomewhatsurprisingly‐thatthehighest‐skilled
workersareinthecampingsector.Inthissector,therearemoreemployeeswithahigher
69
educationandfewerwithnoformaleducationaboveDanishbasicschoolingcomparedto
othertourismsectors.Preliminaryresultsalsoshowthatcompaniesdoworkwith
improvingemployees'workskills,but,duetotheirinformalnature,arenotregisteredin
waysthatallowregister‐basedstatisticalanalysestopickuponthem.
Thevaluesofworkinginthefrontlineofthetourismindustry–thecase
oflicensedlocalguides
JaneWidtfeldtMeged
Licensedlocalguidesarehighlyqualifiedemployees,howevertheyarepartofthe
tourismindustrywherethefrontlinepersonneliscastedaspinkcollarworkers(Guerrier
&Adib2004)characterizedbyfeminizedjobs(Veijola2010)intheservicesector,low
paid,oftenwithtemporarycontractsandhencelittleornoprospectsofcareer
development.Ontheotherhandtheworkofguidesmaybeseenasselfactualising,
adventerousandglamorousmaybeeven”thestuffofTVdrama‐documentaries”(Guerrier
&Adib2003;p1402)Thefewearlierstudiesonguides`workinglifehavehadempirical
focusonyoungguidesatsandandseadestinations,tourleaders,guide‐enactorsat
experiencecentresornatureguides(GuerrierAdib2003;2004,Wong&Wang2008,
Bæhrenholdt&Jensen2009,Veijola2010,Carnicello‐Filho2013),andtheyprimarily
explorethecost/benefitsofemotionallabourdrawingonHoschild(1983),butalso
genderissues(GuerrierAdib2004;Veijola2010)
Tothisauthor`sknowledge,therearenopreviousstudyontheworkinglifeoflicensed
localguides,althoughtheyconstitueaparticularpopulationamongguidesandfrontline
employeesashighlyeducated,matureandexperienced,andtheyformacaseofamore
generaltrend:qualifiedemployees,whoareworkingunderincreasinglyprecarious
workingconditions.
Thisstudyasksthequestions;whydolocallicensedguideschoosetheguideprofession,
andhowdotheyconstructmeaningandidentityinafluidworkinglife?
Toexpandthemorespecificapproachofemotionallabour(Hochschild,1983),the
theoryofjobcrafting(Wrzesniewski&Dutton2001)isappliedto”capturechanges
employeesmaketotheirownjobdesigninwaysthatcanbringaboutnumerouspositive
outcomes,includingengagement,jobsatisfaction,resilienceandthriving”(Berg,Dutton&
Wrzesniewski2007)Withfocusontheguides`individualorientation,motivational
orientationandjobcraftingpractices12licensedlocalguideshavebeeninterviewed(six
inItaly,fiveinDenmark,andoneinFrance)Furthermoretwodialougemeetingshave
beenheldbetweenthestudentsandlecturersontheTouristGuideDiplomaProgramme
atRoskildeUniversityandsixnewlylicensedguides.
Theguideprofessionappealsprimarilytowomen,well‐educatedimmigrants,andgrown‐
upsmakingchangeintheirlatecareerorasaretirementstrategy.
Althoughtheguidesoftencouldtellaboutmajorlifechangesorevenlifecrisesupon
enteringtheguideprofession,theydescribedthemselvesinaccordancetowhatItermthe
70
genericguide,anaturalbornwithacertainDNAcharacterizedasacuriouspeopleperson,
passionatemediator,withhighrisktoleranceandabilityorevenenjoyingtonavigateand
controlinchaos.Theguidescrafttheirrelationshipwiththetouristsintopersonalized
performances,wheretheyenjoymouldingtourists`perspectives,andshowtheirlocal
environmentinwhichtheytakeaffectiveandintellectualownership.
Theguidesperceivethemselvesasquasiself‐employed,andtheyoscillatebetween
personalizingandde‐personalizingtheirrelationshipwiththeirmanyemployersinorder
optimizeanextremelyunpredictableworkinglife.
TheProfessionalSocietalAcademicNetwork(PSAN)ofTourism
DepartmentPartners–ASwedishCaseStudyTriangulatedwiththeEU‐
ProjectTARSI
GöranAndersson
Universitiesarenotisolatedfromsociety.Throughouttheworldandatthehighestpolitical
level,therearepressuresonthehighereducationsectortonetworkwithitssurrounding
society.ThiswholeideaofnetworkingissupportedbytheEuropeanBolognaprocessin
connectingacademiamorecloselywithbusinessandsocietyandinnewandinnovative
ways.Nevertheless,atuniversitiesthereisalackofknowledgeonhowtostructure
societalnetworksandalackofexperiencesinnetworkbuilding.Thiscausesproblems
withregardtoeffectiveco‐operationbetweentheuniversityanditssocietalpartners.The
factthatuniversitiesarenotisolatedfromsocietycanalsoberecognisedbythepublic
debatesoneducation,researchandcommunityengagement.Nevertheless,thereare
almostnoresearcharticleswrittenaboutuniversities'societalnetworks.
Thepurposeofthisresearchistoinvestigateuniversitynetworkscriticallyandtodevelop
ananalysismodelforstrategicpartnerrelationsandtheunderlyingnetworkstructure
withinaTourismDepartment'snetwork.
AcasestudymethodologyhasbeenusedwiththeTourismDepartmentattheauthor's
universitybeingtheobjectstudied,inordertostudythenetworkbuildingprocesssinceit
wasestablishedin1999.ExperiencesfromtheEU‐projectTARSI(TailoredApplied
ResearchandImplementation)havebeentriangulatedwiththeresultsfromthecase
study.
Furthermore,aliteraturereviewhasbeenconductedinordertoidentifywhich
stakeholdersappearintheliteratureofhighereducation‐societyinterrelationsandto
findunderlyingdimensionstotheuniversitynetworkstructure.Thetheoretical
frameworkisbasedonnetworktheories,wherenetworkstrategy,networkpartners,
relationpurpose,networks'formality,individualandorganisationalnetworks,network
principlesandobstaclesareimportantthemes.
FortheTourismDepartment,thefollowingstrategicpartnertypeswithassociated
71
relationpurposeshavebeenidentified:theacademicstaff,currentstudents,alumni,the
tourismindustry,publictouristorganisations,non‐profittouristorgani‐sa‐tions,macro‐
environmentpartnersandthehighereducationsector.Everymainstakeholdergrouphas
beenorganisedintopartnergroupsattheTourismDepartment.Thebenefitofthis
approachisthatspecialuniversityobjectivescanbereachedmoreeasilyiftheTourism
Departmenthasknownpart‐nersinformalsub‐groupsalreadyinplace.Ineverysub‐
grouptherearetypicallyquestionsdependingontheDepartment'srelationpurpose.
Arelationstructurenetworkmodelhasbeendeveloped,wherethedimensionsofformal‐
informalandorganisational‐individualhavebeenfoundrelevantinordertostructurethe
network.Themodelisbasedonthefourmainopportunitybuildingprinciplesof
permanency,openness,motivationandtrustfulness.However,therearealso
correspondingmainobstaclesofcost‐benefitmisunderstanding,relationburden,
strategicunconformityandnon‐networkopportunities.
Thereisachallengeinincreasingthecommunityengagementactivitieswhenusingmore
resources.However,thebenefitsfortheuniversityandthesurroundingworldwillbe
positiveintotal.ItisofgreatimportanceforEuropeanuniversityacademiestouse
networkstrategiesintheiroverallplanninginordertobeanaturalpartofsociety,which
issummarisedastheProfessionalSocietalAcademicNetwork(PSAN).Finally,the
interactionofuniversitieswithsocietyisregardedasanever‐endingjourneyinaglobal
world.
ValuesOf/ForTheTouristII
‘ExperienceEuropewithoutborders’:Interrailfrictionsandregulated
mobilities MartinTrandbergJensen
Thispaperapproachesthefrictions,immobilitiesandregulatingbureaucraciesofa
widelyneglectedtourismandtravelphenomenon,interrailing.Drawingonawider
performativeandmaterialturnintourismandmobilitiesstudies,aswellasinjecting
phenomenologicalwondersinformedbyrecentculturalgeography,thefollowing
constructsatheoreticalframeworkthroughwhichtoempiricallyintertwinethepolitics
andpracticesinvolvedintheproductionofinterrailexperiences.Throughfieldwork
experiencesitweavestogetheraccountsofthestickymaterialityofpracticalencounters,
whiledescribingthestagingofmobilitiesthroughinfrastructures,bureaucraciesand
mobilityregimes.Subsequently,thepaperprovidesnovelinsightsintotheopportunities
andchallengesfacingtheorchestrationofcontemporaryinterrail,pointingtowardsareas
forfurtherdevelopmentandexperience‐designforrailtourismaffiliatesandtransport
planners.
72
Antecedentsoftouristexperiencevalue
PeterBjörk
Antecedentsofmemorabletouristexperienceshavebeenexploredbythemeansofself‐
administeredquestionnaires(Hosany&Witham,2010),personalinterviews(Walter,U.,
Edvardsson&Öström,2010),photographsorting(Fairweather&Swaffield,2002),and
traveldiaryanalysis(Prebensen&Foss,2011).Thesemethods,whichhavebeenusedto
explaintheessence,dimensionality,andoutcomeoftouristexperiences,havemany
benefits,butalsosomelimitations.Especially,theirdependenceontherespondents'
willingnessandabilityto,inresearchsituations,discussmemorablesensation
influences(Eketal.,2008),mighthavecausedtunnelvisioninthesensethatthewhole
spectrumofantecedentsofmemorabletouristexperiencesmightnotyethavebeseen.
Therefore,itissuggestedthattouristexperienceresearchersalsotakeintoconsideration
othertypeofdataforanalysis.Newtechnologies,suchashelmetsformeasuringMEG
(magnetoencephalogram)andhead‐mountedcamerascouldbeusedtomeasuresbrain
activitiesdestinationattributesstimulates.Thesetechnologiesarestillratherexpensive
andeventhoughthehardwarehasbecomemoreconvenienttouse,theyarean"extra"
element,whichmightinfluencethetestperson.Analyzingfamilycommunicationentour
isinthissenseamoreunobtrusiveapproach,especiallywhenitisdoneinaretrospective
mode.Withafocusonmemorabletouristexperiencesitwasdecidedinthisstudytoask
familymemberswhattheydiscusswitheachotherentour.Supportedbytheoryoffamily
communication(Smith,etal.,2009)itisarguedthatfamilymembersdiscusstheir
tourismexperienceswhentravelling(Lehtoetal.,2009).
Servicemarketingandtouristresearchershavedocumentedantecedentstoservice
experiences,discussedtheveryconceptandtriedtolinkexperiencestooutcome
variablessuchassatisfactionandloyalty(Ritchie,etal.,2011;Kimetal.,2012).
Furthermore,therearesomestudies,whichexpandtheservicescapeconcepttoan
experiencescapeconcept(Chuietal.,2010)andbythatclaimthatantecedentsto
destinationexperiencesalsohavetobesoughtoutside"experience‐centricservices"
(Zomerdijk&Voss,2010).Thesestudies,whichallhaveatourist‐environmentfocus
mighthavemissedthoseantecedentsoftouristexperienceswhicharenotlinkedtothe
destinationperse.However,thisisstilltobeexplored.
Thisstudyreportsonthetwofirstphasesofonathree‐prongedresearchapproach
(Tumbat&Belk,2011)i.e.thetheoreticalframeworkandaqualitativestudy.Tourism,
marketing,andconsumerbehaviortheoriesaremergedwiththeoriesaboutfamily
communication.Aholisticframeworkdescribing"Dimensionsofmemorabletourist
experiences"ispresented.Thefirstempiricalfindingsarebasedon64personal
interviews.ThetranscriptshavebeenprocessedbythemeansofaGroundedtheory
approach(Glaser&Strauss,1967),andsevencategorizeofantecedentstotourist
experiencesentourhavebeenexplored.Theseare"weatherandnature","price",
"politics","societyandculture","Foodexperiencesandaccommodations","activitiesand
hobbies",and"privateissues".Thesedimensionsindicatethattouristexperiencesarenot
onlybasedondestinationattributesandtouristrelatedactivities,butarealsofoundedon
moreprofounddimension,whichcanbelinkedtoquality‐of‐life(Björk,2014).
73
Theviewofmasstouristsonsustainabilityvalueatdestinations
AnnaSörensson
SustainabletourismhasbeenontheagendasincethepublicationoftheBrundtland
CommissionReportin1987.Theconceptofsustainabletourismfocusesontourismfrom
economic,socialandenvironmentalaspects.Theobjectiveofthisresearchpaperisto
examinetheperformanceoftwomasstourismdestinationswithregardtosustainability.
Itanalyzeswhichsustainabilityfactorsthatareconsideredmostimportanttotourists
visitingthosemasstourismdestinations.Moreover,acomparisonbetweentheopinions
ofthenationaltouristswiththeonesoftheinternationaltouristsaswellasthedata
collectedfromthetwodestinations.Aquantitativequestionnairewashandedoutto
touristsatanumberoftouristofficesinRimini,Italy,andontheislandofRhodes,Greece.
Thequestionnairecontainedscalesmeasuringthetourists’satisfactionwiththe
destinationandtheirhotelsfromasustainabilitypointofview.Thetouristsalsograded
thelevelofimportancetothosefactors.Themainconclusionofthepaperisthatthereisa
differencebetweenthetourists’viewonsustainabilityvalueatthetwomasstourism
destinations.
Thevalueoftouristexperiences:Rediscoveringtheselfindynamic
spaces
CarolaMay,Dr.
Forcontemporaryindividualsoutdooractivitiessuchassailingtripsormountainhiking
donotonlyrepresenttheattempttorediscovertheirownselvesbyself‐dynamictime‐
spacepatterns,buttoregainagenuineanddirectlyperceivedreality.Againstthe
backgroundofpostmodernitywithitsmultioptionality,indeterminationand
predictability,itslackofprofundityandtheall‐encompassingacceleration(Hassan1987),
thoseoutdooractivitieswiththeirquestsforactionintensity,directchallenge,
decisivenessandauthenticityexpresstosomeextenttheantithesesofthewidely
streamlined,disenchantedandcarefullysecuredroutineofpostmodernlife.
Fromaconstructivistperspective,rediscoveringtheself‐dynamicspacesandits
physically‐sensitiveadoptionthroughoutdooractivitiescanbeinterpretedas
postmodernstrategiesfortemporarilyescapingstructuralmainstreamsociety.Adopting
apraxeologicalapproach(Reckwitz2003;Bourdieu1979),thearticlehighlightsthe
question,inwhichwaythesesocio‐culturalpracticesarereattachedtotheirspatio‐
temporalcontextsandhowtheyarematerializedandreproducedbeyondspatio‐
temporalboundaries.
Asanoutersocietalfactor,the"outdoors"withitsinherentlawsfunctionasareality
whichforcestheindividualtoactimmediately.Unlikethehypercomplexlivingconditions
ofpostmodernlife,natureandbodymutatetotangiblevanishingpointsof
meaningfulness(Bette2004,43.)Usingtheexampleofaculturalstudybasedon
qualitativeinterviewsandobservationaldatacollectionamongnauticaltourists(May
74
2012),thispaperarguesindetailthatdealingwithnaturalforces,managingimmediate
situationsandexploringone'sowncapabilitiesandlimitsarethemajordrivingforcesof
intrinsicoutdooractivities.Fortheactingsubject,thoseextraordinarysituationsoffer
intensestimuli,thatclaimallsensesofhis/herphysicalbodyinrealtimeentangling
him/herinapotentiallydramaticeventwhilebeingthrownbackonhis/herown
capabilities(Schleske1977,26).
Skill‐basedoutdooractivitiessuchastheexemplarysailingtripstreadthenarrowline
betweenadventureandrisk(Schleske1977,40;cf.Goffmann1991).Beingabletodecode
spaceanditsuniquequalitiesisamajorconditionforacting(Tuan2008).Despitethe
attractivenessofovercomingtherisk,itdoesnotreplacetheactualintrinsicpurposeof
theactivity(LeBreton1995,113).Here,theinnerandouternatureofsailingor
traditionalhikingisnotregardedasanopponent.Instead,aplayfulandharmonic
togethernessbetweenalltheparticipatingelementsofspaceandactionistobeachieved.
Whileindividualaspirationsandfactorsofindividuationcanbecompensatedand
developedtemporarilyinthecorrespondingleisureandtourismspaces,performative
skill‐basedtourismactivitiesservetostabilisetheidentityofpostmodernsubjects
(Elisa/Dunning1970).Findingpersonalaffirmation,maturityandintenseactionabilityin
theframeofoutdooractivities,thatdemandacertaingradeofknowledge,enduranceand
practicemightservetoobscuretheirabsenceineverydayworkinglife.Theactingsubject
seekstotestitspersonallimitsoutsideitsstructuralembeddedness.Rhythm,typeand
speedofoutdooractivitieslikesailingorhikingarenotdirectedbyexternalsocio‐
economicfactors,butbytheperformingindividualinrelationtoitsowncapacitiesand
theself‐dynamicspatialelements.Outdooractivitiescanthereforenotonlybeseenas
"islandsofdeceleration"(Entschleunigungsinseln)inthesenseofRosa(2008),indicating
socialnichesthathavepartlybeenleftoutoftheaccelerationandrationalisingprocesses
ofmodernization.Thankstotheircompensatoryside,theymoreoverstabilisethe
structuralsideofcontemporarysociety(cf.Wöhler2011,Rosa2008).
Theseantistructural,intrinsicandcompensativeaspectsneedtobeconsideredforany
outdooractivitiesthataresubjectforbeingplacedonthemarket:achallenging
experiencecannotberationallyevaluated,beplannedand,thus,cannotbemarketedas
such.Infact,thisexperienceratheroccurswithinautotelicactivities,whicharecarried
outfortheirownsake(Csikszentmihalyi2000).Surely,withinthescopeofmarketingand
touristificationstrategies,sailinggrounds,forinstance,canbecustomizedtomeetthe
clientsneed;theycanbeopenedtoawiderrangeofinterestedgroupsorcouldbe
organisedassafeaspossible.Buttheyshoulddeliberatelyallowsomeleewayfor
improvisation,creativity,intensephysicalbodyexperienceandsurprises.Itisthese
attributesthatconstitutethespecialvalueoftouristexperiencesandleadtointenseself‐
awarenessand"unforgettable"moments.
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Theeffectofnormativeface‐to‐facefeedbackoncustomers´process
enjoymentandtheirsatisfactionwiththeoutcome
MayIreneFurenes
Theaimofthis(planned)researchistoanalyzetheeffectofsocialfeedbackinconsumers
participationinself‐productionofarestaurantmeal,andtheinfluenceoncustomer
satisfactionwiththeprocess,andtheirwillingnesstopay(WTP).Earlierstudieshas
shownthatthekeydriverofconsumersvalueiscustomersopportunitytoexpresstheir
uniquenessandindividuality(FrankeandSchreier2008)throughenablingthemtoself‐
production(TroyeandSupphellen2012),orself‐design(DahlandMoreau2007,Moreau
andHerd2010).Itisrecognizedthatsocialinfluencehasanimportanceinthecontextof
self‐designableproducts(Franke,Keinzetal.2008,Moreau,Bonneyetal.2011),butlittle
isknownabouttheconsequencesofincorporatingsocialinteractionintotheself‐
productionprocess(FrankeandSchreier2010,Hildebrand,Häubletal.2013).We
thereforeneedtogainmoreknowledgeaboutthesemechanismssotheindustrycan
managetodesigneffectivesocialsystemsthatincreasestheoutcomeforbothparties
involvedintheco‐creationprocess.Thisstudywillcontributetoexistingtheoryby
examineoftheeffectofsocialfeedbackintotheself‐productionprocessofarestaurant
meal.
Drawingonatheoreticalframeworkincorporatingideasfrombehavioraldecisionmaking
literature(KahnemanandTversky2000),includingtheassociativeandpropositional
theoreticalmodel(GawronskiandBodenhausen,2006)incustomersprocesses
evaluationofsatisfactionandtheirWTP,thisstudyextendsrelatedresearchintheco‐
creationfield.However,recentresearchhasshownthatpeopletendtostriveforsocial
attractivenormsinordertomanagetheirimpressiononothers(MoreauandHerd2010).
Inthisstudywehypothesizethatnormativefeedbackfromothersinself‐production
resultsinassimilationofself‐productiontowardsthesocialfeedback.Furthermore,we
hypothesizethattheassimilationofself‐productiontowardsthesocialfeedbackis
moderatedoftheconsumersself‐efficacyandself‐relevance.Apreviousstudy
(Hildebrand,Häubletal.2013)hasfoundthatpeopletendtoavoidtheuncertainty
associatedwiththeambiguity,andthisinfluencesnegativelyontheirsatisfactionwiththe
processandtheirWTP.Therefore,itisofinteresttostudyhowassimilationofself‐
productiontowardsnormativesocialfeedbackinfluencesthesatisfactionwiththe
processandWTP.
Inordertotestthesehypotheses,thisresearchwillconductafieldstudyinarestaurant
wherethecustomersareactivelyinvolvedintheassemblyprocess,followedbyascenario
basedexperimentaldesign.Inthisstudy,theparticipantswillcreatetheirownself‐
producedmealfromavarietyofproductchoices.Thentheywillreceivefeedbackfrom
thecommunityontheirinitialself‐production,andultimatelyselecttheirfinalself‐
productafterreceivingthefeedback.Inaddition,thesefindingswillbeanalyzedwitha
controlsamplereceivingnosocialfeedbackbothoninitialandfinalself‐production.This
studyisexpectedtoidentifytherelationshipbetweentheinfluenceofsocialfeedbackon
customersassimilationprocessandtheeffectontheirsatisfactionandwillingnesstopay
foraself‐producedrestaurantmeal.
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ValuesInBusinessII
Thevalueofstakeholdersintourismproductdevelopment:Insights
fromLapland José‐CarlosGarcía‐Rosell,JennyJanhunen
Tourismstrategiesandpoliciesarefrequentlycallingforthedevelopmentofnew,
competitiveandevenmoresustainabletourismproducts.Whilethesignificanceof
tourismproductdevelopment(TPD)israrelydeniedamongscholarsandpractitioners
(Cooper1999;Shani,Shani&Sena2003),theprocessofdevelopingtourismproductshas
notbeenstudiedextensively(seeSigala&Chalkiti2007).Therehasbeenaprevailing
tendencytoexamineTPDasaninternalbusinessprocessdonewithinlargetourism
organizations(e.g.Gustafsson,Ekdahl&Edvardsson1999;Hassanien&Eid2006).Asa
result,TPDisillustratedasawell‐structuredandrationalprocessthatistotakeplace
withinastableandcontrollableenvironment.However,ithasbecomeevidentthatthis
wayofunderstandingTPDfacescertainlimitationswhenapplytoasmallbusiness
contextcharacterizedbycomplexanddynamicstakeholderrelationships.
Tofillthisgap,thisstudyaimstoexamineTPDasanexternalprocessembeddedinaweb
ofmulti‐stakeholderrelationships.Tothatend,thestudydrawstheoreticallyonthe
relationalperspectiveonstakeholdertheory(Buchholz&Rosenthal2004,2005)and
organizationalimprovisation(Kamoche&Cunha2001;Moorman&Miner1998).
Accordingtothesetheoreticalperspectives,wearguethatTPDcanalsobeviewedasa
flexibleanduncertainprocessconstitutedbymultiplestakeholderrelationships.By
relyingonempiricaldatacollectedfromthreesmalltourismcompaniessituatedin
SwedishandFinnishLapland,thestudytakeupthetasktoillustratetheroleofmulti‐
stakeholderdynamicsintriggeringandcontinuouslysupportingsuccessfulproduct
developmentprocesses.Theempiricaldataofthisstudyconsistofthreein‐depth
interviews,participantobservationanddocumentarymaterial.Thestudywasconducted
betweenNovember2013andMay2014.
Thepreliminaryfindingsofthestudysuggestthatsmalltourismentrepreneursplayan
importantroleinnurturingtheprocessofTPDbyskillfullymanagingmulti‐stakeholder
relationshipsandothercontextualfactors.Indeed,thestudyshowsthatstakeholders
suchasbusinesspartners,municipality,themediaandthelocalcommunityassumea
crucialroleintheTPDprocessandinsomecaseswithoutevenknowingit.Ontheother
hand,twocontextualfactors,timeandplace,seemtoplayakeyroleindeterminingthe
degreeofsignificanceofcertainstakeholderrelationshipsoverothers.Hence,TPD
processisdeterminedbythetimewelivein,andaccordingtotheentrepreneurs
interviewed,placeoftenplaysakeyroleindeterminingwhatcanbedonewithina
particularTPDprocess.
ThisstudycontributestoTPDtheoryintwoways.First,byapproachingTPDasan
externalprocess,weargueagainstTPDasalinearrationalprocessthatviews
stakeholdersasknowledgeproviders.Asthefindingsshow,stakeholderrelationships
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playanimportantroleinstimulatingaspontaneousTPDprocessthatmayleadfirmsinto
unforeseenresults.Second,thestudysuggeststhatthesuccessofTPDreliesontheability
todevelopmentanenvironmentofteamworkandtrustthatpromotesanopenand
experimentalculture.
CANCELLED:Tourismentrepreneurshipinchangingclimate‐attitudes
andenterprisevaluesinadaptationtoclimatechange
KaarinaTervo‐Kankare
Climatechangepresentsasignificantstressobjectfornature‐basedtourismandcallsfor
bothadaptivecapacityandmitigationactivitiesinthesector.Whilethesectorconsistsof
severalstakeholdersbeingaffectedbythechangingclimate,theroleoftheoperatorsin
tourism,namelythetourismbusinesses,isemphasizedinrelationtobothconcepts.
However,thelevelofactioninthesectorhasremainedlow,despitethegrowing
awarenessandunderstandingaboutthecausesandconsequencesofthephenomenon.
Severalstudiesonclimatechangeriskperceptionsingeneral(e.g.Leiserowitz2006)and
climatechangeawarenessamongtourismstakeholders(e.g.Becken2005;Hall2006;
Saarinen&Tervo2006;Hambiraetal.2013;Hübner2014)haveindicatedthat
knowledgeandawarenessaboutclimatechangedoesnotnecessarilyleadtoaction:
Awarenessaboutclimatechangeanditspotentialrisksmaybeonahighlevel,butthe
stakeholdersshownosignsofproactiveaction(inrelationtoadaptationormitigation).
Onereasonfortheinactivityofstakeholdersmayberelatedtovalues.Accordingto
Leiserowitz(2006),valuesareconsideredtoholdanimportantroleaspsychological
stimulusforthedevelopmentofriskperceptionsandbehavioralintentions.Therefore,an
approachthatfocusesonthetourismstakeholders'valuesthataffectdecision‐making
maybringinterestingnewinsightstothetourismandclimatechangeresearch,and
supporttheindustryinadaptationandmitigationprocesses.
Thispaperpresentsthefindingsofanexploratorystudythatexaminesthevaluesand
attitudesofnature‐basedtourismentrepreneursinrelationstoadaptationtoclimate
change.Itutilizesdatafromthematicinterviewsandsurveysrealizedamongnature‐
basedtourismentrepreneursinFinlandandinBotswana.Theaimofthesestudies,
realizedbetween2005and2010wastoexamineentrepreneurs'attitudestoclimate
changeandclimatechangeadaptationandtoassesswhatkindofresponsesandreactions
theentrepreneurshave.Moreover,thestudyassessedtheirthoughtsandneeds
concerningcooperationandsupportfromexternalactors.Valuesassuchwerenotthe
mainfocusoftheoriginalstudy,butaddaninterestingpointofviewtotheinterpretation
oftheresults.
Analysisofthedatarevealsissuesabouttheviewsonentrepreneurshipingeneral,onthe
independenceandindividualityoftheenterprises(thatmostlyconsistofSMEs);onthe
roleandresponsibilitiesofdifferentstakeholdersintheprocessesofadaptation;andon
theattitudestowardsinnovationsandactionsinchangingclimate.Theseissuesseemto
affectdecision‐makingintheenterprises,buttheirimportanceaspredictorsofactionand
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behavioralintentionsneedstobestudiedmorethoroughly.Additionally,more
informationisrequiredabouttheroleofthesurroundingsocialenvironmentasaco‐
creatorofthesekindsofvalues.Nonetheless,theresearchonawareness,perceptionsand
valuesinthecontextofclimatechangeadaptationaddsnewknowledgetothisfieldof
research.Understandingtheentrepreneurs'attitudesandactionsinchangingclimate
maybecrucialforthefuturedevelopmentofthewholesector.
OutputgrowthandpricesofestablishmentsintheSwedishhotel
industry MartinFalk,EvaHagsten
Theempiricalanalysisofoutputgrowthandperformanceofhotelsisaclassicalfieldin
tourismresearch.Typically,thehotelindustryinhighincomecountriesischaracterised
byamaturemarketwithahighdegreeofcompetitionandconcentration,anddeclining
entryrates(Kalnins,2006).Swedenisaninterestingcountrycasefortheanalysisofthe
growthofhotels.With29millionovernightstaysinhotelsin2012,itisasmallplayerin
totalovernightstaysinEurope.However,growthofovernightstaysinhotelsbetween
2000‐2012ishigherinSwedenthanthoseinotherWesternEuropeandestinations(SE:
2.5comparedto1.2percent).
Theliteratureshowsthatthegrowthofhotelsandrelatedestablishmentsdependson
initialsize,ageandlocationalcharacteristics(Alonso‐Almeida,2013forSpanishtravel
agencies,hotels,andruralaccommodations,Audretschetal.,2004forDutchtourism
enterprises;Marco,2012for3,600Spanishhotels).Whileageandsizearekey
determinantsoflong‐termfirmgrowth,littleisknownabouttheroleofpricesforgrowth.
Knowledgeoftherelationshipbetweenpricesandfirmgrowthisinterestingsincehigh
pricesgenerallysignalhigh‐qualityproductsandservices.
Thispapercontributestotheliteraturebyprovidingfirstempiricalevidenceonthe
determinantsofoutputgrowthandpricesintheSwedishhotelindustryatthe
establishmentlevel.Specialfocusisputontherelationshipbetweenhotelpricesand
growth.Theempiricalmodelaccountsforpotentialendogeneityofoutputpricesthrough
theestimationofthetwo‐stageleastabsolutedeviationmodel(2SLAD)withthenumber
ofcompetitorsingivenmunicipalityasinstrument.Inordertoallowforheterogeneityof
theeffectsbetweenlowandhighgrowthestablishments,weusebothquantileregression
andInstrumentalvariablequantileregressionmethods.Thismakesitpossibletoexamine
thewholedistributionofestablishmentgrowththroughhotelswithrisingovernight
stays,moderategrowthofovernightstaysandfallinggrowth.Thispaperalsocontributes
tothedeterminantsofpricesinthehotelindustry.Recentstudiesshowthatage,size,
location,geographicalconcentrationandshareofforeigntravellersplayasignificantrole
inhotelprices(Becerra,Santaló&Silva,2013).
Empiricalresultsbasedonthe2SLADshowthatthegrowthrateofovernightstaysis
significantlyhigherforhighendhotelsthanthatofaccommodationestablishmentsin
lowerpricesegments.Specifically,a10percenthigherhotelpriceleadstoa0.13
79
percentagepointshigheroutputgrowthrateinthenextfiveyears,UsingquantileIV
estimates,wefindthattheimpactofpricesongrowthincreaseswhenmovingthelower
tothehigherquantiles.Inaddition,cityhotelsshowahighergrowthofovernightstaysas
comparedwithothertypeswhichisconsistentwiththeworldwideriseofurbantourism.
Growthisalsohigherforyoungerandsmallerfirms.Evidencebasedontheprice
regressionshowsthathotelpricesdecreasewiththenumberofcompetitorsinthesame
municipalityuponathresholdof12establishmentsandarehigherforhotelslocatedin
thecapitalcityandforlargerhotels.
Pilottesting/testingasmethodsininnovationprocesses
DortheEide,ElisabetLjunggren
Innovationsareimportantformostfirms,howeverwhenworkingwithintheexperience
economyinnovationsitbecomesincreasinglyvitalsincecustomersoftenseeksomething
newandextraordinary,andcompetitionisoftenglobalandhard.Howtoworkwith
innovationsinsmartwaysinordertocreatevaluesarethereforecritical.Accordingto
Drucker(2007)pilottestingisimportantforlearningandqualityrelatedtoinnovations.
Whilemanytourismfirmsaresmallandhavelimitedresourcestoworkwithinnovations,
andoftentheyarelifestyleentrepreneurswithlimitedmanagementeducation.The
innovationworkcansufferfromlowinvolvementofknowledgesources,systematicwork
andtesting.OtherindustrieslikeICT,petroleumandhealthsectorshavetraditionsof
doingpilottestingaspartofinnovationprocesses.Asfarasweknow,therehavenotbeen
donestudiesofpilottestingwithinthecontextofexperiencebasedtourism.Ourgeneral
observationsshowsthatpilottestingandothermoresystematictestingseemratherrare
insmallexperiencebasedtourismfirms,butitisnotabsent.Thereseemstobealarge
practicalpotentialhere.Boththeoryandpracticehavemotivatedthisstudy.Weexplore
howcanpilottesting/testingbedoneandwhatarethemainpositiveandnegative
experienceswithpilottesting/testingduringinnovationprocesses?
Weuseliteratureoninnovationprocesses(e.g.Fuglsang,2008;Sundbo,etal,2013;
Hjallager,2010)whereinnovationsareseenaspracticebased,relationalandoften
incremental.Morespecificallyweuseliteratureonpilottesting(Edvardssonetal,2010;
Valminen&Toivonen,2011;Sandenetal,2006)andcustomer‐involvedinnovations
(Mannervik&Ramirez,2006;Helkkula&Holopainen,2011;Hoholm&Huse,2008;
Edvardssonetal,2006;Sundbo&Toivonen,2011).
Qualitativecases(thinorthick)withinnature,cultureand/orfoodbasedexperiencesin
Norwayarestudied,throughamixofsemi‐structuredinterviews(mostlywithmanagers),
participatoryobservations,and/orwrittenmaterial.Dataisanalyzedwithinandthen
acrosscases,usinganexplorativedesignandhermeneutic‐phenomenologicalapproach.
Preliminaryfindings:First,whenpilottesting/testingisdonevaries.Itismostusualtotest
whentryingoutthenewdesignseenasapilotorsoldasanewproduct;howeverthe
studyshowsthatthereareimportantbenefitswithstartinginearlierphasesofthe
innovationprocesses.Idealmodelsoftestingduringinnovationsaredeveloped.Second,
howthetestingisdonevaries,someusetoolsand/ordifferentmedias.Three,whois
involvedinthetestingalsovaries,somemainlyinvolvescustomers(endusers),others
80
involvesmainlytouroperators/largeB2Bcustomers,mainlysuppliers,employeesor
cooperators,someinvolvesamixture.Themoreinvolvementofdifferentactortypes,the
moreopeninnovations.Four,themainbenefitsoftestingareincreasedknowledgeand
learning;increasedinvolvement;increasedconcretizing,systemizingandquality;
increasedrelevanceofinnovation(includingmarketorientation)andpreventionofbad
innovations.Five,challengesandpotentialnegativeeffectsarepresented.
Mainfindingsarediscussedinrelationtotheliterature,showinghowwecontributewith
newtheoreticalknowledgeaboutinnovationprocesseswithinexperiencedbased
tourism.
Valuecreationofnetworksandnetworkingforsmallenterprisesand
destinationdevelopment
IreneCeciliaBernhard,KerstinMarianneGrundén
Literaturerecognizesthatnetworksandnetworkingarevitalforfirmperformanceand
enterprisesofallsizesarejoininginternationalnetworks(Lechner&Dowling,2003;
Bernhard&Karlsson,2014;Cesário&NoronhaVaz,2014;).Furtherresearchclaimsthat
networkingisanimportantbusinessactivityforentrepreneurs,especiallyimportantfor
smallbusinessesduringstart‐up,whichcanthencontributetothegrowthofthebusiness
andsuperiorperformance.Theemerginginformationsocietychallengesrelationsnot
onlybetweenpublicagenciessuchasmunicipalitiesandcitizensbutalsosmall
enterprisesinmanyways.Earlierresearchalsoclaimsthatentrepreneurshipisakey
issueindestinationdevelopment.
Thisstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethevaluecreationofnetworksforsmall
enterprisesanddestinationdevelopment.Theenterprisesarelocatedintwo
municipalitiesinaregionundergoingstructuralchange,duetotheclosureofabigcar
plant.Wewillfocusonthevaluecreationofdifferentformsofnetworksandnetworking
suchasface‐to‐faceanddigital‐basednetworks.Furtherwefocusonvaluecreation
relatedtodifferentactorswithinthenetworks,suchastheroleofentrepreneurs,
municipalities,customersandsub‐contractors.Theoriesonentrepreneurship,e‐
government,socialmediaandnetworkareimportantforourstudy.
Theresearchmethodisbasedoncasestudymethodologywithuseofqualitativein‐depth
interviews,observationsanddocumentstudies.Twelveinterviewswereconductedwith
managersfromtensmallenterprises(definedasmicroenterprisesaccordingtoEuropean
Commission(Ekonomifakta,2014).Wecontactedthepublicmanagersatthebusiness
officesineachmunicipalityandtheyselectedalistofcompaniesinvolvedindestination
developmentwithintheirmunicipality.Twoofthetenenterpriseswerechosenfromthe
listmadebythemanagers.Theremainingeightwereselectedfromthelistofmembersof
thetourismcompany'swebsite.Thetourismcompanyispartlyownedbythetwo
municipalitiesandmanagedbyanon‐profitassociationfortourismdevelopment.Each
interviewtookaboutanhourandwasrecordedbeforetranscribing.Allinterviewswere
conductedinautumn2013andweremadetogetherbytheauthors.Theanalysiswas
madebyqualitativecontentanalysisanddoneintwosteps;firstseparatelybyeach
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author,afterwhichtheanalysiswasdiscussedtogether.Thiswasdoneinorderto
increasethevalidityoftheanalysis.Regardingsomeissuesrespondentshavereceived
follow‐upquestionsinordertogetfurtherunderstanding.
Themainfindingsindicatedthatnetworksandmunicipalsupportwereimportantforthe
smallenterprises.Themunicipalitiescouldforexamplesupportnetworkbuildingfor
destinationdevelopment.Theuseoflocale‐governmentwashithertolimitedtoe‐
servicesforpublicprocurement.Therespondentsdidnotaskformoremunicipale‐
services,butthatcouldbeaconsequenceoftheirlimitedexperienceofthepotentialof
locale‐government.
Therespondentsstressedtheimportanceofface‐to‐facecontactsforestablishingand
maintainingtheirnetworks.Theuseofsocialmediaamongtheenterpriseswaslimited
duetolackoftime,competenceandmotivationformostoftheenterprises,althoughthe
potentialofsocialmediaformarketingwasseenasextensive.Afewoftherespondentson
theotherhandwereveryskilledintheiruseofsocialmedia,asaconsequenceoftheir
professionalknowledgeandbusinessorientation.Strategicchoicesofnetworksand
relevantcompetencetohandlesocialcontacts(bothface‐to‐faceanddigitally)
contributedtothevaluecreation.
Thisresearchprovidesinsightintoanddeeperunderstandingofsomeimportantaspects
thatcontributetovaluecreationforsmallenterprisesanddestinationdevelopment.The
casestudiesarepartoftheresearchproject"MaritimeInlands‐past,presentandfuture
strengths"(Marifus)financedbyInterregionalEuropeanUnionRegionalDevelopment
Fund(InterregIVA).
Mealqualityasvalueaddedtoeventandfestivalexperiences KaiVictorHansen,ReidarJohanMykletun
Thispaperreportsresultsfromapilotstudyfocusingonthequalityofthefoodandmeals
atafeweventsandfestivalsinNorway.Noteworthy,thenewspaperjournalists
commentingeventqualityalmostneverfocusonmealsandfoodquality(exceptfor
dedicatedfoodfestivals),whilewaitinglinesforbeersalesmaybementioned.Also
studiesonfestivalgoers'experiencesusuallyomitthistopic,whiletopicslikethecore
festivalprogram,socialinteraction,weatherconditions,accessibility,andcrowdingare
reportedassignificantcomponentsoftheireventexperiences(e.g.Cole&Chancellor,
2009;Getz,2012).However,weargueherethataqualitymealexperiencemayaddvalue
totheexperienceandsatisfactionofthefestivalgoers.Theresearchquestionaddress
howqualitymealexperiencesmaybefacilitatedatfestivalsandevents,leaningonthe
FiveMealAspectModel(Gustafsson,Öström,Johansson,&Mossberg,2007)
Foodsuppliesofferstothefestivalgoersatthreeeventswereinvestigated.The"menus"
fromthedifferentfoodsupplierswerecollectedandthenanalysedusingcontentanalysis.
Thedatacollectionwassuppliedbyobservationsofsalesandeatingareas,andwith
interviewswithorganisersandfestivalgoers.Notesweretakenandanalysedforcontent.
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Thefoodoffersvariedacrossevents.Exceptfromthefoodfestival,itwasbyandlarge
hand‐held"dishes"withhighcaloriecontentandotherwiselimitedvalueashuman
nutrition.Most"dishes"weregreasyandnoteasytoconsumewithoutdrippingdressing
etc.onclothsortheground.Consumingthese"dishes"wasbyfaranaestheticendeavour
astheyweretoohighandmadethecheek,lipsandnosepickingupdressingorother
juicesfromthefood.The"dishes"weregenerallyservedinpaperorplasticwrapping
withdrinksinpaperorplasticcupsorglasses.Theabovealsoappliedtoalargeextentto
thefoodservedforathletesinsporteventsandeveninVIP‐areas.
Themealsofferedbytheeventsectoropensforcreativeentrepreneurialefforts,
combininginterestsofnutrition,aesthetics,andwrappingindevelopmentofnew
"dishes".Increasedattentiontotheseissuesshouldcontributetomorehealthyand
enjoyablemealsandmakingitmoreenvironmentallyfriendly,thusincreasingthe
sustainabilityofthestreet‐foodproductioninparticular,reducingfoodwaste,andthe
eventsectoringeneral.Moreover,newstreet‐foodateventsmightcontaminatetothe
street‐foodproducersingeneral.
SpecialTrack:PopculturalTourism
Broadeningtheexperiencescape/servicescapeconcepts:evidencefrom
popularculturedestinations
ChristineLundberg,KristinaLindström,MariaLexhagen
Theservicescapeisacentralconceptwithintheservicemarketingliteraturebasedon
rationallyworkedoutpresentationsofanenvironment.Itisvitalincreatingtheservice
experience,andcommunicatespowerfulmessagestotheconsumerabouttheexpected
qualityoftheexperience(e.g.Arnould,Price&Tierney,1998;Aubert‐Gamet,1997;Babin
&Dardin,1996;Baker,1987;Baker,Grewal&Levt,1992;Bitner,1990;1992;Booms&
Bitner,1982;Donovan&Rossiter,1982;Mehrabian&Russell,1974;Tilly,1994).Yet,the
brandingandmarketingofplaceshidesthedifferentvalueconstructionsbehindsuch
commercialactivities.Furthermore,muchoftheservicescaperesearchhasbeenvery
conceptual,focusingononlyoneofthephysicalelementsofthephysicalenvironment
(CountrymanandJang,2006).Oneoftheobjectivesofthisresearchistoattempttofill
thatgapbycategorisingallaspectsoftheservicescapebasedondatafrompopular
culturedestinationsandanelaboratedmodelofanalysisforservicescapeelements.
Morespecifically,theaimofthepaperistoelaboratethenotionofservicescapestowards
amoreholisticunderstandingandapplicationoftheconcept.Thefactthatthetourism
experienceinvolvescomplexinteractionswiththephysicalandculturallandscapesofthe
touristdestination,leadingtocomplexpositiveandnegativeimpactsinthelocal
communities,evidentlyloopingbackaffectingtheconsumerexperience,impliesan
extensionoftheconceptofservicescape.Inthismorecomplexcontextoftourism
consumption,Mossberg(2007)hassuggestedthattheservicescapeconceptshouldbe
83
substitutedwiththebroaderexperiencescapeconceptstobetterreflectthatintourism,
theserviceproductisnotlimitedtoonecompanyandserviceenvironmentbutrathera
combinationofserviceprovidersatadestinationorexperienceenvironment.Weargue
thatthespatialdimensionsoftheconceptneedtobeevenfurtherdevelopedto
incorporatethegeographiesoftourism.Theprimarydataincludedinthestudyfurther
supportsthisclaim.
Atotalof278photosand20videoclipscapturedatfourpopularculturetourism
destinationswereincludedinthesample.Thefourdestinations,allrelatedtothepopular
culturephenomenontheTwilightSaga,arelocatedinUSA(Forks,LaPushandPort
Angeles),BritishColumbia,Canada,andItaly(VolterraandMontepulciano).NVivo9was
employedfortheanalysisofdataintwostages.Thefirststagewastoanalysesecondary
data(literature)todevelopamodelforanalysisofprimarydata(stagetwo).Theanalysis
approachcanbedescribedasanapriorianalysisbasedonamodelgeneratedfrom
previousresearchwithinservicescapeandexperiencescape.However,theresearch
designalsoincludedaposthocanalysisallowingfornewnodes/(sub)categoriestobe
developed,whenapplicable,fromempiricaldata.Findingsshowthatevidencefromthe
popularculturetourismdestinationssupportspreviousresearchasregardselementsof
theservicescapeandexperiencescapeconcepts.Inadditiontothis,twonewempirically
generatedsubcategoriesweredevelopedclearlyrelatedtothegeographiesoftourism.
Alas,supportforamoreholisticapproachtotheservicescapeandexperiencescape
conceptswasfound.
Filmtourismcollaborations–acriticaldiscussionofstakeholdersin
Interregdestinationdevelopmentprojects
LenaEskilsson,MariaMånsson
Film,filmproductsandfollowingfilmtourismareallexamplesofcultureaswellasbeing
phenomenarelatedtoculture.Theyarealsoincreasinglyconnectedtoregionaleconomic
growth.Eventhoughtherearedifficultiesinevaluatingfilmtourismprojectsthereis
'hype'amongstdestinationdeveloperstosearchforlocalfilmproductstoexploitfor
touristicpurposesinordertocreategrowthatthedestination.
Manydifferentstakeholdersneedtocollaborateinthemakingoffilmandothermedia
productsaswellasindevelopingthedestination.Heitman(2010)consideredthe
followingpartnersascrucialfordestinationdevelopmentfocusingonfilmtourism;the
destinationmanagementorganisation,tourismbusinesses,filmindustry,touristsand
community.WhatHeitmanismissingarefilmcommissionswhicharebecomingmoreand
moreinvolvedintheprocessofdevelopingfilmtourism.Thenumberoffilmcommissions
hasgrownrapidlyinthelasttwodecades(seeMånssonandEskilsson,2013).
Filmcommissionsusedtohaveaproductionspecificfocus,mainlytryingtoattractfilm
productionsandneglectingtheeffectafilmproductioncouldhaveonaregioninamore
touristiccontext(Hudson2011).However,thathasnowchangedandbesidesafocuson
impactonjobscreated,growthinlocaltaxrevenue,newbusinessactivitiesand
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expenditurealongthewaywhilemakingthefilm,filmcommissionarenowactively
involvedwithfilmtourismasitisseenashavingalongtermeconomicbenefit(cf.Cynthia
andBeeton2009).Moreover,thegrowinginterestbyfilmcommissionsandother
stakeholdersareduetofilmbeingseenasafast‐growingcreativeindustrythatwill
generaterevenueandgrowthtothelocaleconomies.
Filmtourismisknowninresearchandbypractitionersbuttheknowledgewhenitcomes
todifferentstakeholders'actualworkwiththeseissuesislessestablished.Destination
developmentisacomplexwork,characterisedbydifferentagendasandinterests.Theaim
ofthepaperistocriticallydiscussfilmtourismdevelopmentprojects,especially
collaborationsbetweenfilmcommissionsandvarioustourismdestinationorganisations.
InordertoexplorethisfieldwehavechosentoanalyseafilmtourismInterregproject,
oneofseveralongoingEUfundedprojects.Theempiricalmaterialhasbeencollectedin
liaisonwithaprojectcalledEuroScreenthathaseightparticipatingregionsfromallover
Europe.Thedifferentcollaboratingorganisationsrepresentfilmcommissions,regional
developmentagencies,municipalitiesandLundUniversityasanacademicpartner.
Thisisongoingresearchsoatthisstagewehaveonlypreliminaryfindingstopresent.One
ofthemainfindingisthedifferentandoftenconflictingstarting‐pointsandagendasfrom
thedifferentstakeholdersintheseprojects.Areasonforthisisforexamplethediverse
knowledgebasethatcausesaprolongedinitiationphase.Theideaofmeasurabilityis
anothercomplicatingfactorsincethereaconflictingunderstandingofwhatispossibleto
measure.Thefinalconclusionthisfaristhequestionoftransferability;towhatextentcan
onebestpractisebeduplicatedtoanotherplace.Thereisasearchforbestcasesthatcan
beusedasrolemodelsthattotallyneglectslocalcharacteristics.
BollywoodbytheBalticSea
SzilviaGyimothy
Thispaperstudiesthecharacterandimpactofpopularculturalplace‐makinginthe
Øresundregion,withfocusonemergingAsianmarkets.Havingrecognisedthe
commercialopportunityresidingincolourfulBollywood‐stylefilms,newcross‐sectoral
andpublic‐privatealliancesareemerginginEuropeandestinations.Sceniclocationsof
Swissmountains,MediterraneanvillagesandScanianpasturesareincreasinglyfeatured
inIndiancinematicblockbusters(likeVeer‐Zaara,ZindagiNaMilegiDobaraand1920)
andsubsequentlyplayacentralroleinshapingthecontemporaryOccidentalistimagery
ofEuropeantourismscapes.
ThispaperassessescommercialandpublicdiplomacyendeavourstoattractBollywood
productions(andsubsequently,Indiantravelllers)totheØresundregion,byusing
Sheppard'sanalyticalframeworkofpositionality(i.e.relationalplace‐makingacross
‘glocalised’alliancesandasymmetricrural‐urbaninteractions).Theaimistomapthe
complexstagingecologyofglobalizedexperienceeconomy,revealingmulti‐scalarand
pathdependentrelationshipsamongfilmmakers,internationalfancommunitiesand
regionaltourismproductionsystems(incomingbureaus,destinationmarketersand
developmentagencies).
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Throughethnographicfieldworkandqualitativeinterviews,contestedplacemeanings,
intergroupconflicts(highlightingdifferentSwedishandDanishpriorities)andstrategic
solutionstopop‐cultureinducedtourismdevelopmentareaddressed.Thestudypaper
willinformterritorialvaluationmodelspertainingembarkingonapopular‐culture
induceddevelopmenttrajectory.
SpecialTrack:Food‐placenexusI
Takingstockofthe‘Noma’‐effectfoodimagesandpreferencesat
Danishcoastaldestinations
AnetteTherkelsen
Countlesstourismdestinationsaremarketinglocationsonlocalfoodandmeal
experiencestheseyears,believingthatthiswillincreasetheearningsoffoodproducers
andtourismbusinessesalike.InaDanishcontext,awidespreadidea,furthermore,exists
thatthegastronomicsuccessofthecountry,ledbythebestrestaurantintheworld
(Noma),hasboostedtheDanishfood‐relatedimagetoanextentthatitisofbenefittothe
wholecountry.Thequestionis,however,whetherthe'Noma'‐effectextendsbeyondthe
capitalintotheruralperiphery.Hencecentraltothepresentstudyistoidentifywhat
constitutesthefoodimageandpreferencesoftouriststoDanishcoastaldestinations,and
ifanytrickle‐downeffectisdetectablefromthenational,upscaleculinaryimage.
Thestudyoffoodconsumptionintourismisstillatanearlystage,andwhenlookingat
theexistingliterature,thewininganddiningoutexperienceisinfocusattheexpenseof
theself‐cateringaspectsoftourism‐relatedfoodconsumption.Furthermore,theniche
marketofgourmettourists,forwhomfoodandmealexperiencesarethereasontogo,
havebeengivenresearchpriorityoverthevolumeofthemarketforwhomfoodandmeal
offersconstitutebutoneamongseveralimportantholidayexperiences.Itisthevolume
segmentofself‐cateringtouriststhatisinfocushere.Theoreticalattentionis,
furthermore,directedattheresearchthatconsiderstourism‐relatedfoodconsumptionas
multi‐faceted,carryingavarietyofmeaningsandprovidingdifferentexperiencesoften
duringthesameholiday.
Qualitativeinterviewswithbothforeignanddomesticmarketsfacilitateadiscussionof
foodimageryandpreferencesacrossabroadvarietyofconsumergroups.More
specifically,Germanmaturecouplesandfamilieswithchildren,Norwegianmature
couplesandDanishfamilieswithchildrenareinterviewedontheirvisitstocoastal
destinationsinDenmark.Therespondentscanbeidentifiedasself‐cateringtourists,
thoughthisalsoincludesgoingoutformealsduringaholiday.
Preliminaryfindingssuggestthattheeffectoftheupscalenationalculinaryimageisat
bestminimal.BothforeignanddomesticmarketsassociateDanishcoastaldestinations
withquitegenericfoodproductsofgoodquality,andtheexperiencegainedfromself‐
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cateringismainlyoneofsocialbondingandhealthyliving.Associationsinrelationto
restaurantmealsvary,inthatbothimagesoftraditional,ruralmealsandimagesoffast
foodmealsappearfromthedata,andtheexperiencegainedfromeatingoutisa
hedonisticexperiencetosomeandanexperienceofsocialbondingparticularlywithone's
childrentoothers.Inshort,sofarnotracesofaninnovativeculinaryimagearedetectable
inthedata.Whatismore,itseemsoflimitedrelevancetoself‐cateringtouristsinviewof
theother,non‐culinarymeaningsthattourism‐relatedfoodconsumptionpredominantly
carries.
Therelationshipsbetweenfoodandplace
PaulEdwardCleave
Theaimofthispaperistodemonstratethevalues,significance,andexperienceoflocal
foodandplace,inthecontextoftourism.Utilisinghistoricaldataanddocumentarysource
materials,itaspirestoshowhowanappreciationofearlierfoodinterestsinfluencesthose
ofthepresent.Itsmethodologydrawsonempiricalandqualitativeresearch(including
interviewswithproducersandconsumers/touristsanddocumentaryevidence‐
photographs,diaries,andregionalguidebooks),itexamineshow,andwhyrelationships
withfoodandplacehavedeveloped.These,itproposeschangeovertimedemonstrating
anevolutioninfoodproductionandconsumption.Examplesfromthepastcenturywillbe
employedtodemonstratehow,throughtheerasoftourism'shistoryinitiativessuchas
theBritishNationalMarkscheme,introducedinthe1920s,andcurrentinterestsinFood
Tourism,SlowFood,andcelebrationsoffoodreflectprevailingculinaryplace
associations,tastesandstyles.
ThispaperwillembraceacasestudyoftheSouthWestofEngland,aregionwhichhas
establishedacontemporaryfoodculture,butonethatwasbornoutofalongassociation
betweenfoodproduction,consumptionandplace.Itispromotedasafooddestination,
reflectingcurrenttrendsintheconsumptionoflocalproduce.Ithastheadvantagethatits
landscapeandfoodproducingregionsaresynonymouswithitsvisitorattractions,for
example:FOOD&DRINKDEVONprovidesabrandwhichiseasytorecogniseandthe
reassuranceofqualitywhichrepresentsallthatisgoodaboutDevon.
However,thisbeliesalonger,deeperinterest,onerootedintheassociationsbetweenthe
highqualityofthefoodproducedintheregionandhealth.Therelationshipbetweenfood
andplacehasmanyassociations,(forproducersandconsumers)ethical,environmental,
green,andsustainable.Formanythefoodplacenexusrepresentstheconvergenceofthe
culinaryandgastronomicexperience.Inaneraofcomplexfoodinterests,therelationship
betweenfoodandplaceisapparent,termssuchas:ProtectedGeographicalIndication,
PGI,ProtectedDesignatedOrigin,PDO,andTraditionalSpeciesGuaranteed,TSG,arean
indicationofthesignificanceofplaceinthecontextofregionalandlocalfood.
Maintaining,andbuildingonthefoodproduction/culinaryheritageofaregion,isof
benefittotheresident,touristcommunities,andthoseinvolvedinfoodproduction,
tourismandpolicymaking.Intermsofthefoodplacenexus,developmentsinfood
tourism(HallandSharples,2003,CroceandPerri,2010)andthepromotionoflocalfood,
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thesearchfornewculinaryexperiences,reflectanunderlyingquestfortheauthenticand
traditional(Goffman1959,MacCannell,1973,QuanandWang,2004).Changesin
consumertastesandaspirations,andeatingforpleasureandleisure(Mennell,1985,
Spencer,2003,Burnett,2004)aredocumented,buttendnottoemphasisethecontextof
foodandplace.Localfoodandregionaldishesreflectthescopeoffoodandplace,today,
placebaseddescriptionshavelargelyreplacedthehierarchy,andterminologyofclassical
hautecuisine.Forexample,foodisoftendescribedinrelationtoplace,production,
differentiation,andtheoriginofingredients.Thisisevidentinmanyfoodoutlets,from
Michelinstarrestaurants,tostreetfoodandfoodfestivals.
Thesignificanceofplace,andtheoriginandintegrityoffoodanditshistory,representa
culinarycontinuity,anddevelopment.Thefood/placenexusevokesmemoriesand
associationsofaculinaryandgastronomiclandscape.Thesearereinforcedthrough
marketing,promotionandconsumption.Theyarepartofrural,urbanandrurban
heritageandtradition,aculinarycooperationandco‐productionvaluedbyresidentand
touristcommunities.
Businessofculture:useoffoodandwalkingtourstoaddvaluesto
tourist’sexperience
ChristineLim,GladysLam,GiancintaSaw,ZhanghuiYe
AlthoughSingaporeisoneofthesmallestcountriesintheworld(landareaof716square
kms),ithasexperiencedconsiderable success inattractinginternationaltourists. Itwas
rankedtheworld'sfourthmostvisitedcityinthe2013Mastercardsurveyofthetop20
global destination cities.Its unique environment, among others, is characterized by its
heritage and cuisines which embracethe rich ethnic diversity of Chinese, Malay, Indian
andEurasianculture.Withincreasingdemandbyinternationalvisitorsformoreauthentic
local experiences, food tours regarded as 'fusion' tourism product (of food, history and
culture), can add value to tourist's experience in Singapore.Since food is related to
people's social and cultural background, food experience by tourists is associated with
experiencingthelocalculture.Theobjectivesoftheresearchareto:
 examinethefactorsaffectingtheattractivenessofSingaporefoodtours.
 highlightasocialenterpriseinitiative(entitledSingaporeFootprints)bystudent
volunteerstosharehistoryandculturewithtouriststhroughwalkingtours.
Atotalof173person‐administeredquestionnaireswereusedfordataanalysisinthefood
tours research. The survey was conducted using iPad tablets to boost the level of
participation as the interface of the device was more aesthetically appealing and user‐
friendly. Factor analysis was performed to group the items into the underlying factors
using the varimax orthogonal rotation method. All theitems with loadings of 0.5 (and
higher)wereretained.Thereliabilityandvaliditytestswereconducted,andCronbach's
Alphavaluesgreaterthan0.8andKaiser‐Meyer‐Olkinof0.71wereobtained.Additionally,
the findings show that 3 components instead of 7 should be selected to examine
theAttractivenessofSingaporeFoodTours.Themainresultsinclude:
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Respondentswerefrom26differentcountries.
82%hadtriedlocalfoodand73%oftherespondentswereinSingaporefor
theirfirsttime.
81%oftherespondentshadnotheardofSingaporefoodtours.Almostall
hadnotjoinedafoodtourinSingapore.
Tourist'sPerceptionofSingaporeFood,ExpectedTourExperienceand
PerceivedValueofTourweresignificantpositivepredictorsofthe
AttractivenessofSingaporeFoodTours.
Food has been identified as an effective tool in promoting and positioning destinations.
Ourfindingsshowthatfoodtouroperatorsshould:
 continuetoimproveontheirmarketingchannelsespeciallysince
themajorityoftherespondentshadlittleornopriorknowledgeof
Singaporefoodtours.
 lookintothepricinganditineraryoftheirofferingstoprovideoptimal
valuetoenhancetourist'sexperience.
ArelatedtopictotheaboveresearchisSingaporeFootprintswhichprovidesfreeand
experientialwalkingtourstovisitorsduringtheweekends.Asocialenterpriseinitiative
startedbystudentsin2012,theprojecthasseenmorethan1,000participantsjoinedthe
tours.Sharingstoriesaboutplacestotheaudiences,thestudentguides(Walkaholics)
takethemonascenictrektoviewsomemoderndevelopments,andtoventureoffthe
beatentrackonaculturaltrailtoappreciatemixedethnicityinthemulti‐racialsocietyof
Singapore.
ValueOfTourismForSustainableDevelopmentII.
SamplingmethodsinIcelandictouristdestinations
GydaThorhallsdottir,AnnaDoraSaethorsdottir,RögnvaldurÓlafsson
ThenumberofforeignvisitorstoIcelandhasincreasedgreatlyinthelastfewyears,or
70%betweentheyears2010and2013.NeithertheIcelandicgovernmentnorthe
tourismindustrywaspreparedforsuchanextensiveincrease.Littlewasknownabout
touristperceptioninhighlyvisitednaturedestinations.
In2014theIcelandicTouristBoardgavetheUniversityofIcelandagranttostudythe
experienceandperceptionofvisitorsineighthighlyvisitedareasinSouth‐andWest‐
Iceland.TheresearchareasareDjúpalónssandurontheSnæfellsnespeninsula,
HraunfossarinWest‐Iceland,ÞingvellirNationalPark,Geysir,SeltúnontheReykjanes
peninsula,Sólheimajökull,ÞórsmörkandJökulsárlóninSouth‐Iceland.Þingvellir,Geysir
andJökulsárlónarethemostvisitedresearchareaswithover14.000visitorsperweek
duringthehighseason.Theotherareashaveupto7.000visitorsperweekduringthe
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highseason.
Theresearchisdoneinthreeperiods,highseason(June‐August),shoulderseason
(October)andwinterseason(January‐February).Questionnairesareusedtocollect
informationonvisitors´experienceandperceptionoftheareas.
Beforethefieldworktherequiredsamplingsizehadtobecalculated.Asthenumberof
visitorstotheresearchareaswasnotknown,anestimationusingothertypeofdatahad
tobemade.InÞingvellir,GeysirandÞórsmörktherequiredsamplingsizewascalculated
fromrepliestoa2011questionnaireatKeflavíkAirportwhereoutgoingvisitorswere
askedwhichdestinationstheyhadvisited.Fortheotherplacesthenumberofvisitorswas
estimatedfromthenumberofvehiclespreviousyearsobtainedfromtheIcelandicRoad
andCoastalAdministrationorRögnvaldurÓlafsson.Finallythenumberofvisitorswas
extrapolatedtotheyear2014.
FollowingisacasestudyfromHraunfossarwheredatafromtheIcelandicRoadand
CoastalAdministrationwasused.Duringthesamedatesastheresearchwasperformedin
2014,1.380vehiclescametoHraunfossarin2013.UsingdatafromSkaftafellin
VatnajökullNationalPark,theaveragenumberofpassengersineachvehiclewas
assumedtobe3,8.Thismeansthat5.244visitedHraunfossarduringthisperiodin2013.
TheincreasebetweenJulyandAugust2012and2013was12%.Assumingthesame
increasebetweentheyears2013and2014,5.873visitorswouldarriveinHraunfossar
duringthe2014researchperiod(9thto14thJuly).Using95%confidenceleveland2%
confidenceintervalasamplingsizeof1.704wouldthereforebeneeded.
Toobtaintheresponserateandtheratiobetweenthegroupsarrivinginprivatecars
versusbusses,vehicleswerecountedusingavehiclecounter.Tofindtheratiobetween
visitorsarrivingbybusandprivatecars,busseswerehand‐countedaswellasthenumber
ofpassengersineachbus.Theaveragenumberofpassengersineachbuswasfoundtobe
23.Fromotherresearchtheaveragenumberinprivatecarswasknowntobe2,5.Private
carsturnedouttobe94%andbusses6%.Thismeansthat61%ofthevisitorsarrivedby
privatecarand39%bybus.
InHraunfossaratotalof1.285replieswereobtained,65%fromprivatecarsand35%
frombusses.Thetotalresponseratewascalculatedtobe24%,whichmeansaconfidence
intervalof2,38.Theresponserateinprivatecarswas26%and21%inbusses.The
weightofthegroupscanbeadjustedaccordingly.
BiospherereserveecotourisminLakeVänernArchipelagowith
Kinnekulle,Sweden FredrikHoppstadius,CeciliaMöller
Thispaperpresentsworkinprogresswithaplannedempiricalstudyfocusingonthe
societalquestionofhowtoachieverealsustainabledevelopment.Thestudyispartofa
PhD‐projectinhumangeography.Biospherereservesaremeanttofunctionaslearning
sitesforsustainabledevelopment.Thestudywilltakeplaceatabiospherereservebased
onfourbasicvaluesofborderlesscooperation,sustainablesocialdesign,knowledgeof
90
thebiosphereandsuccessfulsustainableeconomicdevelopment.Thestudywillfocuson
ecotourismentrepreneursinthebiospherereserveandaimstoenhancethe
understandingofplace‐specificprocessesinsustainabledevelopmentbyanalysing
collectiveobjectives,bottom‐upapproaches,motivationandinteractions.Howdothe
ecotourismentrepreneursworktowardsustainabledevelopment?Whateffectdoesthe
biospherecontexthave?Whatcanlearningprocessesandentrepreneurshipinatourism
settingandabiospherecontexttellusaboutsustainabledevelopment?
Thestudywilltheoreticallyrelatetolearningprocessesandsustainable
entrepreneurship.Itisimportanttounderstandanddiscusstheplacespecificprocesses
ofhowrealsustainabledevelopmentisachievedinordertoincreaseknowledgein
understandingoftheoreticalandpracticalapplicationsofsustainabledevelopment.The
importanceofandadvocacyforlearninginbiospherereservestogetherwithecotourism's
simultaneousproductionandconsumptionprovideagoodentrypointforanalysing
sustainabledevelopment.Theecotourismentrepreneurssellaproductwhosequalityis
linkedtotheirsustainabledevelopmentefforts.Thetouriststhatconsumethetourism
productarepresentatthelocality,andcanpartakeinthecoproductionofsustainable
developmenttogetherwiththeentrepreneursandthereceivingregion.Theconference
presentationwilldiscussthemethodologyandlayoutofthestudythatistobe
undertakenduringautumn2014.
TheUseoflocalknowledgetoimprovegeotourismplanning–acase
studyfromKatlaGeopark,Iceland
RannveigOlafsdottir
Theimportanceofintegratinglocalknowledgeintoregionaltourismplanningis
recognisedascriticalforsustainabletourismmanagement.Localknowledgereflectsthe
diverserangeofopinionsofparticularplacesinthecommunityaswellasdifferentvalues,
emotionsandperceptionsofaplacethatareofvitalimportanceforsustainabilityofa
place,bothforthelocalcommunityandtourismdevelopment.Thisstudyattemptsto
provideaframeworktoimprovecommunityparticipationingeotourismplanninginthe
KatlaGeoparkinSouthernIcelandbyintegratingknowledgeatlocalaswellasexpert
level.ThisintegrationisbeingachievedthroughtheusesofGeographicInformation
Systems(GIS)throughaparticipatorymappingexercise(PAGIS).Theoverallaimisto
compareandcontrasttheexercisesinordertoestablishtheusesofmapsandGISin
tourismdevelopmentandfuturetourismplanningofthegeopark.Buildingonthis
comparisonGISisfurtherbeingusedtoanalysethecausalrelationshipbetweenthe
diverseinterestsgroups.Anintegratedapproachtotourismplanninganddevelopmentis
advocatedtoensureamoreholisticuseofthegeoparkfortourismandproduct
developmentinasustainablemanner.
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Becomingacreativedestination.Theoriesforpromotingandmakeuse
ofinnovation
EddyNehls
Thispaperisbothapresentationandaninvitation,toaconversationregardingthepros
andconsofmytheoreticalworkintheareaofTrollhättan/Vänersborg,topromotethe
becomingofacreativetourismdestinationthatisbothprosperousandsustainable.My
researchisabstractandtheoreticalbutthepurposeistogivepeopletoolstothinkwith
thatcanbeusedinsocietytobuildacollectiveandbetterunderstandingofculture,which
inturncanbeusedtopromotecreativity,innovationandsustainability.InthispaperIam
investigatingnewwaystothinkabouteconomicgrowthinthetourismindustrythatis
bothinnovativeandsustainable,andatthesametimeengageawidespectrumoflocal
residentsanddifferentkindsofactorsandstakeholdersintheprocessofbecomingan
interestingandattractivedestination.Thepurposeisthereforenottosayanythingabout
thepresentsituationortodiscussbestpractices,buttovaluedifferentpathstowardsan
openendedfutureandtoemphasizetheconceptsbecomingandcollectiveengagement.
TomeetthechallengesIamarguingthatanewunderstandingofknowledgeisneeded.If
wewanttopromotebothcreativityandsustainableeconomicgrowthinthetourism
industryweneedtoolstohandlecomplexityandalsonewwaystounderstandandwork
withculture,whichisemphasizingchangeandmotionmore.Bothsupportforthisand
toolstothinkwithIfindintheworkoftheFrenchphilosopherGillesDeleuzeandhis
conceptofconversation.IalsouseBrunoLatourandtheActorNetworkTheory(ANT)as
areferencepointandasinspiration,aswellasinsightsfromthepedagogicfieldofWork
IntegratedLearning(WIL).Deleuzehasresembledthinkingwiththrowingofadiceand
thismeansthatthinkingmustbeunderstoodassomethingthatoccursinbetweenactors,
withincontext.Healsoarguesthatchanceisafactorthatmustbetakeninto
considerationeverywherebecausethefutureisanopenended,collectiveprocess.Thisis
whyIamcriticalabouttheconceptofbestpracticeandarguethatweneednewwaysto
thinkaboutdestinationdevelopment.Theoutcomeofaculturalprocesscanneverbe
regulatedbeforehandorindetail.Itisinthemiddle,inbetweenactors,thatknowledge
andalsoeconomicgrowthemerges.Whenthisunderstanding,thisfocusonthefuture,is
implementedinacontextitopensupfornewandinnovativewaystodevelopthelocal
economyandthedestination.Innovationsandinnovativesolutionscannotpersebe
describedinadvance,onlydiscoveredinretrospect.Tomakeuseoftheresultofmy
researchtheskilltodetectandcatchtheopportunitiesthatariseinbetweenhastobe
bothdevelopedandspreadwidelyamongpeoplethatliveandworkintheareaandas
manydifferentkindsofactorsaspossiblehastobeengaged.
Mycontributionismainlytheoretical,butbecausetheoryisoftenforgottenortakenlight
hearted,theresultisimportant.Whenweunderstandthataplaceoradestinationis
neverfinished;thatitisinaconstantstateofbecoming,andwhenthisontologyiswidely
acceptedamongpeopleconnectedtothedestinationandtheepistemologyis
implementedinthework,thechancestofindnewandcreativewaystodevelopthe
economyandthedestinationincreases.Theoryisneverjusttheory!
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Guidedtoursforsocio‐environmentalchange
MaríaJoséZapataCampos,PatrikZapata,MariaJylkkä
Infrastructuressuchaslandfills,sewageplants,anddistrictheatingplants,constitutethe
darkandunknowncitythatveryfewcansee.InGoffman’sterms,suchinfrastructuresare
partofthebackregionofthecity:thoseplacesthatarehiddenfromthesightofthe
residentslivinginthe‘front’city,yettheyperformacriticalroleforasustainableurban
development.Theinvisibilityandtaken‐for‐grantednessofwellfunctioning
infrastructure,andtheimpossibilityofoutsiderstoseeintothem,hasimplicationsfor
howinfrastructureisimaginedandthoughtof;astheacknowledgementoftheconnection
betweentheutilityuseranditsenvironmentalfootprint.Oneexceptionalwaytofor
outsiderssuchastourists,students,practitionersorresearcherstoenterthecityback
regionsisthroughguidedtoursthatallowaccesstoinfrastructuresthatareordinarily
closedforvisitors.
Thispaperexaminesthepoliticsofguidedtourstoenvironmentalinfrastructures.Itis
informedbythecaseofguidedtoursprovidedtosecondaryschoolstudents
toinfrastructuressuchaswasteincinerators,landfills,recyclingstationsandbiogas
plants,inseveralcitiesinSweden.Themaindataarevisualandtextualobservations
recordedfromtheseguidedtours,andwithinterviewswithtourguides.Thepaper
discusseshowguidedtoursarepromotedtogainandmaintainsociallegitimacyandused
tostrengthenthemythofinfrastructureassymbolsofmodernity,growthandprogress.
Yetthetourscanalsobeusedtoreconnectandelucidatetheinfrastructure’suserswith
theirenvironmentalfootprintandthusleadtoachangeinvaluesandprocessesofsocio‐
environmentalchange.
Normsandbehaviouralintentionsinthecontextofsustainabletourism
RouvenDoran,SveinLarsen
Previousresearchsuggeststhatnormscanhavepowerfuleffectsonthewillingnessto
behaveinanenvironmentallyfriendlymanner.Forexample,studieshaveshownthat
decisionstoengageinpro‐environmentalbehaviourstendtobeinfluencedbythe
presenceofdescriptivenorms(i.e.,howotherpeoplebehave),subjectivesocialnorms
(i.e.,howotherpeopleexpectmetobehave),and/orpersonalnorms(i.e.,howIexpect
myselftobehave).Thepresentresearchispartofalargerinvestigation,whichaimsat
identifyingindividualandsocialfactorsthatmayinfluencepeopleintheirdecisionto
engageinpro‐environmentalbehaviourswhiletravelling.Thisparticularpaperseeksto
exploretherelativeimportanceofdifferenttypesofnormsinexplainingbehavioural
intentions,andreportsonastudyinvestigatingassociationsbetweenthesevariablesin
thecontextofsustainabletourism.Someofthebehaviouraldomainsaddressedinthis
studyhavecleareconomicrelevanceforthedecision‐makerssuchaspayingmorefora
tripifthishelpstoprotecttheenvironmentorpurchasingenvironmentallyfriendly
tourismproductsalthoughthismightbemoreexpensive.Preliminaryfindingsare
presented,andimplicationsforfutureresearchanddestinationmanagementarenoted.
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ValuesOfTourismForSocietyAndCommunitiesI
Samiintourismareas:howtoadaptatraditionallifestyletoatourism
landscape ChristinaEvaEngström
TheSwedishmountainrangeishostingdiverselandinterestsandavarietyofeconomic
activities.TheScandinavianindigenouspeople‐theSami’s–usethemountainareafor
theirreindeerherding.Othersutilizethemountainsandnatureforrecreationaland
commercialactivitiessuchastourism.Hence,thediversityoflanduse,representedinthe
areaareextensive.Duringthepastdecadestourisminparticularhasarisenasa
prominenteconomicactivityinthemountainrange.Largescaletourismfacilitieshave
beenestablishedandespeciallythesouthernpartsofthemountainareahavebecomeone
ofthemostvisitedtourismareasinSweden.Thisraisesquestionsonhowtourismaffect
thelocalindigenouspeople‐theSami’s–andtheirtraditionalwayoflife.Howdothey
perceivetheinfluenceoflarge‐scaletourismintheirlandscapeandhowdotheyadjustto
this?
Previousresearchhassuggestedthatthereisahighlydiversifiedapproachtowards
tourismamongtheSami’s(e.g.Müller&Pettersson,2001;Müller&KuoljokHuuva,
2009).Tourismhasbeenmentionedasdisturbingthereindeerhusbandry,byintrusions
ongrazingareas.Othershaveappointedparticipationintourismactivitiesasan
additionalincomeopportunityand/orameansfortakingcontrolovertourismflowsin
thesensitivegrazingareas.Additionally,earlierstudiessuggestthatmostoftheSami’s
expressingapositiveattitudetowardstourismisseldominvolvedinthereindeerherding.
Hence,therelationbetweentheSamicommunityandtourismiscomplexandmulti‐
layered.
ThepurposeofthepaperistoinvestigatehowtheSamicommunityinpracticefunction
whenlargescaletourismbusinessesiscloselylocatedtotheirlands.Thefocusisonhow
theSami’sadapt/adjusttotourism.Hence,themainobjectiveofthisstudyistoextend
previousknowledgeonSamiperceptionstowardstourismandbringforwardan
understandingofhowthediverseperceptionsoftourismishandledinreality/everyday
life.Questionsframingthestudyincludes;WhatmeasuresdoestheSamitakeinorderto
maintainatraditionallifestyle?;HowdoestheSami’streattheproblems/potentials
associatedwithacloselylocatedtourismindustry?
SemistructuredinterviewsareconductedwithindividualsfromtwoselectedSami
communities,closetolargescaletourismdestinationsinthesouthernpartsofthe
Swedishmountainrange.Importantaspectsoftheinterviewsarethoughtsandopinions
abouttheroleoftourismandtouristswithinSami‘territories’andtheroleoftourismasa
potentialforbusinessesandincome.
PreliminaryresultsindicatethatacloseandfrequentdialogbetweentheSami’sandthe
tourismentrepreneursiscrucialinordertomaintainatraditionalSamilifestyleand
reindeerherding.Byacontinualcommunicationbetweenthedifferentactorsactiveinthe
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mountainareaandamutualresponsivenesstoeachother’sneedsthechancesofafruitful
co‐existenceincreases.However,thestudyalsosuggeststhattherestillisproblems
associatedwiththerelationbetweentheSami’sandthetourismindustry,whichrequires
furtherattentioninordertobesorted.
Theuseandnon‐usevaluesofevents:aconceptualframeworkfor
eventevaluation
TommyD.Andersson,JohnArmbrecht,LarryDwyer,ErikLundberg
Animportantfocusofcurrentresearchhasinvolvedtheholisticassessmentofevent
impacts,includingsocial,culturalandenvironmentalimpactsaswellaseconomic
impacts.Eventscreateexternalitiesthatcanbeunderstoodwiththehelpofconceptssuch
asUseandNon‐usevalues.Todate,theseconceptshavebeendevelopedandapplied
primarilywithinenvironmentaleconomicsascomprisingwhateconomistscall'total
economicvalue'.Theyhavebeenusedtounderstandthebenefitsandcoststhatoccur
bothforusersofnaturalresourcesandfornon‐users,i.e.individualsthatareaffectedby
positiveornegativeexternalitieslinkedto,forexample,thepreservationofnatural
resources.Theyhavealsobeenestablishedwithinculturaleconomicstounderstandthe
valuescreatedby,forexample,culturalinstitutionsandart.Amorerecentdevelopment
hasbeentheapplicationofUseandNon‐usevaluesinthecontextsofeventsandfestivals.
Thelinkbetweenculturalinstitutionsandeventscanbeestablishedbythecultural
contentofmanyeventsandfestivals.However,theadoptionoftheseconceptscanalsobe
linkedtothenotionthateventshavewidersocietalimpacts,beyondeconomicimpactsor
thefinancialinjectionofnewmoney.
TheaimofthispaperistoconceptualizeUseandNon‐usevaluesinaneventcontext.A
literaturereviewofthedefinitionsandapplicationswithinthefieldsofenvironmental
andculturaleconomicswillbethebasisfortheconceptualization,aswellastherecent
applicationsintheeventcontext.Theconceptualframeworkprovidesaviewonvalue
creationofevents,includingbothvisitors(users)andlocalresidents(non‐users).Use
valuesarediscussedintermsofdirectandindirectusevaluewhichcanbelinkedto
differentaspectsoftheeventexperiencebyparticipants,visitorsanddestination
residents.Non‐usevalues,ontheotherhand,arediscussedintermsofoptionvalue,
bequestvalue,stewardship,altruisticvalue,andexistencevalueandhowthesevaluescan
(ifatallpossible)berelatedtoawidergroupofeventstakeholders.Thepaper
contributesanalternativeperspectiveoneventevaluationcomparedtostandard
approaches.Thisperspectivealsoprovidesafertileagendaformoredetailedresearchon
theroleandimportanceofdifferenttypesofvaluesineventassessment.
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Thevaluesoftourismformulti‐ethniccommunities:acasestudyof
BaluchisinIran AhmadRezaSheikhi,AgustínSantanaTalavera,HeredinaFernandez
Oneoftheproblemsofmulti‐ethniccommunitieslikeIranistheethnicgroupsandthe
challengesthatinmanycaseshavejeopardizedmanycountriesandledtothecollapseof
politicalsystems.Theaimofthisinvestigationistofindthesuitablestrategyforthese
challengesandethniccrisesinIranwiththeemphasisonethnicstudiesinIran’s
Baluchistanasacasestudy.Thisstudyattemptstoprovidetheappropriateguidelinesfor
themanagementofethnicdiversityandappropriatepolicythroughvaluesoftourismto
benefitsfromexoticcultureoftheethnicgroupsandthuscreatingsolidarityand
enhancingnationalintegrity.
Thispaperfocusesonthediversityethnicgroup’scultureasauniqueformoftourist’s
attraction,topreparingsuitableoptionsforethnicgroupstointroduceexoticculturesto
domestictouristsinIran.So,themainquestionofthisstudyaddressesthattourismhave
valuestoincreasingnationalintegrityandendlesscurrentethniccrisesinmulti‐ethnic
communitiessuchasIran.
Thefindingsofthisstudyshowthatvalueoftourismincommunitiesofethnicgroupshad
asignificantroleinreducingethnicchallengesandintegrityofnationalsolidarityfor98
%,tourismhaveimpactforendtheethnicdiscriminationandinjusticeagainstethnic
groupsfor96%,theroleofmulticulturalismandrespectforethnicgroups’culturesin
nationalsolidarityfor93%throughtourismpossible,andfinallydiscriminationin
governmenteconomicinvestmentinIran'sBaluchistancomparingwithothersprovinces
ofthecountryfor83%throughthevaluesoftourismdisappears.
Theresultsobtainedinthisstudyindicatethatthevalueoftourismcomparingwiththe
otheroptionsonsolvingethniccrisisinIranBaluchistanisverynotable.
Tourismentrepreneurship:NGOs,clientismandprojectitis
IngeborgMarieNordbø
Entrepreneurshipandsmallbusinessstart‐upis,onaglobalscale,increasinglypromoted
asaprimemotorforeconomicdevelopment,notleastinruralareaswheretheeconomic
situationoftenispicturedbyadramaticdeclineinprimaryindustries,andwherefew
otheralternativesforeconomicdevelopmentareseenasviable.Correspondinglylocal
citizensinbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesare,throughanumberofpolicy
instrumentsandsupportinitiatives,stimulatedtoinitiateentrepreneurialactivitiesand
setuptheirownprivatebusinessorproject.Intheeyeoftheauthorentrepreneurshipin
thiscontextcanbeunderstoodasamanagementtrend,wheretheideaof
entrepreneurshipasaruraleconomicdevelopmentstrategyhasbeendevelopedinthe
West,andwhereweduringthelastdecadeorsohaveobservedhowthisideais
increasinglybeingdiffusedtoothergeographicalareasandcontextsbyinternational
organizationssuchastheWorldBank,developmentconsultants,mediaandother
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proponents.Inthecontextofothertypesofideasthathavebeendiffusedandtranslated,
aswithsustainabilityandCSR,studiesshowthatsuchdiffusionsalsocanbeproblematic
andgiveconsequenceswhenactorsfromdifferentcontextsmeet(Kahnet.al.2007;
Schwartz,2012;Berglund&Schwartz,2013).InthisarticleIcombinequalitative
interviews,conceptsandtheoriesfrominstitutionaltheoryonorganizationsandsocial
origintoshedlightonaNGOinitiatedruraltourismentrepreneurshipprojectinan
indigenousdevelopmentareainLagoBudi,inthesouthofChile.
Comparingtourismstatisticsofacountrywithinternationalstandards:
EvidenceforIceland
CristiFrent
Icelandhasproducedofficialtourismstatisticsstartingwith1984whenthesurveyon
accommodationestablishmentshasbeenlaunchedbyStatisticsIceland.Withsome
improvementsovertheyears,thissurveyhasbeencontinuouslycarriedoutsincethen.In
addition,sinceMarch2002itisIcelandicTouristBoard(ITB)whostartedtocount
regularlythenumberofvisitorsleavingKeflavíkAirport,themainentry/exitgateofthe
country.Togetherwithsomedemand‐sidesurveysontourists,irregularlyconductedin
thelastyearsandcommissionedbyITBtoprivateresearchcompanies,atpresentthese
arethemaindatasourcesspecifictotourismstatisticsinIceland.
Oncethenewinternationalstandardsontourismstatistics(namedInternational
RecommendationsonTourismStatistics2008‐IRTS2008)wereendorsedbyUnited
NationsWorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO)in2008,thereisanecessitytoseehow
Icelandiscopinginthisfield.IcelandisnotamemberofUNWTObutthisdoesnotmean
thatthecountryisnotinterestedinhavingtourismstatisticaldatacomparableat
internationallevel.Moreover,asamemberofEuropeanEconomicArea(EEA)Icelandhas
tocomplywithpartsofEuropeanUnion(EU)legislationandthisincludesalsothe
Regulation629/2011concerningEuropeanstatisticsintourism.Thisregulationisinfact
anadaptationatEUlevelontheinternationalstandardsintourismstatistics.Thereisa
particularconcernforimprovingtheexistingsystemoftourismstatisticsinIcelandand
forthistohappen,athoroughassessmentoftheconceptsandmethodologiesisneeded.
TheaimofthisresearchistoassessthesystemoftourismstatisticsinIcelandinmeeting
therequirementsofinternationalstandardsintourismstatisticsasdefinedbyIRTS2008.
ItisimportanttomentionthatonlyIRTS2008asinternationalstandardintourism
statisticswillbeconsideredinthisanalysis.Theotherinternationalstandardnamely
TourismSatelliteAccount:RecommendedMethodologicalFramework2008(TSA:RMF
2008)isoutofthescopeofthispaper.However,insomecases,theEUrequirementsfor
tourismstatisticsarealsoenvisagedasabenchmark.
ResearchmethodconsistsmainlyinacomparativeapproachofIcelandictourism
statisticswithIRTS2008.Infact,acontinuouscomparisoniscarriedoutpointingout
bothsimilaritiesanddifferences(departures)frominternationalstandards.Conceptual
andmethodologicalissuesweremainlyenvisagedaswellassomemeasurementissues
(i.e.measurementoftourismexpenditure).SomedeficienciesoftheexistingIcelandic
97
datasourceswerehighlightedandseveralimprovementswereproposed.
Themainresultsofthispaperrefertoaseriesofrecommendationswhichcouldbeseen
assolutionsproposedbytheauthorforimprovingtheexistingsystemoftourism
statisticsinIcelandinordertocomplywithinternationalstandards.
Thispapercontributedtoabetterunderstandingoftheissueofstandardisationand
internationalcomparabilityintourismstatisticsfortheparticularcaseofIceland.Itcan
alsoraiseawarenessoftheimportanceofhavinggoodandsoundstatisticstocharacterize
thetourismsectorinanycountry.
ValueOfTourismForDestinationDevelopmentII
AnIntegrativeModelofMedicalTourism:ExploringtheRelationships
betweenHospitalReputation,DestinationImage,Physician,Service
QualityandPhysicalFacilities,TouristSatisfactionandWordofMouth
Recommendation
YuhanisAbdulAziz,ZaitonSamdin,KhairilAwang,ZulhamriAbdullah
Overthepastfewyears,studiesonmedicaltourismwereusuallyonexaminingthe
generalconceptofmedicaltourism,includingtheriseanddevelopmentofmedical
tourismandtheimpactoftraveltoforeigncountries.Differingfromthepreviousstudies,
therefore,thepurposeofthisstudyistotestamodelwhichinvestigatestherelationship
betweenthefactorswithtouristsatisfactionandwordofmouthrecommendation.The
datawascollectedviaself‐administeredquestionnairesfrom592medicaltouristsin
Malaysia.Theresultsofstructuralequationmodellingdemonstratedanumberof
significantdirecteffectsthatprovidedsupportforthemajorityofthehypothesized
relationships.Specifically,hospitalreputation,destinationimage,physician,service
qualityandphysicalfacilitieswerefoundtobesignificantlyrelatedtocustomer
satisfaction.Theresultsalsorevealedthattouristsatisfactionwassignificantlyrelated
withwordofmouthrecommendation.Newlytestedrelationshipsproposedanumberof
directionsforfutureresearchinmedicaltourism,andprovidedempiricalevidenceofthe
needformedicaltourismmarketerstomovetowardsgreaterintegrationbetween
medicaltreatmentandservices.Overall,thefindingsofferstrategicmarketing
implicationsformedicaltouristdestinations.
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Co‐creatingdestinationbrandinSouth‐Savo
IraLahovuo,JenniMikkonen
Developmentofdestinationbrandshavebecomeimportantstrategictoolduetoa
growingcompetitionamongdestinations.Fortourismpurposes,destinationbranding
identifies,delineatesanddifferentiatesadestinationandcommunicatesitsimageaspart
ofitsappealtotouriststoexperiencethosefeaturesandcharacteristicsthatmakeit
distinctiveandattractivedestination.(Hall1999;Blainetal.2005)Destinationbranding
involvesacombinationofservicescreatedandprovidedincooperationwithlocal
stakeholderswhichcontributesignificantlytothequalityoftheexperience(Beritelli
2011;Hauglandetal.2011).Inthecontextoftourismandbrandingdestinations,co‐
creationisarelativelynewtopic.Whileco‐creation,andespeciallycustomerinvolvement,
isalreadywide‐spreadinthedevelopmentofservicesandproducts,itsusefortourism
purposesanddestinationbrandinghavesofarbeenstudiedless.Recentlyforexample
ÅkerlundandMüller(2012)havestudiedco‐creationinthecontextofbiddingprocessof
anevent.Additionalresearchisneededtodiscoverhowdifferentstakeholdergroups
couldbebetterinvolvedindestinationbranding.
InSouthSavo,eventsandeventtourismhasformanyyearsbeencitedasoneofthe
strengthsintheregion’stourismbutthereseemstobeonlyalittleco‐operationand
sharedstrategicthinkingbetweendifferentstakeholders.Thisstudyfocuseson
destinationbrandingthroughaco‐creationprocess,especiallyfromtheperspectiveof
events.Theaimofthestudyistoidentifyhowdifferentstakeholdersareparticipatingin
destinationbrandingprocess,andhowthebrandcouldbeco‐createdmostefficientlyso
thatthedestinationwouldbecomemoreattractiveandmoreefficientlyrelatedtoevents.
Additionally,thestudyexploreswhichchannelsworkbestandwhattypeofmessages
eachstakeholdercouldcarry.
Thetheoreticalframeworkisbrandco‐creationwhichreferstotheparticipatory
involvementofvariousstakeholdersinbrandcreation.Manystudiesconceptualizebrand
co‐creationasanewbrandingparadigm(e.g.Merz&Vargo2009)andhighlightthe
importanceofconsideringallstakeholdersintheprocess(Gregory2007;Iglesiasetal.
2013).Tourismliteratureisconsistentthatdestinationbrandingisacriticalsuccess
factorandacollectiveprocess(Morganetal.2003,Hankinson2004,Garcíaetal.2012).
Thedataiscollectedthroughsemi‐structuredinterviews.Thestakeholdersinterviewed
aremembersofdestinationmanagementorganizations(DMOs),eventorganizersand
tourismplanningauthorities.Datacollectioniscurrentlyongoingandpreliminaryresults
arepresentedattheconference.Theinterviewswillbeanalyzedusingqualitative
methods.Theanalysisfocusesonthestakeholderinvolvementinthedestination
branding,andhowdifferentstakeholdersseetheirrolenowandinthefuture.
Sinceco‐creationisonlyalittleresearchedtopicinthecontextofdestinations,thisstudy
contributestotheco‐creationliteraturebygivinganempiricalexampleandevidenceon
howdifferentstakeholderscanbeinvolvedinthedestinationbrandingprocess.The
resultscanalsobeusedbythestakeholdersinordertocreatemoreeffectivebranding
process.
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Internaldestinationbrandingandthecaseof'FreshEyes'
PeterKvistgaard
Destinationbrandscontainaninternalelement(identity)andanexternalelement
(image).Imagereferstohowexternalaudiencesperceivethedestination,whereas
identityrelatestoidentification/creationofvaluesthatrepresentthedestinationand
internalstakeholders.Beforefocusingonhow‘we’areperceivedorwishtobeperceived
thendestinationsneedtodefine,who‘we’actuallyareandthus,brandidentitymustbe
establishedbeforebrandimage.Inadestinationcontext,the‘we’iscomprisedofa
multiplicityofstakeholders,andnumerousbrandingscholarsclaimthatsomethe
greatestproblemsindestinationbrandingareinternalratherthanexternal.Internal
brandingiscrucialasitnotonlyfostersideasabout‘whoweare’andcooperation
amongstthedifferentstakeholdersbutinternalbrandingisalsothebasisforexternal
destinationbranding.Consequently,howtobuildbrandidentityacrossinternal
stakeholders–particularlybymeansofmoreinclusive,bottom‐upapproaches–has
becomea‘hottopic’.Therefore,theworkthatDMOsdohaschangedfromtraditional
destinationmarketingtowardsdestinationmanagement(includingbottom‐up
approachestocreationofbrandidentity).
However,toactuallyinitiateandmanagesuchbottom‐upprocessesseemsquite
challenging.Asaresult,destinationsincreasinglyturntoexternalexpertsinorderto
facilitateinclusive,bottom‐upprocesses.Thispaperdiscusseswhyprocessesdrawingon
‘fresheyes’maybecriticaltosuccessfulbranding.Asapartofthisdiscussion,reasons
whydestinationsrelyonexternalexpertswhenseekingtoestablishbrandidentityby
meansofbottom‐upapproachesarescrutinized.
Thepaperisgroundedintheliteratureondestinationandplacebrandingaswellasin
generalbrandingliterature.
ThepaperdrawsonasinglecasestudyinruralDenmark,wheretheDMOinitiateda
developmentprocesstodefineidentityacrosslocalstakeholders.Thecasecentresonthe
notionof‘fresheyes’andreasonswhy‘fresheyes’maybenefitdestinationbrandidentity
processes.
Thepaper’skeycontributionisthatitintroducesthenotionof‘fresheyes’and,bydoing
so,deepenstheoreticalunderstandingsofinternaldestinationbrandingprocesses.The
brandingliteraturetendstoemphasizeconsistency,clearimagesandthatitisimportant
nottochangedirectionifonewishestobuildastrongbrand.However,destinationsdo
notseemtoactconsistentlywithsuchrecommendationsasmanydestinationsengagein
destinationbrandingprocessesinanalmostcyclicmanner.AstheactionsofDMOsand
especiallytheirrelianceon‘fresheyes’intheformofexternalexpertsstandinsharp
contrasttotraditionalbranding’semphasisonlong‐termorientations,brandconsistency
andcontinuity,thepaperfurthercontributeswithknowledgeondestinationbrandingas
apotentiallyveryuniqueformofbrandingthatshouldnotdrawtoomuchontraditional
brandingliteratureandresearch.
100
MarketingofrecreationalsalmonfishinginIceland:Experiencesof
fishinglicenseoutfitters
ThorgilsHelgason
Sports’fishingforsalmoninIcelandhasbeenapartofIcelandicsocietyforalongtime.
ForeignvisitorshavebeencomingtothisislandinthemiddleoftheNorthAtlanticOcean
fornumberofyearsasitisregardedtoofferoneofthemostoutstandingfishingfor
Atlanticsalmonintheworld.InIcelandtherecreationalanglingindustrycreatesrevenue
accountingforaroundhundredmillionpoundseachyearwhendirectandindirecteffects
areincluded.TheimagethatIcelandseemstohavebothasacountryandasafishing
destinationshouldbeidealforthemarket.Acountryofferingpureandpristinenatural
environmentandwithfishingmanagementstrivingforsustainabilityforinstancethrough
thepracticeofcatchandrelease.Inthispaperthemarketingexperiencestrategiesof
fishinglicenseoutfittersinIcelandisexamined.Thispaperprovidesnewknowledgeof
waysofmarketingforanglingdestinationandwhatdirectionstotaketogetaheadof
otherdestinations.Theresearchisbasedonqualitativemethodsthatwerejudged
effectivemeanstogatherdatafromthesmallandtightcommunityoftheIcelandic
anglingindustry.Forthisresearchtherewereconductedsixindividualindepth
interviewswithexperiencedoutfitters.Theinterviewsweretranscribedandanalyzed
withtechniquesofgroundedtheory.Heretwothemeswillbeemphasized.First,whatthe
outfittersdescribeaslackofcoordinatedmarketingstrategiesandsecond,presenting
opportunitiesthatcanbeusedtoimprovethemarketing.Theprojectthispaperisbased
onispartofalargerprojecttitledSalmonChange,hostedbytheNorwegianUniversityof
LifeSciences,whichfocusesonsustainabledevelopmentandinnovationinangling.This
studyisthefirsttostudythemarketingexperiencesandstrategiesofIcelandicoutfitters
andprovidesanovelcontributiontothefieldofdestinationmarketingforsalmonangling.
Tourismdestinationevolution:whatroledo'moments'haveinchange?
JulieWilson,CintaSanz‐Ibáñez,SalvadorAnton‐Clavé
The'pathmetaphor'‐asreflectedwithintheextensivedebateonthepathdependence,
pathcreationorpathplasticityconcepts‐hasbeenaconcernofeconomistsandeconomic
geographerswhenanalysingthelongtermdynamicsofregionsandindustries.In
evolutionaryapproachestotourism,attentionhasmainlybeenfocusedonstudying
responsesgivenbydestinationstakeholdersto'triggeringevents','criticalevents'or
'shocks'withanimpact‐eitherpositiveornegative‐ondestinations'evolutionary
trajectories.Inparallel,researchinurbansocialgeography(suchasCulturalPolitical
Economyapproaches)hasstartedtoengagewiththeideaofpathdependence,talking
aboutselectiveandnon‐selective'moments'inurbansocio‐economicchange‐including
thepoliciesandagenciesthatcauseeconomicpathstoshiftindirection.
Takingthesenewapproachesintoaccount,theobjectiveofthispaperistooffera
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conceptualmodelofsuch'moments'overthecourseofdestinationevolutiontrajectories.
Firstly,theconceptofmomentsasevolutionary'inflectionpoints'intourismdevelopment
isintroducedanddiscussed.Then,takinganexploratoryfocusweapplythemoments
concepttoacaseinaMediterraneancoastaldestinationregion‐Catalonia'sCosta
Daurada.Themethodologyforthecasestudyincludesinformationfrompreviously
publishedstudies,participatoryresearchandareviewofsecondarydatasources.
Ourproposedmodelof'moments'intourismevolutionwascentralinanalysingthe
evolutionofadestinationregionasaconsequenceofspecificlocalandcontextualpolicies
aswellaskeyindividualsandorganisationsrelatedtothetourismrestructuringprocess.
Intermsoffindings,themodelshedlightontheroleofmomentsasspecificincidentsor
indeedkeyorganisationsandindividualsasagentsforchange(andthediscoursesthat
surroundedthem),aswellasthedifferentwaysinwhichlocaldestinationsenterintoand
thenevolveonwardsfromspecificmoments/inflectionpointsintheirdevelopment
trajectory.Intermsofvaluecreation,themodeloffersaclearerunderstandingofhow
destinationstransform,whichinturnwouldallowmoreefficientandtargetedurbanand
regionalplanningmeasuresanddestinationmanagementstrategies.
Thevalueofnon‐megasportingeventsforahostdestination:Evidence
fromthe2012Girod'ItaliainDenmark
GrzegorzKwiatkowski
Everydayaroundtheworld,thousandsofspecialeventsareheld,bidonandfosteredfor
strategicreasons,ofwhichexpectationsforeconomicbenefitsaredominant(Getz,2008).
Atthesametime,thereisagrowingconcernvoicedbythegeneralpublicwhetherhosting
aneventcanreallyholdpolicymakers'expectationsofgeneratingpositiveeconomic
impactonaregionaleconomy(hostdestination).
Tocontributewithanswertothisquestion,thereisaneedtounderstandindividuals'
expenditureflowsattributabletotheevent,thatisbothcausedbytheevent(attracted,
altered,andcrowdedout)alongsidewiththosewhichwouldhaveoccurredregardlessof
theeventandbydoingsoexplaintheeconomicimpactoftheseexpendituresflowsonthe
hostdestination(Lee&Taylor,2005;Preuss,2005).Self‐evidently,thisisofcrucial
importanceforacredibilityofeconomicimpactassessmentsand,thereby,servesasa
paddingforcalculatingindirectspendingthroughstandardmultiplieranalysis(Matheson
&Baade,2006).
However,theassessmentoftheexistingliteraturerevealsrelativelylittleempirical
researchaddressingthequestions:(a)Towhatextentdoestheeventleadtomoney
inflowsandoutflowsfromeventvisitorsthatwouldnothaveoccurredinitsabsence?;(b)
Whatistheprimaryeconomicstimulusoftheseflowstoahostdestination(Matheson&
Baade,2006;Preuss,2005)?
Accordingly,inanefforttocalculateprimaryeconomicimpactofnon‐megasporting
eventonahostdestinationthestudypresentedhereadoptsthestate‐of‐the‐art
frameworkforeconomicimpactassessmentsdevelopedbyCrompton(1995)andits
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furtherextensionproposedbyPreuss(2005).Specifically,theapplicationofthe
theoreticalframeworkwillbedemonstratedbasedonprimarydatagathered(761self‐
administeredquestionnaires)atthefirstthreestagesofthe2012Girod'Italia,whichwas
stagedintheDanishcitiesofHerningandHorsens.
Additionally,theempiricalanalysiswillshowthattheestimatedeconomicimpactcanbe
sensitiveto(small)variationsofbasicexogenousassumptions(likethesizeofthe
impactedareaortheestimatednumberofspectators).Finally,therelevanceand
importanceofthesefindingswillbehighlightedinthecontextoftheneedforthe
provisioningofreliableestimatesoftheeventvisitorcompositionforfutureex‐ante
economicimpactstudies.
SpecialTrack:SecondHomes
Secondhomeowners’andlocals’waystoutilizeenvironment–
conflictingandconsensualissuesfromFinnishLapland SeijaTuulentie,AstaKietäväinen
Thephenomenonthattouristsattachtotheplacestheyvisitandthenreturnandbuya
secondhomehasbothadvantagesanddisadvantages.Oneissueisrelatedtothediffering
viewsoftheuseoftheenvironment.Therehasbeenalotofdiscussiononthedeclineof
productivecountrysideandtheemergenceofcountrysideasaplaceofconsumption
whichissociallydominatedbypeoplewhoonlystopby.Thisaffectstotheideasofhowto
useenvironmentandnaturalresources.
InareassuchasFinnishLaplandtheprevailingmodesofuseofnaturearereindeer
herding,forestry,mining,energyproduction,recreationandtourism.Reconciliationof
differentmodesofuseisnotalwayseasy‐orevenpossible.Largewildernessareasmay
seemtobeemptybutinrealitytherearemanykindsofsocial,economic,ecologicaland
culturalwaysofusingthem.
KilpisjärviandMuonioaresmallwildernesstourismorientedplacesinnorthwestFinnish
Lapland.Inadditiontoothervisitors,theybothhaveconsiderablesecondhome
communities.InKilpisjärvi,thesecondhomeownersaremainlyNorwegianswhilein
MuoniotheycomemostlyfromsouthernFinland.Inbothplaces,secondhomeowners'
haveearliertouristicexperiencesfromtheregion.
Earlierstudieshaveshownthatsecondhomeownersaremoreeagertokeepthe
environmentunchangedwhilethelocalcommunityismoreorientedinusingthe
environmentforindustrialpurposes.Weaskhowdosecondhomeownersusethe
wildernessareasandhowdoestheirusedifferfromthatofthelocals'?Whatkindsof
conflictsarisefromthedifferencesofnatureutilization?Whatarethecommoninterests
ofthetwogroupsinregardtotheuseofenvironment?Therelationshipbetweensecond
homecommunity'sandlocalcommunity'sutilizationofnatureisfollowedupindifferent
kindsofqualitativedata,suchasindividualandgroupinterviews,arrangedfuture
workshopsandcollectedsoliciteddiarieskeptforoneyearbysecondhomeownersin
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northwestLapland.Asamethodology,weusebothquantitativeandqualitativecontent
analysisalthoughthemainemphasisisonqualitativeanalysis.
Accordingtoourstudy,wildernessareasareextremelyimportantbothforthelocal
communityandforthesecondhomecommunity.Allpartiesarekeenonusingskiingand
hikingroutes,mountainhutsandotherinfrastructure.Thetensionsarisemainlyfrom
threeissues:(1)land‐useplanningandthereconciliationofdifferentnature‐based
livelihoods,(2)theuseofmotorizedvehiclesinnaturalareaswhichcanbeseenasapart
ofawiderquestionofthemodesofrecreationaluseofnaturalenvironment,and(3)the
difficultiesinparticipatingdecision‐makingduetothehearingprocessorlanguage
problems.Thus,thecommunityofsecondhomeownersandthelocalcommunitystayin
manycasesunconnectedalthoughtheyusethesamenaturalareasmuchoftheyear.
However,therearealsoissuesthattheypromotetogether,suchasthemaintenanceof
recreationalroutesandinfrastructure.Thesekindsofcommoninterestsarelikelyto
growastherurallifestyleischanging.
Secondhomes,lifestylemobilityandmultilocalliving:Acritique
DieterKMüller
Secondhomeresearchhasbeenamajorstrandwithintourismresearch,buthad
previouslyalsobeenrecognizedasanimportantresearchtopicwithingeography,rural
studiesandhousingstudies.Sometimesthishasbeendonewithoutacknowledging
researchfindingsfromtherelatedfieldsofresearch.Hence,therecentfocusonlifestyle
remindsoftheseprevioussituationsbyintroducinganotherperspectivetakenfrom
migrationstudiesandpopulationgeography.Thispaperreviewsdifferentdisciplinary
approachestosecondhomeresearchandtheircontributionstoknowledgeonsecond
homes.Particularfocusishoweverontheissueoflifestylemobility.Itisarguedthat
lifestyleofcourseisaninherentpartofalmostallmobilityandhence,evidencefor
livestyle‐ledmobilitycanbefoundamongsecondhomeowners,too.Almostallmobility
alsoimpliesaquestforabetterqualityoflife,whichoftenisidentifiedasanimportant
driverforthiskindofmobility.Certainlynoteverybodyinvolvedinsecondhomemobility
ishappywiththearrangementashasbeenshowninpreviousresearch.However,fora
majoritysecondhometourismisaboutlifestyleissues.Itisthusarguedthatlifestyle
indeedisanimportantexplanationforsecondhomeliving,butitisnotasuitable
approachtodistinguishvariousformsofsecondhomemobility.Moreover,afocuson
lifestylemobility,ifinterpretedascomprisingmoreexclusivegroupsonly,maytendto
excludelargegroupsfromtheanalysis.Insteaditisarguedthatsecondhomesshouldbe
seeninthecontextofmultilocalpatternsoflivingthathavebeenpresentfora
considerabletime.Recentsocietalchangeshoweverhaveenabledorforcedlargerparts
ofsocietytoapplymultilocallivingstrategiesaswellasexpandedtheirgeographical
reach.
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´Mobilityaslifestylestrategy:lifestylesatisfactionandplace
attachmentamongtemporaryandpermanentEUlifestylemigrantsin
Spain´
MariaAngelesCasado‐Diaz,AnaBelenCasado‐Diaz,JoseManuelCasado‐Diaz
Lifestylemigrationreferstothemovementofrelativeaffluentindividualsinsearchofa
betterwayoflife(BensonandOReilly,2009).Traditionally,thestudyofthisphenomenon
hasfocusedonthemotivationsandmeaningsofthisformofmobilityaswellasthe
implicationsfortheoriginanddestinationcommunities.Inrecentyears,scholarshave
turnedtheirattentiontothesocialcontactsandnetworksdevelopedbytheselifestyle
migrantsbothintheoriginanddestinationcommunities(Casado‐Diaz,2009;Gustafson,
2008;Casado‐Diazetal.,2014)andalsohighlightedthesignificanceofthemigrants´
routinizedmobilitypractices,multipledwelling,inachievingthebestofbothworlds
(Akerlund,forthcoming).BuildingonAkerlund's(forthcoming)notionofmobilityasa
lifestylestrategyandfollowingHaas's(2011)conceptualizationofmigrationasafunction
ofcapabilitiesandaspirations,thispaperexaminesdifferencesinlifesatisfactionand
placeattachmentamongtemporary(lessthan6monthsayear)andpermanent(more
than6monthsayear)EUlifestylemigrantsinSpain.Thestudyisbasedontheresponses
fromasurveyandindepthinterviewswithasampleof720EUlifestylemigrantsaged50
ormorewhospendatleastthreemonthsayearinSpain.Thepreliminaryresultsreveal
higherlevelsoflifesatisfactionamongtemporaryresidents,thosewhoengageinmultiple
dwelling,particularlywithregardtolifestyle,income,visitstothecountryoforiginand
placeofresidence,andstrongerplaceattachment,mostlywithreferencetosenseof
belongingamongpermanentresidents.Theseresultsappeartosupportthenotionthat,
forthosewiththenecessaryresources,routinizedmobilitybetweencountriesisawayof
gainingaccesstothelifestyleopportunitiesofferedinmultipledestinations.Moreover,
thepaperadvocatestheusefulnessofDeHaas(2011)aspirations‐capabilitiesframework
forthestudyoflifestyle‐ledformsofmobility,particularlythenotionofmigrationasa
functionofthemigrants'capabilities,aproductoftheirsocial,culturalandeconomic
capital(agency)conditionedbyparticularstructuralframeworks,andtheiraspirations
(i.e.,theirdesiretoachievethegoodlife).Inthecontextoflifestylemigration,this
frameworkallowsfortheconsiderationofbothstructureandagencyfactorsin
determiningtheindividual'spotentialtoengageonmobilitypracticesthatwillenable
themtorealisetheirpersonallifeaspirations,whichinthecaseofnon‐permanent
residentsistoenjoythe'bestofbothworlds'.
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“Wecouldifwewould”‐Searchingforfreedomthroughlifestyle
mobilities MarieVestergaardMikkelsen
Thisstudyexploresthemotivationsunderlyingarathermundanetypeoftravel;
caravanning.Usinglifestylemobilityasaframingconcept,thefocusisonwhatmeanings
peopleascribetothesesiteswithspecialattentiontotheconcept'freedom'usedbyavast
majorityoftheguestsexpressingwhatcaravanningwastothem.AccordingtoBenson
andO'Reilly(2009)lifestylemoversoftenemphasizethetransformativepotentialofthe
move,andasemphasizedinthesefindings,goingcaravanningisseenasanescapefrom
theeverydayandanopportunityfora'free'life.Movingisoftendrivenbythismotivation
toescape,anescapefromthehumdrumofeverydaylifeinsearchof'thegoodlife'
(Åkerlund,2013).Forthisstudy,thefocusisparticularlyonthesearchforperceived
'freedom',asemphasizedbyNeulinger(1981:16):"Leisure,then,hasoneandonlyone
essentialcriterion,andthatistheconditionofperceivedfreedom.Bythiswemeanastate
inwhichthepersonfeelsthatwhathe/sheisdoingisdonebychoiceandbecauseone
wantstodoit."
Thispaperdrawson145qualitativeinsituinterviewswith318peoplespendingtheir
holidayat5differentDanishcaravansites.Aroundhalfinterviewees(154)aredomestic
(Danish)touristswhereastherestoftheintervieweesarefromGermany(95),Norway
(37),Holland(17),Sweden(8)andothernationalities(7).Mostintervieweesstayin
caravans(136),tents(41)orRVs,(55),andthemajorityoftheintervieweesareeither
familieswithchildren(162)oremptynesters(129).
Peoplegocaravanningtoescapethestringentroutinesofeverydaylifeandthestrenuous
schedulingandplanninginsearchof'freedom'.Whatliedinthisnotionwasbeingfreed
fromeverydayplanningand'havetodo's'.Insteadthecaravannersexperiencedfreedom
todowhattheywantedwhentheywanted,stressingthefreedomofchoice.Itwas
underlinedthatthecaravan(orotherunit)allowedtravellingtomanydifferentsites
duringaholiday.Alsoemphasizedwasthatonecouldeatwhenonewantedandnotatset
timessuchastheeverydayathomeusuallyrequires.However,itwasfoundthatpeople
hadtheirmainmealsatthetimestheywouldathome.Furthermoretheentireholiday
wasusuallyspentatonechosensitewithnomovingtodifferentsites.Thisexemplifies
theimportanceoffreedomofchoiceandhowtheperceivedideaoffreedomaffectsthe
overallperceptionofthecaravanholiday.Understandinglifestylevaluesandmeaning‐
makingprocessesthatunderlieaholidaymightprovideessentialwiderinsightsintohow
(possible)mobilitycanleadtodifferentwaysofunderstandingidentitiesandrelatingto
place.
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Acriticalexplorationofanemerginglifestylemobilityindustry
UlrikaÅkerlund,MarcoEimermann,InêsDavid
Themobilitytosecondhomes,sometimesreferredtoasresidentialtourism,canbe
conceptuallyframedwithintheemergingconceptoflifestylemobilities.Althoughrelated,
itdiffersfromtourisminthatitreferstorelativelypermanentmovementwhichentails
theintentionandmaterialeffortstocreateahomeandalivinginthedestinationcontext.
Tourismmobilityisfacilitatedbyagentsofferingservicesandproductsenabling
experiencesofnovelty,difference,authenticity,qualityoflifeandthelike.Lifestyle
mobilitiesinmanywaystapsintothisproductionsystembutalsoincludeproductsand
servicesrelatedtohousing,furbishingandtomakingalivinginplace.Onaninternational
leveltheproductionsystemisfurthercomplicated.Inmigrationstudies,theconceptofa
migrationindustryreferstotheamalgamofagentsmakingaprofitoutofcateringtothe
needsofmigrants.Thisstudyisajointreflectionontheproductiondimensionoflifestyle
mobilitiesintheEuropeancontext.WeexploretheagentsbrokeringlifestyleforSwedes
inMalta;Swedishruralmunicipalities'placemarketingintheNetherlands;andtheroleof
lifestylemediaintheAlgarve,Portugal.Weaimtoanswerthequestion:“how(ifatall)
couldtheconceptofamigrationindustrybeappliedtolifestylemobilities?”Atransversal
approachtothethreestudiesrevealsthat,althoughinterrelated,differentagentsoperate
atall(macro,mesoandmicro)levelsandacrosslocal,nationalandtransnationalscales.
Intermediateagentsseemableto“create”destinationsbyconstructinganimageofa
lifestyledestination,shapingtheexpectationsofprospectivebuyers.Theanalysisresults
intheconclusionthatindeedalifestylemobilityindustryisemergingandthe
identificationoffourmaintypesofagentsthatdistinguishtheindustryspurringlifestyle
mobilitiesasfollows:
1)Stateinstitutionssuchasnationalandsub‐nationalentities.Theirrolerelateslessto
regulatingandfendingoffincomers(throughenforcementdepartments),andmore
towardspromotingandfacilitatingmobility(throughdevelopment/business
departments).
2)Serviceagents.Gearedtowardconstructing,promotingandmaterializinganideaofthe
goodlife.Amongthesetwostandout:
a)Propertyandresidencyrelatedagents.Brokeringnotonlypropertiesand
residencybutalsolifestyle.
b)Mediaagents.Constructingandpromotingimagesofplacesandlifestyle
thatmatchtheideasofferedbythewholespectreofagentsoperating
withintheindustry.
Thispapercontributestostudiesoftourismandmigrationindustriesingeneralandto
thebourgeoningfieldoflifestylemobilitiesinparticular.Itscontributionstofurthering
theunderstandingofthemigrationindustriesframeworkderivefromthespecificitiesof
sustainingthelifestylemobilityflows.Theyrevolvearoundtheconsumptionof
experiencesof“thegoodlife”which,inpractice,entailsproducingandcommoditizingthe
ideaoflifestyle.Furthermore,itisfoundthatmanyofthesemediatingagentscanbe
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describedaslifestyleentrepreneurs,whothemselvesjoininthemovement:whilethey
notmerelychannelmovementtheyalsocontributeto,simultaneously,commoditize,
capitalizeonandconsumethatidea.Hence,thisstudy’sresultsarealsorelatedto
previousfindingsconsideringthetourism‐migrationnexus,inwhichinterlinkages
betweentourismandmigrationarehighlighted.
In‐migrationtoruraltourismdestinations‐theoreticalpointsof
departure MariaThulemark
Depopulationandeconomicdeclineisoftenseenascharacteristicsofruralareasin
presenttime.However,someruralareasmeetthisnegativetrendbyattractingeconomic
investmentsandin‐migrantsthroughdevelopingaflourishingtourismindustry.Inmy
researchIhaveputinterestinthosemovingpermanentlytoruraltourismdestinations.
ForthisstudyIhavefocusedonthreemountaintourismdestinations,SälenandIdrein
SwedenandWanakainNewZealand.Thesethreedestinationshavecharacteristicsin
common;theyallattracttouristsinalargeextentduetotheirnaturalamenitiesandthey
haveallgrown,indifferentextent,fromsmallruralsettlementstolargervillageshosting
socialservicesnotnormallyfoundinsimilarareas.
Focusforthestudypresentedhereisthetheoreticalpointsofdeparturethatcanbeused
toanalyzeandunderstandthistypeofruralmigrationanditsrelationtoregional
development.Lifestyleledmigrationtoruraltourismdestinationshasgainedincreased
interestduringthepastdecade.Previouslifestylemigrationresearchhasmainlyfocused
onnorth‐southmigrationwherewarmerclimatewasonemainpullfactor.Formountain
areassocialorientedmigrationresearchhasmainlyfocusedonamenitymigration.
However,thesetwotypesofmigrationtheoriessuitswellinresearchofmountain
tourismareas(Thulemark,2011).Lifestylesrelatedtoentrepreneurshipandsocial
activitieshavebeendetectedasprominentamongin‐migrantswithinmystudies.The
amenities,suchasthemountains,areprerequisitesforthepossibilitiestolivethe
requiredlifestyle.
Withinmystudyareasasenseofurbanityamonginhabitantsandin‐migrantshasbeen
seen(Mölleretal.forthcoming2015).Thisopensupforadiscussionoftheuseofmore
urbanorientatedtheoriesofdevelopment.WithinmyresearchIhavefounditusefulto
adoptandreconceptulizethe"CreativeClasstheory"(ThulemarkandHauge,2014).Not
onlyduetoitsincreasedinterestamongplannersandpolicymakers.Butalso,tourism
employmentisfoundtobeapullfactorforthe"creativeworkforce"(Thulemarketal.
forthcoming).
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Value‐basedManagementOfTourismOrganizations
Value‐basedmanagementoftourism‐andhospitalityorganizations:
Areperceptionsofculturerelatedtojoboutcomes?
TorvaldØgaard,OlgaGjerald,SveinLarsen,EinarMarnburg
Thisabstractpresentsongoingwork.
Guests’andtravelers’satisfactionandloyaltyintourismandhospitalityoftendependon
thequalityoftheinteractionsbetweenemployeesandcustomers(e.g.,Gjerald&Øgaard,
2009).Latelyithasalsobeensuggestedthatcustomeractivity(co‐production/co‐
creation)isanimportantpartofthetourismexperience(e.g.,Mustak,Jaakkola,&Halinen,
2013;Troye&Supphellen,2012).Managinginteractionsandco‐productionthrough
employeesthushasbecomeamajorindustrychallenge.Sincetravelers’needsandwants
forinteraction,andtheirdesireandneedforguidanceinco‐creationandco‐production
variesconsiderably,managementbyspecifyingdetailedandspecificrulesforemployee
behaviorisnotalwaysfeasible.Likewise,sincetourismandhospitalityexperiencesare
quitecomplex,developingagoalstructuretodirectemployeebehaviorisalsooflimited
use.Theliteraturesuggeststhatmanagement,withoutbasicrules‐andgoalsmanagement
opportunities,willhavetorelyonmanagementbyvalues(e.g.,sharednorms,perceptions
andvalues),orculturalmanagement(Schneider,Ehrhart,&Macey,2013).
Generally,researchhasproducedgrowingevidenceoftheculture‐performancelink
(Denison,Nieminen,&Kotrba,2012).Organizationalculture(sharednorms,valuesand
behaviors)hasbeensuggestedasapromisingconstructforunderstandinghospitality
companies’productionofinteractionwithcustomersandthequalityoftheirparticipation
inco‐creationandco‐production.Likewise,Hospitality‐andtourismemployees’job
outcomes(e.g.,job‐satisfactionandturnoverintentions)aresupposedtobeclosely
relatedtotheirjobperformance(e.g.,Homburg&Stock,2004).Inthisstudywewill
explorehowemployeesperceiveorganizationalculturesandhowtheirperceptionsare
relatedtotheirpersonaljoboutcomes.Morespecifically,wewillemploythecompeting
valuesframeworkoforganizationalculture(Quinn&Rohrbaugh,1981)thatintroduces
twobasicdimensionsofcultures;internalversusexternalfocus,andasystemfocus
versusanorganic/peoplefocus,resultinginfourarchetypicalorganizationalmodels:
Markets,bureaucracies,clansandadhocracies.
Datawerecollectedfrom48membersofthreeNorwegianhotelchainsandtwotourist
destinationsresultinginasampleof784employees.Theresponseratewas62%,anda
checkofnon‐responseinasampleofhotelsrevealedthatthemajorityofnon‐responders
wereparttimeemployees.Themeasurementinstrumentwasapen‐andpaper
questionnaire.Themeasuresoforganizationalculturewerebasedonmulti‐itemscales
originallydevelopedbyCameron&Freeman(1991)andQuinn&Spreitzer(1991).Job
satisfactionwasmeasuredbytwostandarditemsfromtheMOAQquestionnaire(Harris&
Mossholder,1996).
TheanalyseswereperformedwithLISREL8,andSPSS13.Thefindingsindicatethat:
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


Perceptionsofhotelculturesvary:Thereisnotanysignificantuniform
“hotelculture”acrossindividualemployees.
Perceptionsofculturearequitestronglyrelatedtopersonaljoboutcomes.
Differentculturalaspectsarequitedifferentlyrelatedtojoboutcomes.
Organizationalculturethusisaquitepromisingconstructforunderstandingemployees’
well‐beinginhospitality‐andtourismorganizations.Throughtheclearrelationship
betweencultureperceptionsandjobsatisfactionevidencedinthisstudy,organizational
culturealsohasapotentialforgainingfurtherunderstandingofemployeeperformancein
interactionswithcustomersandparticipationinco‐productionandco‐creationwith
customers.
RelationshipsbetweentravelhabitsandEuropeanidentityformation
ConstantiaAnastasiadou,EmesePanyik
ForthefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheEU,theLisbonTreaty,whichenteredintoforcein
2009,establisheddirectlegalbaseforCommunitymeasureswithsupportingcompetence
intheareaoftourism(EuropeanCommission,2007a).Thisnewpoliticalframeworkmay
markamajorshiftintheapproachoftheCommunitytotourism(Panyikand
Anastasiadou,2013).However,theprolongedfinancialcrisishasledtoacrisisof
EuropeanidentityandhasfuelledEuro‐sceptictendenciesandcallsforre‐nationalising
policiesacrosstheregion(Leonardetal.,2013;Henley,2014).
ThepotentialoftourismindevelopingandsustainingaEuropeanidentityhasbeen
arguedinCommissiondocuments(seeforinstance,CEC,2001;2003;2006;2007b;2010;
2012).Ithasalsobeensuggested(Verstraete,2002;Anastasiadou,2011)thatthe
messageofunityindiversitythattheEUproposesisexpressedinthepromotionof
culturaltourismandthroughthecreationandsupportforsupranationalinitiativessuch
astheCulturalRoutes.
Perhapsnowmorethaneveritisnecessarytoconsidertourism’scontributioninthe
creationofasharedEuropeanidentitybutsuchlinkshavenotbeenstudiedempiricallyso
far(McIntosh,Hinch&Ingram,2002).Moreover,althoughEuropeancitizenshipisoften
enactedthroughtourism(Verstraete,2002)regionalidentityremainsfragmentedevenin
thecaseofEuroregionswhereinternalbordersandphysicalandadministrational
barriershavebeenremoved(Paasi,2002).
Tothisend,theobjectiveofthispaperistwo‐fold.First,itaimstoreviewtheimplicitand
explicitlinkagesbetweentourismandEuropeanidentityapproachesthrougha
systematic,in‐depthanalysisofselectedtourismpolicydocuments(European
Commission,2001,2003,2006,2007a,b,2010,2012)usingcontentanalysistechniques.
Next,thepaperfocusesonlinkagesbetweenidentityformationandtourisminthe
contextoftheEU,describinganongoingempiricalresearch,itsmethodological
considerationsandpreliminaryresultstoidentifyimpactsoftravelpatternsonidentity
formationofyoungEuropeanscarriedoutcomparativelyintwoEUmemberstates.
110
Inparticular,theconceptandmeasurementofsupranationalidentityanditsformation
willbereflected,whichwillallowtheoperationalisationoftheconceptasalatent
variable.SpecialattentionwillbegiventoEuropeanidentitywithinthecontextoftheEU.
Asurveyinstrumentinterrogatingthetravelhabitsandthelevelsofterritorialidentity
willbeappliedduringthesummerof2014intwoEUmemberstates,namelytheUKand
Portugal.Consideringthatyoungpeopleareespeciallyattentivetoandabsorptiveof
globalculturaltrends(Blum,2007),theresearchpopulationcompriseEuropean
Universitystudents.Multivariatestatisticaltechniqueswillbeusedtoidentifythe
underlyingdimensionsofsupranationalidentityandrelationshipsbetweentravel
patternsandtheexistenceandlevelofEuropeanidentity.
Fromdestinationmanagementorganisationstodestination
organisationsinScotlandandDenmark:multi‐levelgovernanceversus
localism. ConstantiaAnastasiadou,HenrikHalkier
Althoughalotofpreviousresearchondestinationmanagementhadfocusedonthe
relevanceofdestinationmarketingorganisationsinimprovingdestination
competitiveness(Pike&Page,2014),increasinglyreformsondestinationgovernance
haveshiftedtheonusofdestination‐levelorganisationsfrommarketingtomanagement
(MacLellan,2011).Suchchangeshaveinsomecircumstancesbeenmotivatedbyrevisions
inpublicpolicymanagementandadministrationarrangements(HenriksenandHalkier,
2009)whileothertimestheyhavebeenstimulated,bypublicspendingcutstoreduce
deficits(Colesetal.,2012).
Researchbyd'Angellaetal.,(2010)suggestedthatthedeterminantsofdestination
managementorganisationsuccessincludesupplierrelations,effectivemanagement,
strategicplanning,organizationalfocusanddrive,properfunding,andquality
personnel.Derco(2013)revieweddestinationmanagementorganisationsintheCzech
Republic,PolandandSlovakiaintermsofissuessuchasbuildingtrust,tasks,and
initiativeintheformationofdestinationmanagementorganisations,legislativeaspects,
membership,fundingandthedecision‐makingprocessofdestinationmanagement
organisations(DMOs).
Colesetal.,(2012)studiedtheimpactofpublicsectorreformsinEnglandandarguedthat
newlocalism,sub‐regionalbodies,andadesireincentralgovernmenttoreducepublic
contributionstoaminimumhaveintroducedcomplexitytothetourismsystemin
England.Inaddition,theyarguedtheimportanceofdevelopingadeeperunderstandingof
whathappensatthedestinationlevelaspublicsectorsupportiswithdrawninother
countries.
FollowingareformofVisitScotlandin2006tocompetemoreeffectivelyonthe
internationalstage,Scotlandabolisheditsareatouristboards(ATBs)whichwere
replacedwithanintegratedVisitScotlandnetwork.Thesewerereplacedbyanetworkof
111
partnershipsthatbringstogetherlocalplayersfromtheprivateandpublicsectorssuch
astourismoperators,localtourismgroups,ChambersofCommerce,LocalAuthoritiesand
VisitScotlandcalledAreaTourismPartnerships(ATPs),aswellaslocaldestination
managementandmarketingorganisations.Suchisthevarietyofthetypesof
organisationsthathavebeencreated(intermsofcomposition,management,sizeand
priorities)thatVisitScotlanddescribesthemasdestinationorganisations(VisitScotland,
2013).However,littleisactuallyknownabouthowtheseorganisationsarefunded,
organisedandevaluatedintermsoftheirperformance.
SimilarlyinDenmark,HenriksenandHalkier(2009)andHalkier(2013)suggestedthat
decreasingmarketsharesandnumbersofinternationalvisitorstothecountryhave
necessitatedreformstoproductdevelopmentthroughinnovation.However,reformsof
subnationalandsectoralgovernancehadnotstimulatedinnovationadoptionashadbeen
initiallyanticipatedasshort‐termandlocalistintereststendedtodominatetourism‐
relatedpolicynetworks.Asaresult,destinationperformancetendedtovarysignificantly.
Theaimofthisprojectwastocarryoutacomparativestudyoftheadaptationof
destinationorganisationstotheirpolicyandoperatingenvironmentinScotlandand
Denmarkwiththeviewofidentifyingbestpractice.
Followingasystematicreviewoftheliteratureasurveyinstrumentwasdesignedthat
wasdistributedtodestinationorganisationsinbothcountriestoestablishastheir
composition,styleofdecisionandpolicymaking,divisionoflabourwithlocal,regional
andnationalpartnersandpolicyformulationprocesses.Thepopulationsampleineach
countrywasidentifiedthroughdeskandInternetsearchandthepaperpresentsthe
initialfindingsfromtheresearchprojectandidentifypossibleareasforfutureresearch.
Anexplorationofemployees’organizationalpracticeperceptionsinthe
hospitalityindustry. OlgaGjerald,TorvaldØgaard,EinarMarnburg,SveinLarsen
Thispaperinvestigateshowemployees’perceptionsoforganizationalpracticearerelated
totheirjoboutcomes.Thepivotalroleofemployeesinthequalityofservicesand
organizationaleffectivenessiswellrecognized(e.g.,Schneider,Ehrhart,&Macey,2013).
Muchefforthasthereforebeeninvestedintryingtounderstandthefactorsandprocesses
thatinfluenceemployeejoboutcomessuchasperformance,motivation,jobsatisfaction,
commitmenttotheorganization,turnoverintentions,etc.,(seeforexampleParkeretal.,
2003).Withinthisresearch,strongfocushasbeenplacedontheeffectsofthe
organizationalenvironmentonemployees’joboutcomes.Environmentalfactorsincludea
largenumberofphenomenathatreflectgeneralclimates,cultureandpractices.While
climate(e.g.,Bowen&Schneider,2014),culturalvalues(e.g.,Li,2014),havebeenquite
extensivelystudied,andevenbasicassumptionshavebeenexplored(e.g.,Gjerald&
Øgaard,2010),organizationalpracticeshavenotbeenwidelystudiedinhospitality.
Currently,thereisgrowingawarenessthatorganizationalpracticesareunderstudiedand
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mayinfluencethebehaviorsoforganizationalmembers(Fischeretal.,2013;Schneideret
al.,2013;Verbeke,2000)
Inthispaperwefocusonpracticeswhichmaybethoughtofas‘‘thewaythingsaredone
inthisorganization’’(Hofstede,Neuijen,Ohayv,&Sanders,1990).Basedonworkby
Denison(1990),Poole(1985),andHofstedeandcolleagues(1990),Singhetal.(1996)
defineorganizationalpracticesas(1)systematicandcustomaryactivitiesandbehaviors
oforganizationalmembersthatare(2)rewarded,expectedandsupportedbyasubgroup
and/ororganization(i.e.,unit).Organizationalpracticesare‘‘theories‐in‐use’’which
representthetypicalbehaviors/proceduresadoptedbymembersofanorganization
(Verbeke,2000).
Datawerecollectedfrom54membersofthreeNorwegianhotelchainsandtwotourist
destinationsresultinginasampleof734employees.Theresponseratewas62%,anda
checkofnon‐responseinasampleofhotelsrevealedthatthemajorityofnon‐responders
wereparttimeemployees.Themeasurementinstrumentwasapen‐andpaper
questionnaire.
Toassesspracticeweutilizeda21‐itemscale(afterrefinement)thatisbuiltonitems
developedbyHofstede&al(1990)andvalidatedbySinghetal.(1996).Theitemswere
adaptedtoemployeesofthehotelindustry.Weincludedfourjoboutcomesthatgenerally
predictperformanceandturnover:(1)organizationalcommitment,(2)jobsatisfaction,
(3)perceivedjobperformanceand(4)intentionstostaywiththeorganization.Allfour
wereassessedwithwellvalidatedscales.
Acommonfactoranalysisofthe21itemssuggestedameaningfulfive‐factorsolution
accountingfor57%ofthetotalvarianceoftheitems.Thefactorswerenamedbasedon
theircontentandearlierfindings.Thefactorsandcorrespondingpracticedimensionsare:
Professionalpracticesthatincludeworkethics,seriousness,trustandcooperation;Closed
practicesthatcompriseintolerantmanagement,longsocializationperiodsand
communicationthatisnotopen;Job‐focusedpracticesthatincludefocusonthejob
peopleperform(andnotonthepersonperformingthejob),lowconsiderationfor
personalproblemsandlowinvolvementofemployeesindecisionmaking;Process
orientedpracticesemphasizehowthingsaredone,includinggroominganddress‐code,
whileCustomer‐orientedpracticesplacethecustomeratthefocalpointofdecisions.
Initialanalysesshowthatthefivepracticedimensionsaresignificantlyrelatedtojob
outcomes.Thisimpliesthateffectivenessorientedhospitalitymanagementiswelladvised
tomonitoranddeveloptheorganizationalpractice.
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Internaljobsatisfactioninfluencingselectedfive‐starhotelemployees’
overalljobsatisfaction
Lisa‐MariCoughlan
Thenationalobjectiveto"provideexcellentpeopledevelopmentanddecentworkwithin
thetourismsector"isahighpriorityofSouthAfricanTourism.Generally,thehospitality
industryasasubsectorisnotregardedasaproviderofdecentwork.Theconsequencesof
notprovidingdecentworkcannotbeignoredasitcouldnegativelyimpactonboth
employeesandguestsalike.Internaljobsatisfactioncanbedefinedassatisfactionwith
thetypeofjobemployeesperform.Thepurposeoftheresearchwastoidentifywhich
internaljobsatisfactionvariablescontributedtotheoveralljobsatisfactionofemployees
inselectedfive‐starhotels.Anewlydevelopedindexbasedontheliteraturereview
conductedwasusedtogatherquantitativedatafrom124employeesoffourfive‐star
hotelsintheWesternCape,SouthAfrica.Feedback,recognitionandgoaldetermination
wasidentifiedasthemostimportantvariablesinfluencingemployees’satisfaction.All
threevariablessignificantlyandpositivelycorrelatedwithoveralljobsatisfaction.
Managersoffive‐starhotelscanenhancefeedback,recognitionandfreedomtoset
individualgoalstoimprovetheoveralljobsatisfactionofemployees.
ValuesOf/ForTheTouristIII.
Thevalueofexperiencesatamusicevent
JohnArmbrecht,TommyD.Andersson
Experiencevaluehasbecomethepreferredapproachtoanalysetourismandevent
experiences.Willingness‐to‐payforexperiencescanbeelicitedbyrevealedpreference
methodssuchasthetravelcostmethodandinthisstudy,theexperiencevaluecreatedat
athreedaylongmusicfestivalisassessedbythezonaltravelcostmethod.Thefunctional
formusedaswellastheassessmentofvisitors'travelcost,determinetheconsumer
surplusfromtheevent.TheeffectsonthevalidityoftheTCMfromthreefunctionalforms,
combinedwiththeeffectofthreewaysofdeterminingvisitors'travelcost,arestudied.
ResultsillustratehowsensitiveTCMistothewaytravelcostisestimatedaswellastothe
functionalformusedandseveralcriticalissuesrelatedtothevalidityandreliabilityof
TCMareraisedintheconcludingdiscussion.
Avisualanalysisofaculturaltourismdestination KlaesEringa,SherryShenghanZhou
Visitorsofculturalsitesfrequentlyusevisualinformationtomaketheirchoicefora
destination.Theyusebrochures,books,TVprogramsandon‐linemoviesasvisible
mediators(Ooi,2002)tominimizeriskoftheplannedjourney.Becauseofthelively
quality,"visualmaterialappearstobeespeciallymemorableandthesaliencethatthis
114
confersmaymakeitparticularlyforceful"(Joffe,2008,p.85).Thisisespeciallyrelevant
since"thereisincreasingcompetitionforcustomers‐whohaveonlyalimitedamountof
time‐andgrowingcompetitionforcoveragebythemedia"(Aalst&Boogaarts,2002,
p.208).
Thisresearchinvestigateshowarelativelyunknowntownthatiselectedascultural
capitalofEuropecanusevisualmaterialstoattractvisitorsfromtotallydifferentareasin
theworld.
Thestudyusesvisualcuesfortwopurposes:first,toevaluatethemotivatingfactorsthat
leadtravellerswithdifferentculturalbackgroundtoselecttheirtraveldestination,and
second,toexploretheinfluenceofvisualcommunicationinthepromotionofcultural
tourismPauwels,2010).
Thestudyaimstoanswerthefollowingresearchquestions:

Isthedifferencebetweentravelers'originalcultureandthedestination'sa
significantmotivatingfactorthatleadstravelerstoselecttravel
destination?
 Howdothevisualmaterialsimpactthetraveller'sdecision‐makingwhen
theyplantheirtrip?
Thestudyispartofalongitudinalprojectthatwillmonitorchangesinexpectationsand
perceptionofthedestinationfromthetimebeforethetownbecomesculturalcapitaluntil
twoyearsafterthatevent.Thesampleofthefirststudythatwillbepresentedatthe
NordicSymposiumconsistsofagroupofsome300youngprofessionalsinthecountryof
originwhoworkinthemediaanddesignindustryandwhoarefamiliarwith,oratleast
interestedintheculturalfeaturesofthedestination.
Theaimofthefirststudyisprimarilytoinvestigatetheattractivenessofthedestination
ingeneralandspecificallythequalityofthevisualmaterialthatisusedaspromotion.
Valuesintravelguidebooks:tourismandanti‐tourismtourism
AndersSørensen,VickiPeel
Thepurposeofthispaperistoexploretheinfluenceofthevaluesintravelguidebookson
thevaluesandself‐perceptionofindependenttourists.Manyofthemostpopulartravel
guidebooksappealratherdirectlytovaluesthatcanbestbedescribedas'anti‐tourism'.
Theyfrequentlydescribelocations,volumesandactivitiesofmass/packagetourismin
derogatorytermswhile,conversely,usingtermssuchas"offthebeatentrail","unspoilt",
"laid‐back"or"travellers"todescribethequalitiesofalternativelocations,attractionsand
visitorsrespectively.Thisisinparticularthecasefortravelguidebooksofthekindthat
boththeirpublishers,andacademics,term'alternative'suchasLonelyPlanet.However,
whileresearchhasshownthatrecommendationsandcritiqueintravelguidebooksdo
influence,andtosomedegreeregimentthedecision‐makingofusers,andwhilederisive
writings(fiction,journalistic,andsomeacademicwork)claimthatbackpackersand
similarindependenttouristsuncriticallyacceptandappropriateanti‐tourismvaluesin
115
theirself‐perceptionoftheirownactivities,littleresearchexistsonthesubject.
Basedoninsitufieldworkdata(interviewsandparticipant‐observationwith/among
independenttourists),post‐tripcommunicationsandonlineevidence(blogsandforums),
theissueisexploredwithafocusonthemostaccentuatedformofindependenttourist,
themultipledestinationlong‐haulself‐organisedtouristwithouttheirownmeansof
transport.Inadoptingabackpacker‐liketravelstyle,itisamongsuchtouriststhat
previousresearchhasmostclearlyfoundanti‐tourismvalues.However,whileour
researchidentifiedboththatguidebooksdoinfluencechoiceandthatthetouristsin
questiondoexpressanti‐tourismvalues,wealsofoundthattheanti‐tourismvaluesare
muchlessprevalentthanpreviouslynotedintheresearch.Moreover,wedidnotfind
muchevidencetosupportthattheguidebookswerethecauseofthetourists'existing
anti‐tourismvalues.Instead,itseemsthattheanti‐tourismvaluesamongindependent
tourists,andtheanti‐tourismvaluesfoundinguidebooks,arebothmanifestationsofaset
ofdeep‐rootedanti‐tourismvaluesintheWesternworld.
Conflictingrealitiesintouristdecision‐making:Personalvaluesor
socialpractice? ClareWeeden
Persuadingholidaymakerstodemandamoreresponsibletourismindustryisamajor
challengeforthosekeentopromotesustainablepracticesintourism.Notingtheattitude‐
behaviourgapoffersonlypartialexplanationforlowlevelsofdemandforresponsible
holidays,andacceptingthattouristmotivationisnotoriouslycomplex,academicsand
policymakersarenowinvestigatingwaystoencouragebehaviourchangeinpursuitof
reducingtourism’snegativeimpacts.Oneofthemoreprominentframeworksadoptedin
pursuitofthisobjectiveissocialpracticetheory.Thisconceptassumesthatroutines,
patternsandsocialpracticesineverydaylifeevolveandtransformthroughaninteraction
betweenindividualagency(attitudes,beliefsandvalues),andsocietalstructures
(Dickinsonetal.,2010).Increasingly,holidaysandleisuretravelareviewedassocial
practices,asseeninrecentstudiesontouristperceptions’ofclimatechange(ibid).In
termsofindividualagencyhowever,holidaysareprimarilyopportunitiesforself‐
actualisation,theframingandreframingofidentityandself‐concept,andexternal
markersofanindividual’svalues,attitudesandbeliefs.Touristdecision‐makingisthusa
complexsetofpotentiallyconflictingrealities,especiallyattheintersectbetweenvalues,
self‐conceptandsocialpractice.Itistherelationship,ornexusbetweenthesenegotiated
realities,andhowtheyinformholidaychoicewithinthecontextofresponsibletourist
behaviour,thatisthefocusofthispaper.Thestudybeingreportedhereexploredthe
significanceofpersonalvaluesforidentityandself‐conceptinresponsibletourist
decision‐making,andconsideredpotentialconflictbetweenpersonalmotivations,
holidaysassocialpractice,anddemandforresponsibletourism.Thepaperconcludes
withrecommendationsforthetourismindustryandideasforcontinuingresearch.
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Storytellingandvaluecreationinextraordinarytouristexperiences
DortheEide,FrankLindberg
Boswijk(2013)arguesthatweareina"transitionalstagefromaserviceeconomy
towardsaneconomyofexperiencesoraneconomyofmeaning"(p.171).This
developmenthasleadtoanincreaseddebateabouthowtheconceptofvaluecanbe
understoodwhenintangibilityandinteractionsdistinguishproductionandconsumption
(e.g.Vargo&Lusch,2004;Grønroos,2012).Insteadofthetraditionalfunctionalfocuson
value‐in‐exchange,contributionssuggestvalue‐in‐use(Vargo&Lusch,2008;Holbrook,
1999;Prahalad&Ramaswamy,2004)wherethecustomerintegratesresourcesproposed
bythecompanywithhis/herownresourcesduringtheexperience.Recentcontributions
(Karababa&Kjeldgaard,2014;PeñalozaandVenkatesh,2006)argueforthe
interrelatednessofvaluewherenetworksofactors(e.g.media,agencies,communities)
wouldinfluencethevaluecreationprocesseswithinwhichthevalue‐in‐useis
constructed.Assuch,value‐in‐useduringexperiencescanbeviewedas"abundleof
multiplevaluescreatedbythepractice"(Karababa&Kjeldgaard,2014:124)through
dynamic,subjectiveandcontext‐dependentprocessesonmicro,mesoandmacrolevels.
Tourism,experienceeconomyandconsumerresearchaddressextraordinaryexperiences
asmemorableexperiences,distinctfromeverydaylife,andcharacterizedbyhigh
intensityandintrinsicallyenjoyableexperiences(ArnouldandPrice,1993).Storytellingis
theorizedasimportantforextraordinaryexperiences(Mossberg,2008).Wedonotknow,
however,howstorytellingcancontributetothecreationofvalue‐in‐useduringandafter
totalexperiences,andwhatkindofvalue(s)storytellingcontributesto.
Thepurposeofthisworkistocontributewithnewunderstandingoftheroleof
storytellinginvaluecreationduringandafterextraordinaryexperiences.Thepaperis
basedonqualitativestudiesofexperiencebasedtourism(seakayaking,horsebackriding
anddogsledding,perhapsalsofoodandculturebased),usingamixofsemi‐structured
interviews,participatoryobservations,conversationsand/orwrittenmaterial.Analyses
areconductedwithinandthenacrosscaseswithfocusonhowstorytellingasan
intangiblebusinessresourceisintegratedbythetouristsresultinginvalue‐in‐useand
value‐after‐use.
Theresultsshowhowstorytellingmaycontributetodifferenttypesofvaluethroughout
the(extended)consumptionprocess.Letuspresentsomeappetizers.First,storytelling
appearsindifferentformats.Itcanbedirectlylinkedtothepracticeathand(e.g.about
activity,people,animals/plants,landscapeorobject).Forexample,storiesrelatedtothe
practicesofdogsleddingandthehandlingof(wild)AlaskanHuskiesareintegratedby
touristsintheprocessofdevelopingskillsandforimaginativepurposes(e.g.thelivesof
trappersandexplorers).Adifferentstoryformatcontributeswithentertainingmessages,
whichcreatesaniceatmosphereinthegroup.Otherstoriesareentertainingbuthavea
moralunderpinning,suchaswhenaguidetellsstoriesofpreviouschallengesthatatthe
sametimesymbolizeswhatoneisnotsupposetodo.Second,thedifferentformatsofthe
storiescontributetodifferentvaluetypes(e.g.emotional,epistemic,symbolic,nostalgic,
communityandidentityvalues).
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Thepapercontributeswithnewknowledgeonhowavarietyofformatsofstorytellingare
partoftheconstructionofavarietyofvaluetypesthroughoutextraordinaryexperiences.
Storiesmayhaveconsequencesforpractice,developingskillsandunderstandings,
imaginationsandforconstructingintelligibleaccountsofthevacationbackhome.Instead
ofalinearconceptionofvaluewearguethatstorytellingisdynamic,relationaland
contextdependentthroughoutextraordinaryexperiences.
ValuesInBusinessIII
TheruralhotelsinNorwayandtheflexibilitystrategy AgnesBrudvikEngeset
InmanyNorwegianruraltouristdestinationshotelshaveexistedfordecades,someeven
gocenturiesback.Theyareoftenfamilybusinessesthatarepassedonfromone
generationtothenext.Asdocumentedintheliteratureruraltourismhasbeengoing
throughchangessinceafterWWII.However,therearefewscientificpapersonhowrural
hotelsinNorwayhavedevelopedoverthelastdecadesandhowtheyhaveadaptedto
shiftingenvironments.ThereisalsotodayapolarizationinNorwegianhospitaliybetween
cityhotelswithgrowingcapacityandmarketshareandruralhotelsthatexperiencea
generaldecline.Yet,someruralhotelsmanagetoperformwellandkeeptheirheadabove
thewater.Thisstudylooksathowchallenges,suchaschangesinthemarketsituation
overthelastdecadesarereflectedintheproductdevelopmentofsmallandmediumsized
ruralhotelslocatedinaNorwegianfjordregionwithlongtraditionsoftourism.Usingin‐
depthinterviewswithhotelownerstheauthorexploreshowtheruralhoteliersadaptto
thesechallengesbyrefininganddiversifyingtheirproduct.Itseemstobeanoveraching
strategyofflexibilityamongtheruralhotelsintheproductionprocess.Beingflexiblein
variouswaysisalsoperceivedbythehoteliersasnecessaryskillinordertoovercome
variouschallengesthatoccurthroughouttheyears.Resilienceandadaptivecapacityis
usedatheoreticalapproach.
Howpositivepeakexperiencescanbeusedasapowerfuldriverof
innovationintourism:exploringadifferentsourceofinnovation
JohanLilja,IngridZakrisson,BoSvensson,MalinZillinger,RobertPettersson
Theimportanceoftourismexperiencesisacknowledgedbothinacademiaandinthe
tourismindustry.Fortourismpractice,theinitialcriticalquestionthenbecomeshowto
collectdataandgaindeeperinsightsontourismexperiences.But,evenmorecriticalfor
practiceisthequestionofhowsuchdataandinsightscanbeusedtoactuallydrive
innovation,improvements,andultimatelycompetitiveadvantage.
Traditionally,changeanddesignprocesseshavetendedtofocusheavilyondataand
insightsconcerningproblemsornegativeexperiences.Typically,adesignprocesshad
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begunwiththeidentificationofthemostpressingproblems,experiencesorcomplaints,
followedbyfindingandreducingtheirrootcauses.
However,severalfieldsofresearchhavenowshownabigpotentialforwhatcanbeseen
asanoppositeapproach.Changeanddesignprocessesthatsystematicallyfocusonthe
positiveor“peakexperiences”relatedtoasystemhaveshownimpressiveoutcomesin
diversecontexts.
Thispaperaimstoexploreandcontributewithinitialinsightconcerningifandhowdata
andinsightsonpositivepeakexperiencescanbeusedasadriverofinnovationand
improvementsinthespecificcontextoftourismoffers.
Thestudyisbasedonexperimentswhereteamsofdesignstudentsweregiventhe
assignmenttotestvarioustouristicoffersinmiddleSwedenastypicaltourists.Afterthe
tests,eachteamwasinstructedtoconducttwodifferentdesignprocessesbasedontheir
experiences.Inthefirstdesignprocess,named“MagicDesign”,thestudents
systematicallyusedthemostpositivepeakexperiencesfromtheirtestsasadriverofa
designprocessresultinginsuggestionsforinnovationandimprovementofthetouristic
offertested.Intheotherdesignprocess,named“TragicDesign”,thestudentsgotto
systematicallyusethemostnegativeexperiencesinasimilarprocess.Finally,
comparisonsweremadebetweenthesuggestionsforinnovationandimprovements
resultingfromthe“Magic”versusthe“Tragic”designprocess.
Theresultsofthestudyshowsthatthesystematicuseofpositivepeakexperiencesasa
driverofdesignprocessesinthetourismindustrydidprovideuniqueanddifferentiating
suggestionsforinnovationandimprovement.
Insum,thepapercontributeswithinsightsthatsuggestthatpositivepeakexperiences
fruitfullycanbeusedsystematicallyasdriversofinnovation,anddriversof
differentiation,inthespecificcontextoftourismoffers.
Entrepreneurshipinexperience‐basedtourismfirm
EinarLierMadsen,OddnyWiggen
Entrepreneurshipinbusinessesisseenasimportantforemployment,growthandvalue
creationinsociety.Assuch,researchandknowledgeaboutentrepreneurshipisofgreat
importance.Intourismthestructuralchangeandtransitiontomoreexperience‐based
products(Sundbo,Orfila‐Sintes,&Sørensen,2007)demandentrepreneurialbehaviourto
implementneededinnovations.However,withinthetourismindustryentrepreneurship
researchseemstobeunderstudied(Li,2008)andvariousscholarshavecalledfor
researchrelatedtoentrepreneurshipinthetourismsector(Cheng,Li,Petrick,&O'Leary,
2011;Hjalager,2010).Thepresentstudyisoneofthefirstattemptstoexplorethe
relationshipbetweenentrepreneurialorientation(EO)(astrategicorientation)and
entrepreneurialactivitiesexemplifiedbynumbersofidentifiedbusinessopportunities
whichhavebeenattemptedrealizedwithinoroutsidethebusiness.
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Thestrategicorientationandagilityofthemanagersandemployeesareimportantfor
firmsurvivalandgrowth.Researchwithincorporateentrepreneurshipemphasizesthat
firmscandevelopinternalenvironmentsthatstimulatescreativityandabilityto
introduceandharvestinnovations(Zahra,2005).Entrepreneurshipwithinexisting
organizationsisaboutintroducingproducts,processesororganizationalpatternsinnew
combinationsaheadofcompetitors,andintakingriskstowardsspendingresourcesand
inlaunchingnewstrategiesinthemarket.Miller(1983)suggestedthatafirm'sdegreeof
entrepreneurshipcouldbeseenastheextenttowhichtheytakerisks,innovateandact
proactively.Webuilduponthisunderstandingandregardentrepreneurialorientation
(EO)asthecombinationofthesethreedimensions(Covin&Slevin,1989;Wiklund,1999).
EOisabouttheneedfororganizationstodevelopanorientationthatallowstheir
individualsandteamstoengageinentrepreneurialstrategymaking(Covin&Slevin,
1991;Lumpkin&Dess,1996),andhasbecomethemostwidely‐usedconceptwhen
examiningentrepreneurialfirmsandorganizations(Rauchetal.,2009).
Toexamineourresearchquestions,wecollectedsurveydatafromexperience‐based
tourismfirmslocatedinnorthernNorway,midNorwayandtheNorwegianwestcoast.
However,firmsinnorthernNorwayconstituteapproximately75percentofthesample.
Adatabasecontaininge‐mailaddressesto693firmswassubsequentlyestablished.Ane‐
mailsurveycontainingmeasuresofentrepreneurshipandinnovation,etc.wassubmitted
totheidentifiedfirmsduringspring2012.After3reminders,weendedupwith201firm
entriesinourdatabase,aresponserateof29percent.Ofthese,73firmshadincomplete
answerstooneormoreofthequestionsutilizedintheanalyses.Thisgivesusatotalof
128firms(19%)fortheanalyses.
TheprimarycontributionofthispaperistohighlighttheinfluenceofEOon
entrepreneurialactivitiesmeasuredasidentifiedbusinessopportunitieswhichhavebeen
attemptedrealizedwithinoroutsidethebusiness.Bytestingtheserelationshipswe
showthattherearepositiveandsignificantrelationshipsbetweenEOandthesetypesof
entrepreneurialactivities.Thismeansthatbusinesseshavingahighlevelofthisstrategic
orientationaremorelikelytoattempttorealizenewbusinessopportunities.
TheprofitabilityoftourismbusinessesinNorway NigelHalpern
TourisminNorwayhasexperiencedlong‐termgrowthandhasbecomeakeysectorofthe
Norwegianeconomywithprospectsforfuturegrowthandvaluecreationhowever;the
extenttowhichtourismbusinessesderivevaluefromitisuncertain.Thisisimportant
fromasustainabilityperspectiveiftheindustryanditsbusinessesaretocontinuetogrow
andaddvalueintermsofwealthandproductivitybutalsosafeandqualityexperiences.
ThisstudyinvestigatestheprofitabilityoftourismbusinessesinNorway.Financialdata
for2012isextractedfromthenationalregisterfor8493businessesinfivetourism‐
relatedsectors:passengertransport,accommodation,foodandbeverage,traveland
tourism,andleisure.Profitabilityratiosareusedtomeasuretheuseofassetsandcontrol
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ofexpensestogenerateanacceptablerateofreturn.Aliquidityratioisusedtomeasure
theavailabilityofcashtopaydebt.Thestudyfindsthattotalturnoverhasincreasedas
morebusinesseshaveenteredtheindustryhowever;averageturnoverin2012was
17.371millionNorwegiankroner.Thishasdecreasedfrom18.833millionin2011and
18.866millionin2010.Forty‐fourpercentofbusinesseswereloss‐makingin2012while
afurther42percentmadeaprofitoflessthan500,000Norwegiankroner.Ingeneral,
tourismbusinessesgenerateweakratesofreturnandhavelowlevelsofcashtopaydebt.
Approximatelyhalfofallbusinesseshadoperatingornetprofitmarginsoflessthantwo
percentin2012,56percenthadlessthansixpercentreturnoncapitalemployed,34
percenthadlessthantenpercentowncapitalshare,and40percenthadaliquidityratio
oflessthanone.Long‐termgrowthandthepotentialforfuturevaluecreationmeansthat
nationalandregionalpoliciesoftenseektopromotetourisminNorway.Thismayhelpto
increasevaluecreatedbytheindustryasawhole,however,itdoesnotnecessarily
increasevalueforindividualbusinesses.Indeed,theprofitabilityofindividualbusinesses
maydeclineasthenumberofbusinessescontinuestogrow.Policiesthereforeneedto
haveastrongfocusondevelopingamoreprofitableindustryfromtheperspectiveof
individualbusinesses,andmonitortrendsovertimeandinresponsetoanychangesin
policy.
Doesgenderaffectthelevelofcashholdingsintourismfirms?
MarkkuVieru
Usingfirmleveldataoverten‐yearperiodfromFinnishtourismsectorwithmorethan
15000firm‐yearobservations,thispaperstudiesusingvariouspaneldatamodels
whetherCEOs'genderaffectstheleveloffirms'cashholdingswhilecontrollingforsize,
growthopportunities,profitability,leverage,liquidity,anddebtstructureofthefirm.
Sincefemalesaregenerallyregardedasmoreriskaverseitishypothesisedthatfirms
whicharerunbyfemalemanagersaremorepronetohavelargercashbalance.Inline
withhypothesisresultsindicatedthatfirmwithfemalemanagersholdsignificantlylarger
levelofcash.Thestudydemonstratesalsothattherehasbeenalmostamonotonic
increaseoffemaleCEOsinFinnishtourismfirmsduringthesampleperiod.Itisargued
thatmanagers'genderdifferencescanhaveeconomicconsequencestothedevelopment
oftourismbusiness.
Measuringtheefficiencyofheritageinstitutions:Acasestudyof
historicalbuildingsinCzechRepublic ZdenekPatek
Currentsocietyviewsthepublicsectorasanareawhereyouthrowmoneyandwherethe
managementjustwastemoney.Withsuchaviewcanbefoundeveninthesphereof
culture.Thegoalofthispaperistoshowthattherearewaysandmethodsthatcanbe
appliedtopublicinstitutionsfortheireffectivemanagement.Itistheapplicationof
evaluationsinthefieldofculturewhichinthefuturemaybringpositiveresultsin
economicunderstandingofculture.Cultureisoftenassociatedwithtourism,ofwhichthe
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largestshareistheculturaltourism.Themaincomponentofculturaltourismarevisiting
monuments.Thebasicquestioninconnectionwiththesightsthereforeiswhetherthe
publicmanageoftheseobjectsisefficient.Justatutorialonhowtodeterminewhether
theadministrationofpublicinstitutionstheeffectiveextensionofthemonumentornot
wewilldescribebelow.DataEnvelopmentAnalysis(DEA)isawidelyappliedtoolin
efficiencyevaluationforpublicsector,yethasscarcelybeenputtouseinthecaseof
historicbuildingsuchascastlesandpalaces.
Thearticleisresponsetothegrowingneedtomeasureperformanceinallformsofpublic
management.Thepurposeistosuggestwaysinwhichitispossibletomeasurethe
relativeperformanceofactivitiesofculturalmonumentsontheterritoryoftheCzech
Republic,andalsotoconsiderwhetherUNESCOaremoreeffectivethanclassical
monumentsornot.Scientificplanisbasedonthebeliefthatcastlemanagershouldbe
managehistoricalmonumentforthepurposeofachievingcertainresults.
Special Track: Alternative Ontologies and Epistemologies for Tourism
andHospitalityStudies
Thesubjectofwelcome
EmilyHöckert
Duringthelastdecadeslocalparticipationhasplayedanimportantroleinthesearchfor
responsibility,sustainability,povertyreduction,environmentalconsciousnessand
interculturalunderstandingwithintourismdevelopment.Despitetheemancipatory
intentionstopromotemoreinclusivepractices,tourismexpertstendtopointoutthe
inadequaciesoflocalinterestsandconditions,amongotherlimitations,asserious
drawbacksofprogress.Whilethisfrustrationhasturnedintowiderscepticismaboutthe
realpossibilitiesofcommunity‐basedapproachesintourism,theacademicliteraturehas
drawnonlylimitedattentiontothevaluesandontologiesbehindtheideaofparticipation.
Insteadofdiscussingabouttherelationalmodeofparticipating,ofbeinganddoing
together,thescholarlydebatesparadoxicallycelebratetheindividualfreesubjectasthe
protagonistofinclusionandsocialjustice.Inthissense,theparticipatoryparadigmmight
besomewhatmaintaining,insteadofbridging,thesubject‐objectdivisionsbetweenself
andother.
Thisconceptualpaperformspartofalongitudinalstudyonruraltourismdevelopmentin
Nicaragua,whichweavestogetherthediscussionsofhospitality,subjectivityand
participation.Drawingonphenomenologyandpost‐colonialcriticism,thepaperfocuses
onenvisioningalternativestocontemporaryencountersintourism,developmentaid,and
academicresearch,throughthenotionofhospitality.Inordertoexplorethe‘other‐
orintedness’inhospitality,theapproachbuildsonJacquesDerrida’sandEmmanuel
Levinas’discussionsonwelcome–onethicalsubjectivityasopennessandreceptivity
122
towardstheother.ForLevinas,subjectivityisalwaysrelational:meaningthatitisalways
‘theother’whocansaythefirst‘yes’.Insteadofprovidinganswerswhethertourismcan
orcannotpromotewell‐beingoflocalcommunities,thepaperencouragesustoaskhow
respectingthepriorityofthewelcomeoftheother,overtheresponsibilityfortheother,
couldopenupspacesformoreethicalrelationshipsinthespheresoftourism.
Fixyou:theemergenceandconsequencesofpost‐disastervolunteer
tourism
ChrisMcMorran,HarngLuhSin,XuejuanZhang
Sichuan,Haiti,Tōhoku,Yolanda:thesenamessignifydisastersthatclaimedtensof
thousandsoflivesandtriggeredglobalconcernfortheirhumanitariancrises.Inthe
immediateaftermathofthesedisasters,statespledgedaidandorganizationslikethe
InternationalRedCrossandMédecinsSansFrontièresprovidedrelief.Inaddition,
individualsjoinedfundraisersanddonatedtocharitiesinordertoshowtheyvaluedthe
livesofstrangershalfwayaroundtheworld.
Forsome,however,actingatadistancewasnotenough.Althoughtheylackedspecialized
training,localcontacts,andlanguageskills,manyindividualsfoundanewmotivationfor
travel‐‐togoandhelpinthewakeofdisaster.Onlybyvisitingthesiteofdisasterand
fixingthelivesofotherscouldtheyadequatelyshowhowmuchtheycared.Onlyby
activelydoingreliefworkcouldtheytrusttheircarewaseffectiveandethical.Thepost‐
disastervolunteertouristwasborn.
Inthispaperwedescribetheemergenceandconsequencesofpost‐disastervolunteer
tourism.Wehighlighttheneoliberalideasofindividualresponsibilityanddistrustof
existingstatesandinstitutionaldisasterresponsethathaveledtomorepersonal,
embodiedresponsetonaturaldisasteraid.Weemphasizethetourisminfrastructure
beingdevelopedtoaccommodatepeople'sdesirestohelpthoseinneedandpointoutthe
differencesbetweenthisandotherformsofvoluntourism.Todoso,wedrawon
responsesbytouristsandtouroperatorstoboththe2008GreatSichuanEarthquakein
Chinaandthe2011EastJapanGreatEarthquakeandTsunamiinJapan.
Asweshow,people'sreactionstorecentnaturaldisastershavehelpedproduceatravel
infrastructurethathasnotonlycommodifieddisasters,butwillbepreparedandwaiting
forthenextone.Asglobalclimatechangethreatenstoincreasethefrequencyand
magnitudeofnaturaldisasters,tourismandhospitalityspecialistsmustbegintocritically
analyzepost‐disastervoluntourism.Thispaperisaninitialforayintothistopic.
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Auto‐touristography–therelationalpositioningoftheresearcher‐
touristinthevalues,frameworksandscalesofmasstourism VilhelmiinaVainikka
Masstourismisoftenperceivedintourismresearchasaunanimousandtaken‐for‐
grantedcategory.Researchersemphasizethemselvesasseeminglyobjectiveknowledge
creatorsandevaluatorswhoworkfromahierarchicalresearcherposition.Thesefactors
haveaneffectonthewaysmasstourismisdefinedandinterpreted.However,several
scholarshavearguedthatmiddle‐classvaluesandattitudesoftheresearchcommunity
andtheusedframeworksareinadequate(e.g.AntonClavé,Aramberri,Crick,Hall,
Löfgren,Obrador,Sharpley,Wheeller).Inthispaper,myinterestisinthegapbetweenthe
masstourismpracticesandtheways,inwhich’scientific’knowledgeisproduced.Iargue
thatitisimportanttoreflectcriticallyonthepositionalityoftheresearcherinrelationto
thephenomenonandthechosentheoreticalapproach.Icallforsensitivitytodifferent
powerasymmetriesandsocio‐culturalcategories(e.g.gender,class,nationality,
profession,education)whichtheresearcherisnotfreefrom.Drawingfromhuman
geographicalandtourismresearchdiscussionsonsituatedknowledge,spaceandscale,
thispaperapproachesmasstourismwithaframeworkinfluencedbythe
autoethnographicmethod.Iwilldiscussauto‐touristographyasameanstoexplorethe
complexrelationshipbetweentheresearcherandthespatialphenomenonofmass
tourism.Insteadofevaluatingothertourists,theresearcherevaluatesherself/himselfasa
tourist;creatingadialoguebetweenmacro(mass)andmicro(tourist‐researcher)scales,
and’self’asamemberof’theothers’(tourists).Iwanttostressmasstourismas
personallyandsociallyconsumedandtocreateadialoguebetweenexperiencesand
meanings,everydaylifeandtourism.
Iexploretourismexperiencesasshort‐term(ratherunsystematicembodied,sensuous,
emotional,meaningful)visitswheresensingtheplaceisfoundedonearlierexperiences.
Ialsoaddressthequestion:howto’record’/’report’thetourismexperiencesinthemost
suitablewayforthetourist‐researcher.Therelationshipsbetweenthetouristroleandmy
lifestoryingeneralasdynamicrolepositions(daughter,adult,partner/wife,mother,
student,travelagent,researcher)areconsidered,aswellas,therelationsinregardto
masstourism,everydaylife,education,jobandresearchdimensions.Thetripandplace
consumptionarescrutinizedasaproductofthesemanydifferentrelations.
Theworkwiththisexperimentalpaperisataninitialstage,butitalreadygivesideason
howthisframeworkcouldbeusedtocreateadialoguebetweendifferentperspectivesin
tourismandcreatealternativeinterpretations.Althoughmasstourismisalargescale
phenomenon,itisalwaysalsoapersonalandrelationalsocialpracticethatistiedto
placesandpeople,interwoventothefabricoflife.Bymakingitpersonal,andthinking
abouthowtheresearcherhasformedarelationshipwiththetheme,itismoredifficultto
putitinpreviouslydefinedrigidframesthatcreatedthegrandstoryofmasstourism
destinationsortourists.
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Topologicalreflections:marketinglandscapesfortourists
EdwardHákonHuijbens
“Themeanestguesthasthekeenesteye”isW.H.Auden’stranslationofawell‐known
sayinginIcelandic.Thispaperdealswiththewaysinwhichdestinationsarepresentedto
touriststhroughmarketingcampaignsandhowthetourististobereflexivelyco‐optedin
theprocess.Thepaperwillshowhowmediawillpromotecertainthemes,thatbecome
tropesuponwhichmarketingauthoritiespickup.Throughthesedestinationsaregiven
voiceandagency,enablingthemencounterswiththevisitingtourist.Theworkthatgoes
intogivingdestinationsthisvoicehoweverentailstheexertionofforceuponthe
destination,moldingitintomarketableform.Drawingontopologicalimaginariesand
vitalistgeo‐philosophy,thepaperwillconceptualizedestinationsasmalleableand
continuoustakingondifferentformsastheyentermarketingmedia.Theforceexerted
uponthedestinationbecomesthefocusoftheanalysisasitisthroughthisthatan
encounterwiththevisitorcanbefacilitated.Thewellspringofthisforceisthedemandfor
marketabilityandthegenerationofsurplusinmoderncapitalistexperienceeconomy.
Thischargesthepotentialencounterswithcontroversiesthatthepaperwillconcludeby
summarizingwithexamplesfromIceland.Akeycontroversytoemergeisthe
constructionofthe‘enlightenedtourist’anavataroftheIcelandicmarketingauthorities.
Whilstmarketingproponentswillarguethistouristfacilitatessustainabletourismby
givingtravelvaluethroughcommodification,thechannelforenlightenmentremainsa
narrowone.Thekeeneyeofthereflexiveguestremainsameanone,renderingtourismas
situatedpoliticsanddestinationsasnon‐representable.
Relationalontologiesandepistemologiesintourismstudies
SoileVeijola
Thepaperistheoreticalinnatureanddiscussesalternative,relationalontologiesand
epistemologiesofproducingknowledgeabouthospitalitiesandmobilitieswithinthefield
oftourismstudies.Ratherthanturningtheresearcherintoatransparentfigureinthe
researchtext,throughwhichtherealitiesofthephenomenaintourismcanbeunderstood
andprocessed,thepaperoutlinesadifferentapproachonknowing,knowledge,knowers
andwhatisknown.Intheframework,firstly,theresearcherisconceivedofasanactor
withnewroleswithintheactor‐networkoftourism‐being‐activated‐in‐places.Secondly,
theexistenceofaknowledgeformationoftourismresearchisdepictedashavinganeffect
ontherealitiesofthetourismindustry,beingpartofitssocialandculturalcontexts,
legitimationandeducationsystems,whichcreatesaneedforacriticalexaminationofthe
roleofthisprofessioninsociety.Third,theveryideaofproducingknowledgeabout
tourismasanactivityofasingularagentisproblematizedwiththehelpofthenotionsof
co‐ontologiesandco‐epistemologiesinspiredbyJean‐LucNancy,GeorgSimmelandthe
notionof"disruptivetourism"launchedbythewritingcollectiveof"TheCampers".The
papercontributestothetourismtheoryandresearchbyarticulatingwaysinwhich
ethicalbeing‐withcanshaperealitiesinbothtourismanditsresearchinthefuture.
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SpecialTrack:TheFood‐PlaceNexusII
Astudyonthenatureofthefoodtourist’sexperience:thetourist’s
viewpoint SandhiyaGoolaup,LenaMossberg
Foodisincreasinglybeingrecognizedasanintegralpartofthetouristexperienceand
sometimesitisoneofthekeyreasonsfortravelerstovisitaparticulardestination.Even
though,theimportanceoffoodintourismexperiencehasbeenwidelyacknowledged(e.g.,
Kimetal.2009;Changetal.2011)researchhasyettotakeaholisticapproachto
understandthenatureofthefoodtouristexperience.Severalauthorshavelookedupon
factorsinfluencingtheexperienceofamealinarestaurantorthenatureofthewine
touristexperience.Forinstance,inastudyconductedbyCharters(2006)itwasfound
outthatthewinetouristsseekexperiencewhichcomprisedofaninteractionbetweenthe
naturalsetting,wine,food,culturalandhistoricalinputsandthepeoplewhoservice
them.However,itisnotclearwhatmakesupafoodtouristexperience.AccordingtoHall
andMitchell(2001),thefoodtouristsareprimarilymotivatedbythedesiretoexperience
theproduceofaspecificregionoraparticulartypeoffood.Hence,animportantquestion
remains;isfoodthemainelementinthefoodtouristexperienceorisitotherfactors?So
far,thisaspectofthestudyhasnotreceivedsignificantattention.Anunderstandingof
thisparticularphenomenonisimportantasitprovidesanin‐depthunderstandingof
whatthefoodtouristsarelookingfor.Itcanalsohelpdestinationmarketersinthe
developmentandpromotionofgastronomicexperience.Toobtaininsightonthefood
touristexperience,thestudyreliesonobservationsandin‐depthinterviewswith16food
touristswhovisitedanoysterbarsituatedontheWestCoastofSweden.Theresult
suggeststhatthefoodtouristslooknotonlyforfoodbutratheranamalgamofother
componentswhichcontributesignificantlyintheirfoodtouristexperiences.Resultfrom
thisstudyfurtherindicatesthattheatmosphere,host,product,storyandtheme,
learning/educationalandsocialaspectallcontributeequallyinthefoodtourist
experience.
Placing’thelocal’intheruralfoodexperience
JosefineÖstrupBacke
Theroleof‘thelocal’inruraltourismhasbecomeincreasinglyimportantduringlatest
years.Notjustlocalfoodandlocallyproducedfoodproducts,butalsovariousfood
relatedexperiences,suchasfarmvisits,fruitorherbfieldsafaris,coursesincheese
making,chocolatemaking,orasparaguspicking,havebecomeimportantingredientsin
whatthecountrysideoffers.While,ontheonehandtheconsumersseekuniqueand
authenticfoodexperiences,theprovidersoftheseexperiences,ontheotherhand,needto
beinnovativeintheirofferingsinorderTheroleof‘thelocal’inruraltourismhasbecome
increasinglyimportantduringlatestyears.Notjustlocalfoodandlocallyproducedfood
products,butalsovariousfoodrelatedexperiences,suchasfarmvisits,fruitorherbfield
safaris,coursesincheesemaking,chocolatemaking,orasparaguspicking,havebecome
importantingredientsinwhatthecountrysideoffers.While,ontheonehandthe
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consumersseekuniqueandauthenticfoodexperiences,theprovidersofthese
experiences,ontheotherhand,needtobeinnovativeintheirofferingsinordertomeet
theseneeds.Hence,placeattachmentisonetooltomaketheruralfoodexperience
unique,notonlytotheconsumersbutalsototheprovidersthemselves;byplacingthe
local,foodproviderscanputforwardtheveryuniquevaluesoftheirproducts,their
culture,story,andidentity.
Theaimofthisresearchpaperisthustostudyhowplaceisconstructedthroughlocal
foodandfoodexperiences,butalsotoconsiderhowtheseproductsandexperiencesare
mutuallyconstructedthroughplace.Throughanethnographicapproach,Iexplorehow
membersofaculinarynetworkinSouthernSwedenusethreedifferentstrategiesinorder
toplacethelocalintheruralfoodexperience:distance,origin,andstorytelling.By
applyingtheseplacingstrategies,thenetworkmembersconstructplaceindifferentways,
reflectingthevaluesthatareuniquetothefoodproductsandexperiencesoffered.
Theresearchisofqualitativenatureandimpliesobservationsandethnographic
interviews,aswellasstudiesofrelevantmarketingmaterialandwebsites.Theempirical
materialisanalyzedinrelationtotheoriesofruraltourism,theconstructionofplace,and
identitywork.Preliminaryresultsindicatethattheplacingofthelocalisnotastatic
activity;ratheritispartofadynamicprocess,wheremeaningsandperceptionsofi.e.
local/non‐local,nearby/distant,andunique/ordinary,arecontinuouslyweighedand
negotiated.Also,theplacingofthelocalseemstoplayanimportantroletothenetwork
membersasacommondenominatorinaprocessofidentification.
Themaincontributionoftheresearchpaperistoenhancetheunderstandingofthe
differentprocessesinwhichplacesareconstructed,andtobringforwardthemultifaceted
natureoftherelationshipbetweenlocalfoodandplaceinparticular.Finally,theempirical
focusonarural,culinarynetworkemphasizestheimportanceofcollaborativeeffortsin
theseprocesses.
Professionalizationofhospitalityandculinaryarts
LotteWellton,IngerMJonsson,UteWalter
Theresearchtopicsarefoodandmealexperiencesinsmallrestaurantsandlodgingin
ruralandurbandestinations.Themaininterestsareintheprofessionalizationof
hospitalityandculinaryarts.
Todiscusshowsmallbusinessownersandstaffinrestaurantsandlodgingcanevolve
theirworkingprocedureswithfocusonqualityandprofessionalisminhospitalityto
developtheirestablishmentsandsurviveinthehospitality‐industry.
ThisethnographicalstudyisinspiredbyGaryAllenFineswork,thatpointsoutthe
organizationoftimeandplaceascentralforkitchenlabour.Regardingthecraftsmanship
indiningrooms,Goffmansclassicalworkondramaturgicalperspectivesisstilluseful.The
mainfactorsintheeverydayconditionsoftherestaurantowner/staffcanbeexplainedby
theconceptoftheFiveAspectsMealModel:theproduct(foodandbeverages),theroom
(theshapingofthediningroom),themeeting(serviceencounter),themanagement
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controlsystem(financial,businessandlegalaspects),andtheatmosphere(theoverall
experience).
Theresearchperspectiveinthestudyisbuiltonbothscientificandpractical/aesthetic
knowledgewithimpliestheuseofthetacitdimensionofrestaurantworkandthus
applyinganinsiderperspectivetounderstandthedailypracticeofhospitalityandthe
shapingofthemealexperience.
Thestudyconsistsofinterviewsandfieldstudies,11smallrestaurantand
accommodationownersinatouristdestinationandstaffinasmallluxuryhoteland
restaurantinanurbanenvironment Thesimilaritiesinhospitalitybetweentheruralandurbanestablishmentsarethecaring
abouttheguestandtheattempttomakeorthemakingofattractiveandqualityofferings.
Buttherearedifferences,theruralrestaurant/hostelowners:
• areoftennon‐professionals
• havingdifficultiesinrecruitingexperiencedstaff
• arehandingovertheresponsibilityoftheservicemeetingtounexperienced
staff
• anddolimitedornoplanningandevaluation
incontrarytheurbanluxuryhotel/restaurantpersonnel:
•
•
havehighqualityintheoverallexperienceofservice,mealandaesthetics
haveuniversityeducationinMealscienceandCulinaryArtsandvast
practicalexperience
• haveparticipatoryleadership
• haveinternalcommunicationamongstaffandexternalcommunicationto
guest
• dolongtermplanning
Theruralsmallrestownersareanimportantpartofthetouristdestinationsandtourist
mealexperiences.Theirunprofessionalstructureoforganizationcombinedwith
extremelylongworkinghours,duetotheseasonandtherestaurantworkorganization,
maketheirmealandhospitalityofferinglimitedandlesscompatible.Theurban
restaurantpersonnelhaveastructuredcommunicationandalong‐termplanning.Thisis
duetoprofessionalismbothfromtacitknowledgeandlongexperienceaswellas
universityeducation,whichcontributestomuchhigherdegreeofhospitablenessintheir
offering.
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Destinationfoodscape‐defined,modelled,andanalysed
PeterBjörk,HanneleKauppinen‐Räisänen
Thisstudydefines,modelsandanalysesthedestinationfoodscapeconceptandbydoing
socontributesbothtotheservicesmarketinganddestinationdevelopmentliterature.In
addition,ithasaclearmessagetothoseinchargeofdestinationmarketing.
TheservicescapeconceptintroducedbyBitner(1992)toexplainantecedentstoand
consequencesofthephysicalsurroundingofserviceencountersonconsumerand
employeeresponsehasbeenprovedusefulinalargerangeofsettings(e.g.Zeithaml,
Bitner&Gremler,2006).Thisisevidencedbythemany“scapes”likeshipscapes
(Kwortnik,2008),sportscapes(Lambrechtetal.,2009),cyberscapes(William&Dargel.
2004),tastescape(Hjalager&Richards,2002),smellscapesandsoundscape(Dann&
Jacobsen,2002).Notyetdefined,modelledoranalysedisthe“destinationfoodscape”
concept,whichtakestheserviceencounterapproachtothenextlevel,byfocusingon
nestedfoodexperiencesonadestination.
Theservicescapeconceptwasintroducedtothefieldoftourismbyanearlyworkof
ClarkeandSchmidt(1995),whointhesamewayasBitner(1992)sawthegapbetween
marketingliteratureandenvironmentalpsychology,andaskedforabroader
understandingoftheserviceencounter.FollowingtheleadofQuanandWang(2004)and
O´Dell(2005),whointroducedtheexperienceconcepttothefieldoftourism,Mossberg
(2007)identifiedfivecategoriesoffactorsinfluencingtheconsumerexperience.She
conceivesexperiencescapesasablendofinputsfromdifferentactorsandactivities
throughoutthewholejourney.Thisimpliesthatperceiveddestinationfoodscapeisa
holisticconstructfoundedonasetofmemorablefoodexperiencesentour.
Arguingthatthedestinationfoodfoodscapeconceptseemstobeuncoveredbypast
research,theaimofthisstudyistoelaborateonthedestinationfoodscapeconceptby
presentingatentativedefinitionbasedonservicemarketing,tourism,andtourism
experiencetheoriesmergedtogetherinaframework.Furthermore,thisstudyoffersnovel
insightintohowtouristsperceivethefoodlandscapeonadestination.
Aqualitativeresearchapproachwasdeemedsuitableinthisexplorativestudy.Informed
by30personalinterviewsweconcludethatdestinationfoodscapeisanindividualand
subjectiveconstruct.Itisanexperiencewhichtakesinfluencefromstagedservicesfor
tourists,i.e.in“experience‐centricservices”(Zomerdijk&Voss,2010).Inaccordancewith
pastresearch,travellerspayattention–inrestaurant–towhatisserved,howitisserved,
othercustomers,andtheatmosphere.Inaddition,thefindingsrevealthatthatdestination
foodscapeexperiencesareinfluencesbyfoodcultureonadestination–experiencedon
marketsandinstreets.Thestudyfoundthatthesetwodomains(theservicedomainand
theeverydaydomain)areinterlinked.Onetheonehand,integrationappearswhile
visitingwineyardsandbrewery.Ontheotherhand,itoccurswhentravellersuse
restaurantsandcafésasobservationpoststowatchstreetlife.Asitappearsexperiencing
localfoodcultureisa“hotspice”ofadestinationfoodscape.Fordestinationmanagement,
localfoodculturehastobeopenedupfortouristsinalltypesofencounters,stagedand
mundane.
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Image,experienceandproduction:strategiesfordevelopingthevalue
offoodtourisminDenmarkandEngland
HenrikHalkier,LauraJames
Inanytouristdestinationfoodisimportantinthesensethattravellinghumansneed
sustenance,butfoodisoftensourcedthroughinternationalsupplychainsand/orlocal
culinarytraditionsplayalimitedroleintouristexperiences.Incontrasttothis'feeding
tourists'paradigm,foodtourismisdefinedastravelinformedby"thedesiretoexperience
aparticulartypeoffoodortheproduceofaspecificregion"(Hall&Sharples,2003:10).
Insomelocalities‐e.g.Tuscany‐foodtourismiswell‐established,butinmostEuropean
regionscross‐sectoralrelationsareeitherlimitedornotsystematicallyexploited
(TherkelsenandBlichfeldt,2012).Nonetheless,connectingtourismandfoodhasa
powerfulappealtopublicpolicy‐makersinruraldestinations.Offeringregionalproducts
andculinarytraditionstovisitorshasthedualvalueofaddinganewcomponenttothe
imageofthetouristdestinationwhileatthesametimecreatingadditionaleconomic
activityinandaroundthedestination.
Asinotherareasofpublicpolicy,translatingideasintosuccessfulactiononthegroundis,
achallengingendeavour(JamesandHalkier,forthcoming).Inordertocreatesynergies
betweenlocalfoodandtourismdevelopmentinruraldestinations,specificproductsor
culinarypracticesmustbeproducedinordertobepackagedfortouristconsumption,
provisionmustbeorganisedsothatexperiencesareaccessibletovisitorstothe
destination,theirattractionmustbecommunicatedtoexistingandpotentialvisitors,and
theymustofcoursebeindemandbytouristsinordertobeeconomicallyviablefroma
long‐termperspective.
Inordertorealizefood/tourismsynergies,governanceinstitutionsandtheirstrategies
needtobealignedbetweenthetwosectors,andthispaperprobestheextenttowhich
thishashappenedintwonorthEuropeandestinations‐EastSuffolk(England)andNorth
Jutland(Denmark)‐bycomparingthegovernanceset‐upsandthestrategiesadoptedby
policymakers,DMOsandsectoralorganisations.Bothdestinationshavebeenpromoting
themselvesas'foodyplaces',andthepaperisbasedonin‐depthinterviewswithan
extensiveseriesofpolicy‐makersandkeyprivateactorsinthefoodandtourismsectors
inthecase‐studydestinationsaswellasanalysisofexistingpolicydocuments.We
identifykeydifferencesandsimilaritiesintheapproachesadoptedtocreatevalue
throughfoodtourism,withNorthJutlandhavingpublicallyfundednetworksasakey
component,whileSuffolkseemstorelyonmoremarket‐basedformsofcoordination.The
findingsareusedtodevelopatypologyoffoodtourismdevelopmentstrategies,
emphasisingthedifferencebetweenthemainintendedlocusofchance(foodand/or
tourismorganisations)andthetypeofchangeaimedfor(quantitative/qualitative).
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ValuesOfTourismForSocietyAndCommunitiesII.
Exploringthevalueofanevent:comparingconsumersurplus,
willingnesstopayandvaluesofsubjectivewellbeingforthePeace&
LovemusicfestivalinSweden
TobiasHeldt,RezaMortazavi
Understandingthevaluesandimpactforahallmarkeventiscrucialknowledgenotonly
fortheeventmanagersbutalsoforthepublicplannersofthehostregion.
Thepurposeofthispaperistoexploreandcomparevaluesofamusiceventusingonthe
onehandtwonon‐marketvaluationtechniques;andontheotherhandindividual
measuresofsubjectivewell‐beingorhappiness.
Weusesurveydatacollectedfrom1005visitorstothePeace&Lovemusicfestivalheldin
Borlänge,Sweden,in2012.Thesurveycontainsquestionsabouttheactualbehaviourof
therespondentssuchasexpenditurepatternsandtravelbehaviourbutalsoquestionson
individuals'subjectivewellbeing(SWB)andwillingnesstopay(WTP)forcertainfeatures
ofthefestivallike"otherpeopleattending"andlengthforthefestival.Thesedataallowus
toestimateconsumersurplusfortheeventbyapplyingthetravelcostmethodbutalso
averageandindividualmeasuresofSWB.Thelattercanbeusedtoexplorecorrelations
betweenindividual'sSWBandindividualsocioeconomiccharacteristicsbutalso
consumerbehaviourpatterns.
Thepreliminaryfindingsofourstudyarethattheconsumersurplusvalueindicatesan
overallconsumervaluebetween27‐89MSEKforthefestival.Themeasureofhappiness
showsanaveragesubjectivewellbeingof7.94(likertscale1‐10)andcorrelationswitha
numberofinterestingvariables.Thispapercontributestotheliteratureonvaluationof
tourismandeventsbyhighlightingthepotentialforusingmeasuresofconsumersurplus
incombinationwithactualvisitordataonpreferencestounderstandcurrentandfuture
impactandvaluesofanevent.
Sustainabilityindicatorsfortourism:Frameworkformonitoring
indicatorsofsustainabilityinthetourismsystemVatnajökullNational
Park,Iceland KristínRutKristjánsdóttir
Worldwidenaturalperipheralareasarebecomingincreasinglymorepopularastourist
destinations.Subsequentlythenorthernperipheryregionsarelikelytoexperience
increasedenvironmental,economicandsocialimpactoftourisminthecomingyears.
Thereforeitiscrucialthatsustainabilityperformancemonitoringisincludedintourism
developmentinnorthernperipheryregions.Thestudythatwillbepresentedatthis
conferenceisapartofalargerprojectwhichaimstodevelopaframeworkof
sustainabilityindicatorsfortourisminVatnajökullNationalPark(VNP),Iceland.The
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specificaimofthestudyistoassesshowtourismstakeholderperceptionscanbe
integratedintodesignandmonitoringofsustainabilityindicatorsusingsystemic
indicatorsystem(SIS).Therearetwogeneralmethodologicalapproachestosustainability
indicatordesign:onethataimstoreducesustainabilityissuestomanageablegoal‐seeking
entitiesofsustainabletourismand;onethatseesindicatorsascomponentsofadynamic
systemanddefinestheireffecttowardssustainabilityaccordingtointerconnectednessto
otherindicators.TheSISmethodisaproductofthelatterapproach.Whileindividual
issuesandproblemsrelatedtotourismneedtobedealtwithspecifically,monitoring
shouldincorporatecontext‐specificconditionsandanoverviewofthetourismsystemas
awhole.TheSISmethodwasappliedtosustainabilityissuesaccordingtotouristhosts,
governmentalemployeesandnationalparkemployeesandrangersinnorthandwest
territoriesofVNP.Theresultsshowthatoutof18systemvariables‘seasonality’and
‘employment’havethemostinfluenceonothervariablesandthusonthesystemasa
whole.Thisindicatesthatonlyasmallchangeintouristseasonswillcauseastrong
changeinthetourismsystem.Meanwhile,‘destinationattractiveness’and‘localeconomy’
areeasilyaffectedbyanychangeinthetourismsystem;andvariablesofthephysical
environmentwillexperiencelittleorlaggingchangeevenwithalargechangeinother
variables.Atwo‐dimensionalframeworkforsustainabilityindicatorsforVNPis
suggested.Theframeworkinvolvesstakeholderinvolvementasinputintoevaluating
boththeindicatorvariablesandtheusefulnessofthemonitoringprocess.Theresultsof
theSISmethodwillbeusedtoidentifyandranksustainabilityindicatorsfortourismin
VNPaccordingtotheirimportancewithinthetourismsystem.
Eurovision2014aspotlatch?Exploringmegaeventsascultural
demonstrationsofcomplexoutcomes CarinaBregnholmRen,MortenKroghPetersen
Howtotellifaneventis‘worthit’?Inallitssimplicity,thisquestionoftentroubles
investors,planners,localcommunities,politiciansaswellasresearchersinvolvedinthe
planningandassessingofevents.Thequestionbringstotheforecomplexmethodological
issues:first,howtodeterminewhatmightconstitutea‘good’outcomeand,second,how
todeterminewhichindicators,parametersandmetricsmightbeusedinmeasuring
whethertheseoutcomeshavematerializedornot(Petersen2009)?Thesedifficultiesare
becomingevenmoreintricateasthepublicandprivatesectorsincreasinglyjoinforcesin
organizinglargeevents,bringingquitedifferentdefinitionsof‘good’outcomestothe
table.Inourpresentation,wearguethatsuchcross‐sectorialeventsmustnotpurelybe
understoodasopportunitiesforprofit‐generation.Otherformsofoutcomesmay,we
argue,beexploredthroughcareful,ethnographicstudiesofhowdifferentlogicsofvaluing
intersectaseventscomeintobeing.
Inordertobroadentheconceptofvalueinrelationtoevents,weproposetoconsiderthe
eventaswhatanthropologistMarcelMaussentitledapotlatch(Mauss[1955]/1990).Ata
firstglance,thepotlatchresemblesameaninglessritualofconspicuousconsumptionand
destructionofwealthandhence,its’worthwasseverelychallengedbyoutside(Western)
bystanders.ToMauss,however,itcontainedarangeofintricateinternalandsituated
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logicsandnegotiationsofstatus,poweranddomination.Weusetheconceptofpotlatch
toexplorethedifferentlogicsofvaluingtheEurovisionSongContestheldinCopenhagen
inMay2014.
Throughitslinkingofcorporate,municipal,regionalandnationalactivitiesandinterests
anditsmanyoutreachschemeswithintourism,education,industrialdevelopmentand
sustainability,numeroussub‐eventsandintensecollaborationbetweenan
unconventionalarrayofactors(NGOs,schools,aprivaterealestatecompany,the
municipalityandtheregion),weproposetoseeEurovision2014asacross‐sectorial
innovationproject.Weshowhowtheintricatepublic‐privatecollaborationandthe
attemptsatlinkingtheeventtoverydifferenttasksandobjectivesmadethevaluingof
collaborationoutcomesquitecontroversial.Throughourfieldwork,welearntthatthe
outcomesforstakeholdersweremostoftennot(only)aboutgeneratingamonetary
surplus,forinstancebyattractingtouristfortheevent,butalsoaboutcreating‘much
morethanasongcontest’.Justlikethepotlatch,thevaluewasnotalwaysdirectlyvisible
ormeasurable.
Inconclusion,wediscusshowtheblurringofsectorialandinstitutionalboundariesisan
increasingchallengeintermsofestablishingaccountability,facingnotonlyeventsbut
moregenerallycross‐sectorialinnovationendeavors.Inourcase,differentdefinitionsof
‘good’outcomesdidnotcomplywithusualwaysofvaluingeventsandtheiroutcomes.
However,theconceptofpotlatchallowsustoexploreandacknowledgehowdifferent
logicsofvaluingmayco‐exist.Italsoshowsthatdifferentvaluesand‘worths’emerge
whenweasresearchersengageinourresearchfieldinameticulous,carefulmanner.
Thevalueofcruisetourism–somecriticalissues SveinLarsen,RouvenDoran,KatharinaWolff,TorvaldØgaard
Arecentlargescalestudy(Larsen,Wolff,Marnburg&Øgaard,2013)documentsthat
cruisetouristsspendsignificantlylessthanothervisitorsatadestination.Thesefindings
havehoweverbeenvigorouslyattacked,opposedandcriticisedbystakeholders
representingthecruiseindustry.Typicalargumentshavebeenthatcruisetouristswould
spendmoreifthereweremoreopportunitiestospend(thisargumentwasputforwardby
thetradeministeremeritusofNorway,TrondGiske[1](BT,2013;Norwegian
Government,2013)),andthatmanycruisetouristswillreturnasland‐basedtouriststo
placestheyvisitedduringtheircruise.Thepresentpaperaddressesthese,andafew
othercriticalissuesraisedinthepublicandbythecruisesector.
ThedatainthisstudycomesfromtwosurveysundertakeninWesternNorwayin2012(N
=4002)and2013(N=2104).Inthe2012‐study,tourists’expendituresonworkingdays
andSun‐andholydayswerecomparedtotestwhethercruisetourists(andothertourists)
spendmoreonworkingdaysthanonholidays(whenshopsareclosed).The2013survey
examinedtouristsrevisitintentionsaswellastheimportanceplacedonpricebycruise
touristsaswellasbyothertourists.
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Theresultsshowthatcruisetouristsaswellasothertouristsspendasmuchonworking
daysasonSun‐andholydays,therewerenodifferences.Inadditiontheresultsindicate
thatcruisetouristsaremoreinterestedinreturningascruisetouriststhanasland‐based
tourists;andamongtouristswhorevisitadestination,cruisetouristswhoreturnas
cruisetouristsareoverrepresented.Inaddition,ourresultsindicatethatcruisetourists
arehighlyconcernedaboutpricesatthedestination.Wediscusstheseresultsinlightof
currentdiscoursesonvaluecreationincruisetourism.
Destinationbrandingincoastalcommunities:entrepreneurs’senseof
place
MiaLarson
Duringthelastdecades,Scandinaviancoastalcommunitieshavegonethroughindustrial
developmentinvolvingashiftfromtraditionalindustry,suchasfisheryandhandicrafts,
totourism.Thishasledtonewconditionsforentrepreneurshiponthoseplaces.However,
tourismhavedevelopeddifferentlyondifferentplacesintermsofhowwelltourismis
integratedinthecommunityandhowseasonalityisdealtwith.Thishastodowithhow
entrepreneursareoperatingtheirbusinessesandtheirrelationshiptotheplace,which,in
turn,contributestohowdestinationbrandsevolve.Inthisarticle,casestudiesofthree
destinationsontheSwedishwestcoast,Marstrand,BjörholmenandKäringön,showhow
entrepreneurshiphasevolvedanditseffectontourismandtourismbrands.Theintention
istoelaborateonandunderstandtherelationshipbetweenentrepreneurship,senseof
placeanddestinationbranding.ThestudyispartofaInterregIVprojectcarriedout
during2010‐2012.Anumberofdifferentstudieswasdone:expertinterviews,focus
groups,asurveycoveringthewholepopulationofthethreecommunities,workshops
withcommunityrepresentativesandin‐depthinterviewsofentrepreneurs.
Johannison(2005)distinguishdifferentgroupsofentrepreneursconsideringthedriving
forcesfortheiroperations,i.e.whethertheentrepreneursareeconomicallyorsocially
orientedandwhetheritisbasedoncollectivismorindividualism.Entrepreneurson
Käringönaretoahighdegreecollectivisticandsociallyoriented.Thereisastrongplace
identity(cf.Lewicka,2008),whichisbasedonhistory,familyandthedependencetothe
oceanandnatureandtheentrepreneurshipandthedestinationbrandistightly
connectedtoit.Käringöncanbeseenasasuccesscaseintermsifsustainabletourism
developmentduetoitsalmostall‐year‐roundtourismanditsintegrationinthe
community.
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SpecialTrack:TheWondersOfNature
Choreographiesoflightanddarkness:compositionsofnorthernlight
tourism
GunnarThórJóhannesson,KatrínAnnaLund
Tourismasanorderingcanbedescribedasadancebasedoncontinuouslybecoming
choreographyofdifferentparticipants,humanandmore‐than‐humanthatshape
attractionsanddestinations.RecentlytheNorthernlightshaveevolvedintooneofthe
mostimportanttouristattractionsduringwinterinIcelandandnorthernpartsof
Scandinavia.TheNorthernlightsareunrulyandmultipleandhavealwaysbeensubjectto
variouseffortsofunderstandingandinterpretation.Scientistshaveforlongbeen
interestedinexplainingthegeophysicaldynamicsofthelightswhilstlayknowledgehas
soughtexplanationsthroughmythologicalnarratives.However,AuroraBorealiscannot
bedisciplinedandthusremainsasmysteriousphenomenonwhichattractsinterestand
providesinspiration.ThemagicoftheNorthernlightshasstartedtoprovidevaluefor
contemporarytourismindustry.Thispaperwillfollowsomeofthecompositionsof
northernlighttourismaspracticedthroughethnographicfieldworkduringthewinter
2013‐2014.Wewillenterthechoreographiesoflightanddarknessastheyareperformed
throughvariousstepsandrhythmsbydiverseactors.Itisarguedthatwhilethenorthern
lightscanbecomposedasaproductuptoapointtheyremainundisciplinedandthus
opentoimprovisationandcontinuouscreation.Thisprocesscanbethoughtthroughasa
dancethatfluctuatesbetweenregulatedorderofstriatedspaceandcreativecapacitiesof
smoothspace.
Navigatingthestorm:embodiments,experiencesandreflectionsof
northernlightsfieldwork BenteHeimtun,GunnarThórJóhannesson,TiinaKivelä,KatrínAnnaLund,NigelMorgan,
SeijaTuulentie
InthelastdecadetheAuroraBorealis(thenorthernlights)hasbecomeaprimarysoft
adventureattractionindestinationsofNorthernScandinavia.Inthispaperwedrawon
interactiveautoethnographytoexamineresearcherfieldworkexperiencesonthree
northernlightstoursdepartingfromAlta,NorwayonastormynightinMarch2014.
Threeteamsofresearcherssetouttoconductparticipantobservationsofnorthernlights
tourismandtourguiding.Onlyteamonemetthatobjective;teamtwo'sjourneythat
eveningdevelopedintoaninterviewofthetourguideintheabsenceofothertourists;
teamthree'stripwaspartiallycancelledasthestormpreventedthecruiseship
passengers,butnottheresearchers,fromreachingthebasecamp.
Regardlessofourownindividualparadigmaticormethodologicalorientationsweall
activelyshapeourresearchthroughthechoiceswemakeandaregivenandthewaysin
whichwedo/notarticulateresearchervoice(s).Inthispaper,wediscussourindividual
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andmultipleresearcherentanglementsandembodiedexperiencesofthatevening's
fieldwork‐ofthestorm,ofwitnessingandnotwitnessingthenorthernlightsandof
drivingthroughthewind,snowandice.Inparticular,wereflectuponhowtheforcesof
natureandtheresultantsevereweatherconditionsturnedthisformofsoftadventure
intosomethingpotentiallydangerous,evokingemotionssuchasfearandanxiety,notonly
inthetourists/researchersbutalsointhetourguides.Throughournarrativesweshow
howscientificandresearchpracticeandproductionarealwaysintertwinedwithmultiple
entanglementsintheongoinggenerationoftourismknowledge.Thesenarrativeswill
challengethedualisticperceptionoftourismresearchassplitintofieldworkandanalysis,
insteadofferingaperspectivewhichrevealsthe'messy'workingsofenactingtourism
researchundertakings.
Closertothewhales;thestoryofcreatingWhalesafariatAndenes
ArvidViken,AnnikenFørde
WhalesafariatAndenesinvitesyoutoget“closertothewhales”.Originallyinitiatedby
environmentalistsandscientistsworkingonspermwhales,theideawastocombine
whalewatchingtourswithresearch.TodayWhalesafariLtd.hasbecomeoneofthemajor
commercialtourismactorsinNorthernNorway.Offeringwhalewatchingtripswithfull
whaleguarantee,theyattractabout15000touristsayear.
Asapartofaresearchprojectonnortherndestinationswehaveconductedacasestudy
oftourismdevelopmentatAndøya.Inthispaperweaddressthestart‐upand
developmentofwhale‐safari,themaintourismattractionontheisland.Applyingacritical
perspectiveonknowledgeconstruction,weinvestigatewhatthetypesofknowledgethat
hasbeencentraltotheventure,andhowknowledgeproductionandmediationhasbeena
dominantpartoftheactivities.Thepapershowstheprocesseswherebywhatstartedasa
naturalsciencebasecoinedwithenvironmentalismandlocalenthusiasmwasturnedinto
acommercialbusinessorientation.However,theknowledgecomponentwasneverleft
andhasgiventheattractionanon‐commercialanchoring,importantforitsreputation
andmarketsuccess.Theattractionispartofglobalnetworksrelatedtowhale
observationandconservation.Wealsolookintohowthelocaltraditionsforwhale
huntingclasheswiththeambitionsofbeingawhalewatchingdestination.
Definingadventuretourism
OutiRantala
Aguidedsnowmobilesafari–includingicefishingatwildernesslake,coffeeserved
aroundcampfire,andnarrativesonlocalculture–inFinnishLaplandisoftenregardedas
anon‐adventurousactivitysinceitishighlycommercialisedanditdoesnotrequirerisk
taking.However,thiscategorisationturnsouttobeinsufficientwhentheactivityis
examinedfromtheperspectiveoftheguide.Theguideneeds,forexample,wilderness
guidingskills,safetyskillsandknowledgeonlocalcultureandnaturebesidescustomer
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serviceskills(Rantala&Valkonen,2011;Valkonen,2011).Furthermore,Beedieand
Hudson(2003)haveclaimedthattheboundariesbetweenadventurousactivitiesand
tourismhavebecomeblurred.Theycallforacademicresearchonadventuretourismin
ordertounderstandbetterthedemocratisationofadventurousactivitiesinthecontextof
tourismandcontemporaryconsumerculture.
Theculturaldifferencesininterpretingconceptssuchaswilderness,safariandnature
guidingillustratedifficultiesincapturingtheprocessofurbanisation,commodification,
andimprovementoftechnologywhenexaminingadventuretourism.Understanding
theseprocessesincontextofadventuretourismisimportantwhenstudying,forexample,
thepotentialforoperatingindependentlyinnatureandparticipatinginadventure
tourismorwhensketchingglobaltrendsandplanningthedevelopmentofadventure
tourism.Therefore,weask:howisadventuretourismdefinedandcategorisedintourism
andassociatedliterature?Howdodifferentconceptualisationsworkinrelationto
understandingtheprocessofdemocratisationandcommercialisationofadventurous
activitiesandinrelationtoexaminingtheperceptionofrisksbynewadventuretourism
segments?
Ourconceptualreviewaimstoexplorethecontentofadventuretourism(seealsoWeber,
2001).Thestudyconsistsofliteraturereviewcomprisingdevelopmentofmethodology
forcreatingcomprehensivelistofarticles.Inthereview,thetheoreticalunderpinnings
arefirstcategorisedandsecondlytheempiricalfindingsarediscussedbyusingexamples
fromnature‐basedtourisminFinnishLaplandandadventuretourisminNorth‐Norway.
Theexamplesarebasedonaninternationalsurveyconductedduringthespring2014.
Subsequently,numberofideasislistedforfutureresearchonadventuretourism,nature‐
basedtourism,arctictourismandtourismsafety.Byexploringthedefinitionsof
adventuretourismweaimtobroadenthescopeofdefiningadventuretourisminrelation
torisk(Bentleyetal.,2010;Cater,2006)andtosketchfutureresearchapproacheson
adventuretourismthatenclosebothnatureandculture.
ValuesOfTourismResearchAndScholarshipII
WhatdowemeanbyExperienceProduction?‐Asuggestedecologyfor
thediverseconceptsofproducingandanalyzingtourismexperiences.
HansGelter
Thispaperaimstoconceptuallyexploretherecentemergedfieldofresearchand
educationof"ExperienceProduction"(EP)anditsrelationtosimilarareassuchasthe
ExperienceEconomy,ExperienceDesign,Experiencestagingetc.Theaimistoclarifythe
prevailingconceptualdiversifiedtaxonomywithintourismresearchandeducationin
exploringandunderstandingtheprocessesofeconomicofferingofexperiences.The
researchmethodologyisbasedonaconceptualanalysisofliteraturewithintourism
researchandeducationaddressing"experiences".Theconceptualanalysisisalsobased
onapilot‐studyoftheconceptualunderstandingofEPamongstudentsandtourism
operators,aswellaspersonalreflectionsof12yearsofeducationwithintheeducation
137
program"ExperienceProduction"atLuleåUniversityoftechnology(LTU)Sweden.
Theword"ExperienceProduction"EP,didnotexistintheEnglishlanguagein2002when
theMasterprogramof"upplevelseproduktion"startedatLTU,whichthenwastranslated
totheswenglishword"experienceproduction".GooglesearchonthewordEPin2002
gavenohitswhileinApril2014thewordsgave174000.However,alreadyin1970Alvin
TofflerusedthewordEPwhileintourismresearchandintheemergedfieldof
"ExperienceEconomy"thewordEPisstillrarelyused.Insteadadiversefloraof
analogousandhomologousconceptsandtermshasemerged.Theseincludesthe
contemporarypopularconceptofExperienceDesignaswellaswordssuchasExperience
Staging,ExperienceEnhancing,ExperienceCreation,ExperienceDevelopment,
ExperienceRealization,DevelopingMeaningfulExperience,BuildingCustomer
Experiences,CustomerExperienceManagementandothers.Similarmeaningsinvolve
additionalconceptssuchasNature&CulturalInterpretation,RecreationalManagement,
PlanedEventExperiencesandTourismProductDevelopment.Severaltheoretical
conceptsforEPhavebeensuggestedsuchastheFiveAspectMealModel,
Servunction/Experience‐room/Experiencescapeconcept,TheExperiencePyramid,Pine
&Gilmore4E‐modelandTheEnactmentModel,theStarExperienceModel,theTotal
ExperienceManagement‐modelandothers.However,mostscholarattentionhasbeen
towardsanalyzingandcategorizingaspectsofthecustomerexperienceandexperience
typologies,andlessattentiontowardsthe"productionprocesses"ofexperienceofferings.
Thispapersuggestsaclearerconceptualdichotomybetween"producing"experiences
and"analyzing"ExperienceswithintourismandtheExperienceEconomy.Onewaymight
bebyexploringtheconceptsofTotalExperienceManagement(TEMa)andTotal
ExperienceMeasurement(TEMe).Aresearchcontributionfromthisconceptualanalysis
isthatthereisnoconsensusaboutthetaxonomyofmethodsandprocessesfor
experienceofferings,andthatthedifferentconceptssuchasdesign,production,creation,
staging,developmentetc.bothoverlapandhavedistinctmeaningsandvalues.Thispaper
thereforesuggestsanoverall"ecology"forthedifferentconceptsofproducingand
analyzingtourismexperiences.
Axiologyoftourism,hospitalityandevents(TH&E)
JohanREdelheim
Thefoundationalcomponentsoftourism,hospitalityandevent(TH&E)studiesare
ontology,epistemologyandaxiologyofTH&E,orinotherwords,howwecometo
understandwhatthefieldsare,whatmakesusacceptcertainmattersasbeingtruthful
andconstitutingknowledge,andhowweestablishwhatisvaluableeitherforitsown
sake,orforsomethingelse.IwillinthispaperrefertoTH&Estudies,fullyconsciousof
thefactthatstudiesinthesesub‐fieldstakedifferentshapes,andaretaughtseparately
fromoneanotheratsomeinstitutions.Myaimis,however,toinvestigatethe
philosophicalfoundationsandissuesofthesestudies,andhavingfairlysimilar
antecedents,Iwilldisregardthediversitytheytakeinpractice.Theyaredealtwithhere
togetherasTH&Estudies.
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Ontology,orthestudyofbeing,createstheframeworkforhowwe,asindividuals,
connectedinsocieties,makesenseoftherealityinwhichwelive.Thepowerofontology
isthatitgivesusthekeystounlockthewayrealityisunderstood,bytakingasitsobject
ofstudytheactualbeingofthings,matters,concepts,experiences,andwords‐essentially
ofeverything.
Epistemology,orthestudyofknowledge,receivesinourrationalistsocietymore
emphasisbecauseitsetstoexplainwhywejointlydecidethatcertainthingsaretrue,and
othersarenot.Science,andtheinterpretationofscientificresults,changestheway
societyactsatallstagesoflife.
Axiology,orthestudyofvalueorofgoodness,isdefinitelythephilosophicalstrainoutof
thesethreethathasreceivedleastattention,eventhoughitisfundamentallylinkedtoour
actionsinourdailylives.Axiologyformsthefoundationforbothethicsandaesthetics,
thatbothinvestigatevalueproperties,bytheorisingvalueinitsownright.Hartman
introducedinhisformaltheoryofvaluethevaluehierarchywhichhasthreelevels:a
mattercanbeseenashavingintrinsicvalue,valuableinitsownright,orto
haveextrinsicvalue,valuableforthesakeofsomethingelse,whichinturncanhave
intrinsicvalue,ortohavesystemicvalue,theideaofintrinsicorextrinsicvalues.
Thereasonwhyitisofimportancetotheorisevaluesystematicallybyinvestigatingthe
axiologyofTH&Eisbecauseitotherwisewillbethevictimofrelativity.Everybodyknows
thatdifferentpeoplevaluedifferentthings,andthatdifferentculturescarriesdifferent
valuesystems,andthatallofthishavetobetakeninconsiderationwhendealingwiththe
globalphenomenaTH&Estandsfor.But,thedangeristhatonepresumesthatnovalues
areuniversal,orthatnocertaintycanbedrawnfrominvestigatingvalue.Whatthispaper
setstoclarifyisaxiologyofTH&Eandhowthephilosophicalstreamofaxiologycanbe
utilisedtogiveacommongroundingforthevaluesthefieldofTH&Ecreatesinsociety.
Mobilityandrealtimeexperiences–thestudyofpersonal“hotspots”
IngridZakrisson
TechnologiessuchasGPSandRFIDhaveincreasinglycomeintousetotracepeople's
mobilitypatterns,forvariousreasons;intourismresearch,transportationresearchorin
moregeneralbehavioralresearchinordertounderstandhowpeoplemoveabout.One
benefitofsuchmethodsisthatitispossibletostudymobilityinrealtimeinsteadof
relyingonretrospectiveselfreports.However,therearealsocertaindrawbacks.For
example,thesetechniquesaccumulateaconsiderableamountofdata,whichisdifficultto
systematizeintocoherentpatterns.Itispossibletostructurethedataaccordingtotime
andplace,whereandwhenpeoplemoveabout.Butwhatdoesitmean?Whatarethe
experiences,values,emotionsandcognitionsassociatedwithit?Whenapplyingthese
techniquestostudiesofvisitorsindifferentcircumstancesareappearingfindingisthata
considerableamountoftimeisspent‐doingnothing;supposedlyonaimlessactivities,
nothavingtodowiththeservicesandproductsprovided,andthegeneralpurposeofthe
139
visit.Still,thevisitseemstobeenjoyableandfulfilling.
Theseproblemscallforamoreinteractivewayofcollectingdata,butalsonewwaysof
analyzingit.WithinourresearchgroupwenotonlyapplyGPStechniquetotrackvisitors,
wearealsointerestedtounderstandthemeaningoftheirexperiencesinrealtime.For
thiswehaveusedGPSdevicesequippedwithabuttonbywhichithasbeenpossibleto
indicatecertainpointsofinterest(POI:s)ofownchoice.Wehavenowdevelopedasmart
phoneapplicationwhereevenmoreinformationcanberequestedfromtheparticipants.
Thisnotonlymakesitpossibletozoneinhotspotsintimeandplaces,itisalsopossibleto
relatethechosenPOI:stopersonalfactors;backgroundvariablesandotherformsof
responsestothevisitinquestion.Itis,forexample,possibletoinvestigateif,andinwhat
ways,thesamePOIyieldsdifferentmeaningsfordifferentpeople.Theaimofthis
presentationistogiveexamples,takenfromourstudiesofdestinations,eventsandtheme
parks,ofwaysofanalyzingsuchPOI:sandhowthesespotsarerelatedtopersonalfactors.
ValuesOf/ForTheTouristIV.
TheAbsoluteImportanceOfStudyingTheRelativityOfRisk
PerceptionsWithRegardToTravelDestinations
KatharinaWolff,SveinLarsen
Theimpactofterrorismontravelchoiceandriskperceptionsamongtouristsisofgreat
interesttothetourismindustryandhasreceivedsomeresearchattention.Someofthis
researchisbasedontheanalysisoftourismstatisticswhichoftenshowdeclining
numbersofvisitorsafterterroristattacks,forexampleinSpain(Enders&Sandler,1991),
NorthernIreland(Pizam,1999),andtheUSA(Lepp&Gibson,2003).
Anotherunderstandablyverylimitedlineofresearchhasdirectlycomparedtouristsrisk
ratingsbeforeandafterterroristattacks.Larsenetal.(2011)foundthattouristsreported
increasedriskforMadridfollowingthe2004trainbombingsandforLondonafterthe
2005bombattacksonLondon'stransportsystem.WolffandLarsen(2014)reportedthat
riskjudgmentsamongtouriststoNorwaydecreasedafterthe22ndofJuly.
Thepresentstudyispartofacontinuingquantitativeinvestigationofriskperceptions
amongtouriststoNorwaywhichstartedin2004.Inthefollowingdataonrisk
perceptionsregardingdifferenttraveldestinationsanddifferenthazardsarebeing
presented.
DatawerecollectedinNorwaybymeansofquestionnairesin2004,2010,2011,2012,
and2013.Participantsconstituteaconveniencesamplefromtheindefinitepopulationof
touriststothearea.Responserateswereabout90%.Datafromatotalof10998
participantsfromalltogether89differentcountriesarebeingreportedhere.Subjective
riskassessmentswereobtainedforninedifferentdestinationsincludingforexample
NorwayandtheNordiccountriesandlargercitiesinEurope;aswellasforsevendifferent
hazardsincludingforexampleterrorismoractionsofwarandinfections.
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Resultsshowthattourists'riskperceptionsforthedifferentdestinationsfluctuate
somewhat,butnotalotovertheyearsforsevenoutofninedestinations.Norwayandthe
Nordiccountriesareperceivedtobethesafestdestination,whileRoundtripsinIsraelare
perceivedtobetheriskiest.Interestinglyresultsalsoshowthatwhileabsoluterisk
perceptionsformostdestinationsfluctuate,therelativeriskperceptionsremainconstant.
Inotherwordstherankingofthedestinationsaccordingtotheirrelativeriskdoesnot
changeovertheyears.Regardingriskfordifferenthazardsresultsshowthattourists
generallyjudgetherisktobeverylow,withtheleastriskforterrorismoractionsofwar
andthehighestriskfortrafficaccidents.
Findingsseemtoimplythatwhiledramaticeventslikethe2004trainbombingsin
Madridorthe22ndofJulyinNorwaymightslightlychangehowriskytouristsperceive
theseindividualdestinationstobe,therelativeriskofthosedestinationscomparedto
otherdestinationsremainsconstant.Theinfluenceofsucheventsonthenumberof
visitorsshouldthereforebeminimal.Findingsalsounderlinetheimportanceofmoving
awayfrommerelyinvestigatingindividualcasesandinsteademployamorecomparative
approach,i.e.investigatingriskperceptionsformorethanonedestinationatatimein
ordertostudywhetherrelativeriskhaschanged.
Co‐creationasamoderatorontheexperiencevalue–satisfaction
relations NinaPrebensen,HyelinKim,MuzzoUysal
Theevidenceinexistingliteratureontherelationshipbetweenperceivedcustomervalue
andsatisfactionofexperienceshasnoticeablybeenidentified(GallarazaandGil‐Saura,
2006;Prebensen,Woo,ChenandUysal,2013;Sanchezetal2004;WilliamsandSoutar,
2009).However,despitethegreatstridesmadeinrecentyears,ourunderstandingofthe
specificnatureofthecustomers'activeroleintherelationshipbetweentouristperceived
valueandsatisfactionhasreceived,ifany,verylimitedresearch.Afundamentalpremises
forthenewservicedominant‐logic(S‐Dlogic)inmarketing(VargoandLush,2004),isthe
imperativeofthecustomerasapartakerofcreatingvalue(Prebensen,VittersøandDahl,
2013).Thus,thepurposeofthepresentworkistofurtherexplorethelinkbetween
experiencevalueandsatisfaction,withafocusonthecustomer'srole,i.e.,hisorher
interestandparticipationincreatingexperiencevalue,delineatedas"co‐creation".
Specifically,theco‐creationwillbeexploredandtestedasamoderatorforthevalue‐
satisfactionrelationship.
Thenotionofco‐creationinthepresentworkiscomprehendedasthecustomer's
emotionalandphysicalinteractionintheexperiencecreationprocess.Itishopedthatthe
findingswouldhelpthetourismindustrytofacilitatefortherightlevelofcustomer
partakingintheprocessofcreatingvaluetoenhanceexperienceandsatisfaction.
Theinitialanalysisofthestudyrevealedthattourists'perceivedvalueofwintertravel
experienceconsistedof'learningvalue','socialvalue','emotionalvalue','economicvalue',
and'physicalvalue'.Andthestudyshowedthattouristexperiencevaluehasapositive
141
effectonsatisfaction.Theresultsupportstheexistingliterature(GallarazaandGil‐Saura,
2006;Prebensen,Woo,ChenandUysal,2013;WilliamsandSoutar,2009).The
moderatingeffectofco‐creationincludedbothmentalandphysicalinvolvements.Froma
theoreticalperspective,ourframeworkintegratesco‐creationpracticesinexperiential
consumptionprocessesandsupportsthehypothesisofthecustomerasimperativewithin
theevolvingS‐Dlogicliterature.
Fromthemanagerialperspective,thepresentworkhasconceptualizedakeyvariable,co‐
creationwhichmoderatestheeffectbetweenexperiencevalueandsatisfaction.Thestudy
thuspinpointstheimportanceofgettingthecustomermentallyandphysicallyinvolvedin
co‐creatingexperiencevalue.Thetouristindustryneedstoacknowledgehowtheycan
involvethecustomerbeforeandduringtheexperienceinordertoenhanceinterestand
participation;asaresult,experiencevalueandoverallsatisfactionmayincrease.
CountingvisitorsinVatnajökullNationalPark
RögnvaldurÓlafsson
DataaboutthenumberofvisitorstotheHighlandsandprotectedareasinIcelandis
scarce.QuestionnaireshavebeenusedattouristexitpointsinIcelandforanumberof
yearsandsometelephonequestionnairesexist,butofdirectdataonlyovernightstatistics
havebeenavailable.Butinformationaboutvisitorsandtheirnumberisfundamentalfor
maintainingtourismareasandplanningtheirfutureinasustainableway.Lackofvisitor
usedatacanfurthermoreleadtotourismbeingundervaluedinpublicpolicy.Thisis
particularlytrueinIcelandnowwhentourismisexpandinggreatlyandtourismareasare
beingdeveloped,asforexampleVatnajökullNationalPark.
Theaimoftheworkreportedhereistoprovidedataaboutthenumberofvisitorsto
VatnajökullNationalParkandfollowchangesthatoccur.Inthispresentationvisitordata
fromtheSkaftafellregionofVatnajökullNationalParkisreported.Datahasbeen
collectedtheresinceJune2009andisnowgivingvaluableinformationabouttheeffectof
therecentwinteropeningofthePark.
AtentrypointstothemainattractionsoftheParkmotorizedtrafficisrecordedonan
hourlybasisbymechanizedcounters.Thenumberofvisitorspervehicleiscounted,as
wellastheproportionofbusesversusprivatecars.Thatgivestheaveragenumberof
personspervehicleandfromthatandthenumberofvehiclescountedbythecounters,
thenumberofvisitorsiscalculated.Inadditionthenumberofhikersonselected
footpathsisrecorded.
In2009about185thousandguestsvisitedSkaftafell.Duetovolcaniceruptionsin
Eyjafjallajökullin2010andVatnajökullin2011touristtrafficfellby14%from2009to
2010andremainedlowin2011.Afterthattrafficpickedupsharplyandreached275
thousandvisitorsin2013,anincreaseof40%from2011.Theincreasecanbetracedto
increaseinthenumberofvisitorstoIceland,aswellastorecentwinteropeningin
SkaftafellandJökulsárlón,andisanexampleofsuccessfuloff‐seasonmarketing.The
numberofvisitorstoSkaftafellintheoff‐seasonmonthsSeptembertoMay,increasedby
93%between2010and2013.
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TechnologyAndValueCreation
Theimpactofonlineinformationsourcesondestinationimage
formation:destinationNorwayintheeyesoftheBrazilianmarket
AnastasiaMariussen,ChristineHafnorHåvoll,MartinWeibye,PernilleRoberts
Althoughdestinationimageliteratureseemstobegainingitsmomentum,someareasof
thisresearchsuchasdestinationimageformationandforcesinfluencingthisprocess
remainrelativelyunexplored.Forexample,despiteofthegeneralconsensusthatimage
formationinfluencestravellers'decision‐makingandbehaviour,littleisstillknownabout
theactualprocessofdestinationimageformation,particularlypriortovisitinga
destination.WiththeproliferationoftheInternetandsocialmedia,whichincreasingly
movethecreationofdestination‐relatedinformationoutsidedestinationmanagers'
offices,theimportanceandurgencyofaddressingtheseareasbecomeeversoevident.To
contributetothefewstepsalreadytakeninthisdirection,thisworkexaminestheroleof
onlineinformationsourcesindestinationimageformationpriortovisitingadestination.
Thepaperreliesonamultiple‐methoddesignandtriangulatesqualitativeinterviewdata
withtheclickstreamanalysisoftherespondents'Internetsearch.Tocapturereal‐time
destinationimageformation,thestudyinvitestheparticipantsfromtheimportantfor
NorwayBrazilianmarketthathaveneverbeentoNorwaybeforetoplanatriptothis
destination.Theparticipants'planningactivityandonlinejourneyisrecordedonavideo
andlateranalysedbymeansoftheclickstreamanalysis.Forthecomparisonofthe
perceiveddestinationimagepriorandaftertheexposuretotheInternetsources,two
additionalinterviewsareutilised.Duringthefirstinterview,theparticipantssharetheir
perceptionsofNorwayandreflectuponthepossiblesourcesthatcontributedtotheir
destinationimageformation.Inthecourseofthesecondinterview,therespondentsare
askedtowatchthevideooftheirInternetsearchandexplaintheironlinebehaviourusing
atalk‐aloudtechnique.Theresultsfillintheexistinggapsintheliteratureondestination
imageformationandofferpracticallyvaluableinsightsintotheindividualinfluencesof
bothdestination‐ownedandindependentInternetsourcesonper‐visitdestinationimage.
Methodologically,thepaperaddsvaluebyproposingclickstreamanalysisasan
alternativewayofmeasuringdestinationimageformation.
InternetandsocialmediausageamongvisitorsintheSwedish
mountainregions
ChristineLundberg
Technologymediationofexperiencesiscloselylinkedtotravelmotivesandperceived
valuesinceit,throughtheuseofweb2.0applications,facilitatesthesocialdimensionof
tourism.Forinstance,ithasbeenarguedthatnewtypesofconsumers,consumertribes,
areactiveandenthusiasticintheirconsumption,sometimestotheextreme,andproduce
143
arangeofidentities,practices,rituals,meanings,andevenmaterialculture,manyof
whichcanbefoundbystudyingtechnologyuseandsocialmediacontentandnetworking.
Assuch,Internetandsocialmediaisseenasanimportantmarketingtoolfortourism
businessesanddestinations.
Researchfocusingonparticipation,involvementandidentificationpointstoarelevant
featureofsocialmedia,namely,theformationofvirtualcommunitieswhereusersshare
contentandcommunicate.Theformingofthesesocialcommunitiescanbeparticularly
relevantforcommunitiesofnaturebasedtouristsduetosomeusers’oftenhighlevelsof
involvementinthistypeoftourismexperience.Also,insocialmedialargevolumesofUGC
(usergeneratedcontent)canbefoundwhich,inturn,havearapidlyincreasing
importanceforconsumers’decisionmakingprocesses.Whathoweverremainstobe
exploredisthevariationofinternetandsocialmediausagebyvarioustouristsegments
dependingonthetypeoftouristexperienceinquestioninordertoinformstrategic
choicesformarketers.Ithasbeensuggestedthatconsumersaretovaryingdegrees
dependentonacombinationofthreethingsalongacontinuum.Namely,theirprior
preferences,beliefsandexperiences(P),informationfrommarketers(M),andinputfrom
otherpeople(O).Thesethreefactorshavebeenhighlyinfluencedbytechnological
developments.Tourismistraditionallyseenashighlydependentoninformationaswell
astheopinionsofpeers.Thus,thequestionisifevidencetosupportthiscanbefoundin
theuseofInternetandsocialmediabynaturetourists.
Anationalsurveyofvisitors(n=895)intheSwedishmountainregionswasconductedin
ordertounderstandInternetandsocialmediausageamongthisgroupoftourists.
Preliminaryfindingsshowthat7outof10useInternettoreadabouttheSwedish
mountainsingeneralandalmost5out10statesthatInternetistheprimarysourceof
informationwhenplanningtheirmountainexperience.However,theyarenotavidusers
ofInternetforthispurpose‐almosthalfofthesampleusesInternettoreadaboutthe
Swedishmountainslessthanevery6months(13%statethattheyneveruseitforthis
purpose).Anothernoteworthyfindingisthatthevisitorstoaverylimitedextentengage
insocialmediaactivities.Theseresultsmayhavemajorimplicationsforthetourism
industryaswellaspolicyplannersintheSwedishmountainregionsregardingtheir
Internetandsocialmediastrategies.
Thechallengesofcollectingtourismdata
MalinZillinger
Experienceshavebeendiscussedwithinthetourismliteratureforalongtimeandtheir
valueforindividualvisitors,butalsoforthewholetourismindustry,isacknowledged
bothinacademiaandindustry.Thequestionishowempiricaldataonexperiencescanbe
collectedinasuitableway.Theproblemisthatsomekindsofmethodsmightinfluence
thevalidityofresearchprojects,asdatamightbecollectedthattheresearcherhasnot
askedfor.Tourismresearchhastofacethequestiononhowtocollectdatathatisactually
demanded.
Thisresearchprojecthasformerlycollecteddataontouristdestinationsandduring
events.Theaimofthatprojectwastogainmoreknowledgeonexperiencesintimeand
144
space,i.e.whichkindsofexperiencesdovisitorshave,andwhereandwhendothose
experiencestakeplace?Datawascollectedwithgpssendersasamethodologicalbase.By
these,theparticipants'spatialpathswereloggedandanalysed.Experienceswere
recordedbyabuttononthegpsdeviceatthetimetheytookplace.Inaddition,anumber
ofmethodswereusedtogatherindepthinformationontheexperiencesthemselves(by
interviews)orattitudestowardsthem(byquestionnairesandLikertscales).Generally,
thetechniqueworkedwell,asthemethodperformedtoberobustwithoutmanytechnical
problems.However,itturnedouttobelaboriousandpossiblyunsuitabletocollect
informationrelatedtothegpsfirst,andtoaskquestionsonpersonalexperiencesata
laterstage.
Therefore,amobilephoneapplicationhasnowbeendevelopedwithnewpossibilities
whenitcomestodatacollection.Thistime,theprojectisfocusedonthemeparksand
visitorexperiencestherein.Thefirstpartofthedatacollectiontakesplaceduringthe
summerof2014.Theshort‐termaimwiththisfirstroundofmethodtestingistoevaluate
thetechnologyoftheapplication,butalsotoanalysethecombinationofselectedmethods
withinthecircumstanceofacrowdedthemepark.Inthelongrun,theaimistoenablea
higherintensityofvaluecreation.Thiscanbedonebyahigherlevelofknowledgeon
visitorexperience.
TheprojectisfinancedbyKK‐Stiftelsen.
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146
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
Univeristy West, Sweden University of Oulu UiT The Arctic University of Norway Universiti Putra Malaysia University of Economics, Prague Urban Gråsjö Vilhelmiina Emilia Vainikka Young‐Sook Lee Yuhanis Abdul Aziz Zdenek Patek zdenek.patek@gmail.com yuhanis@upm.edu.my young‐sook.lee@uit.no vilhelmiina.vainikka@oulu.fi urban.grasjo@hv.se AUTHOR INDEX
A
AgnesBrudvikEngeset................................................................................................................................................................................................118
AgustínSantanaTalavera.............................................................................................................................................................................................96
AhmadRezaSheikhi........................................................................................................................................................................................................96
AlbinaPashkevich.............................................................................................................................................................................................................59
AllanWilliams....................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
AmbassadorMeretse.......................................................................................................................................................................................................58
AnaBelenCasado‐Diaz................................................................................................................................................................................................105
AnaMaríaMunar..............................................................................................................................................................................................................28
AnastasiaMariussen.....................................................................................................................................................................................................143
AndersHedetoft.................................................................................................................................................................................................................69
AndersSørensen.............................................................................................................................................................................................................115
AndersSteene....................................................................................................................................................................................................................56
AndrewThomas.................................................................................................................................................................................................................27
AnetteTherkelsen.............................................................................................................................................................................................................86
AnjaTuohino......................................................................................................................................................................................................................60
AnnaDoraSaethorsdottir.............................................................................................................................................................................................89
AnnaDóraSæþórsdóttir................................................................................................................................................................................................53
AnnaKarinOlsson............................................................................................................................................................................................................45
AnnaSörensson.................................................................................................................................................................................................................74
Ann‐ChristinAndersson..................................................................................................................................................................................................49
AnneKlaraBom.................................................................................................................................................................................................................65
Anne‐MetteHjalager.......................................................................................................................................................................................................38
AnnikenFørde.................................................................................................................................................................................................................136
AntoniaCorreia.................................................................................................................................................................................................................29
ArvidViken.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................136
ÅseHeleneBakkevigDagsland....................................................................................................................................................................................67
AstaKietäväinen............................................................................................................................................................................................................103
AstridE.Enemark.............................................................................................................................................................................................................37
B
Babesj‐Bolyai......................................................................................................................................................................................................................66
BenteHeimtun................................................................................................................................................................................................................135
BoSvensson......................................................................................................................................................................................................................118
156
C
CarinaBregnholmRen.................................................................................................................................................................................................132
CarolaMay..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................74
CatalinaJuaneda...............................................................................................................................................................................................................68
CeciliaMöller......................................................................................................................................................................................................................90
ChoukiSfandla...................................................................................................................................................................................................................29
ChrisMcMorran..............................................................................................................................................................................................................123
ChristerKarlEldh.............................................................................................................................................................................................................32
ChristinaEvaEngström..................................................................................................................................................................................................94
ChristineHafnorHåvoll...............................................................................................................................................................................................143
ChristineLim.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................88
ChristineLundberg.................................................................................................................................................................................................83,143
CintaSanz‐Ibáñez..........................................................................................................................................................................................................101
ClaireForder.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
ClareWeeden...................................................................................................................................................................................................................116
ConstantiaAnastasiadou..................................................................................................................................................................................110,111
CristiFrent...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................97
D
DebbieHopkins..................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
DianaAlexandru...............................................................................................................................................................................................................66
DieterKMüller................................................................................................................................................................................................................104
DortheEide................................................................................................................................................................................................................80,117
E
EddyNehls...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................92
EdwardHákonHuijbens..............................................................................................................................................................................................125
EinarLierMadsen..........................................................................................................................................................................................................119
EinarMarnburg....................................................................................................................................................................................................109,112
ElenaSakharchuk.............................................................................................................................................................................................................64
ElisabetLjunggren...........................................................................................................................................................................................................80
EmesePanyik...................................................................................................................................................................................................................110
EmilyHöckert..................................................................................................................................................................................................................122
ErikLundberg....................................................................................................................................................................................................................95
ErikaAnderssonCederholm..........................................................................................................................................................................................36
EstherDorsman.................................................................................................................................................................................................................31
EvaHagsten........................................................................................................................................................................................................................79
EvaMariaJernsand..........................................................................................................................................................................................................35
157
F
FlemmingSørensen..........................................................................................................................................................................................................55
FrankLindberg...............................................................................................................................................................................................................117
FredrikHoppstadius........................................................................................................................................................................................................90
G
GiancintaSaw....................................................................................................................................................................................................................88
GladysLam..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................88
GöranAndersson...............................................................................................................................................................................................................71
GrzegorzKwiatkowski.................................................................................................................................................................................................102
GunnarThórJóhannesson..........................................................................................................................................................................................135
GydaThorhallsdottir.......................................................................................................................................................................................................89
H
HanBrezet...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................50
HanneleKauppinen‐Räisänen...................................................................................................................................................................................129
HansGelter.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................137
HarngLuhSin.................................................................................................................................................................................................................123
HåvardNess........................................................................................................................................................................................................................43
HefinRowlands..................................................................................................................................................................................................................27
HelenaKraff........................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
HelgeJørgensen.................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
HenrikHalkier.......................................................................................................................................................................................................111,130
HeredinaFernandez........................................................................................................................................................................................................96
HyelinKim........................................................................................................................................................................................................................141
I
InêsDavid.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................107
IngeborgMarieNordbø..................................................................................................................................................................................................96
IngerMJonsson..............................................................................................................................................................................................................127
IngridZakrisson...................................................................................................................................................................................................118,139
IoannaFarsari...................................................................................................................................................................................................................42
IraLahovuo.................................................................................................................................................................................................................61,99
IreneCeciliaBernhard....................................................................................................................................................................................................81
IsabelRodriguezSanchez..............................................................................................................................................................................................40
J
JamesHigham....................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
JanHenrikNilsson............................................................................................................................................................................................................49
158
JanVelvin.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
JanVidarHaukeland........................................................................................................................................................................................................47
JaneWidtfeldtMeged......................................................................................................................................................................................................70
JenniMikkonen..........................................................................................................................................................................................................61,99
JennyJanhunen..................................................................................................................................................................................................................77
JensFriisJensen.................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
JieZhang...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................37
JohanLilja.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................118
JohanREdelheim...........................................................................................................................................................................................................138
JohnArmbrecht........................................................................................................................................................................................................95,114
JohnFMonhardt...............................................................................................................................................................................................................32
JoseManuelCasado‐Diaz............................................................................................................................................................................................105
José‐CarlosGarcía‐Rosell.......................................................................................................................................................................................31,77
JosefineÖstrupBacke...................................................................................................................................................................................................126
JulieWilson.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................101
K
KaarinaTervo‐Kankare..................................................................................................................................................................................................78
KaiVictorHansen.............................................................................................................................................................................................................82
KajsaGrandicsÅberg......................................................................................................................................................................................................41
KariJæger............................................................................................................................................................................................................................62
KarinaMadsenSmed.......................................................................................................................................................................................................62
KatharinaWolff....................................................................................................................................................................................................133,140
KatrínAnnaLund..........................................................................................................................................................................................................135
KazuyoshiTakeuchi.........................................................................................................................................................................................................26
KerstinMarianneGrundén............................................................................................................................................................................................81
KhairilAwang....................................................................................................................................................................................................................98
KlaesEringa.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................114
KregLindberg....................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
KristínRutKristjánsdóttir..........................................................................................................................................................................................131
KristinaLindström...........................................................................................................................................................................................................83
KritinaSvels........................................................................................................................................................................................................................41
L
LarryDwyer........................................................................................................................................................................................................................95
LauraJames.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................130
LeifEgilHem.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
LenaEskilsson....................................................................................................................................................................................................................84
LenaMossberg................................................................................................................................................................................................................126
Lisa‐MariCoughlan.......................................................................................................................................................................................................114
LotteWellton...................................................................................................................................................................................................................127
159
LuluAnneHansen.............................................................................................................................................................................................................63
M
MalinZillinger.......................................................................................................................................................................................................118,144
ManuelaKronen................................................................................................................................................................................................................51
MarcoEimermann.........................................................................................................................................................................................................107
MariaAngelesCasado‐Diaz.......................................................................................................................................................................................105
MariaHakkarainen..................................................................................................................................................................................................31,48
MaríaJoséZapataCampos............................................................................................................................................................................................93
MariaJylkkä........................................................................................................................................................................................................................93
MariaLexhagen.........................................................................................................................................................................................................36,83
MariaMånsson..................................................................................................................................................................................................................84
MariaThulemark...........................................................................................................................................................................................................108
MarieVestergaardMikkelsen...................................................................................................................................................................................106
MaritGundersenEngeset...............................................................................................................................................................................................34
MarkFrancis.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................27
MarkkuVieru...................................................................................................................................................................................................................121
MartinFalk..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................79
MartinGellerstedt.............................................................................................................................................................................................................56
MartinTrandbergJensen...............................................................................................................................................................................................72
MartinWeibye.................................................................................................................................................................................................................143
MatildeBrotons.................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
MatthiasFuchs...................................................................................................................................................................................................................36
MayIreneFurenes............................................................................................................................................................................................................76
MetinKozak........................................................................................................................................................................................................................29
MiaLarson........................................................................................................................................................................................................................134
MortenKroghPetersen................................................................................................................................................................................................132
MuzzoUysal.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................141
N
NigelHalpern..................................................................................................................................................................................................................120
NigelMorgan...................................................................................................................................................................................................................135
NinaMarianneIversen...................................................................................................................................................................................................34
NinaPrebensen...............................................................................................................................................................................................................141
O
OddIngeVistad..................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
OddnyWiggen.................................................................................................................................................................................................................119
OlgaGjerald...........................................................................................................................................................................................................109,112
OutiRantala.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................136
160
P
PatrikZapata.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................93
PaulEdwardCleave.........................................................................................................................................................................................................87
PerÅkeNilsson..................................................................................................................................................................................................................66
PernilleRoberts..............................................................................................................................................................................................................143
PeterBjörk.................................................................................................................................................................................................................73,129
PeterKvistgaard............................................................................................................................................................................................................100
R
RagnarTveterås................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
RannveigOlafsdottir........................................................................................................................................................................................................91
ReidarJohanMykletun....................................................................................................................................................................................58,67,82
RenukaMahadevan..........................................................................................................................................................................................................55
RezaMortazavi...............................................................................................................................................................................................................131
RichardEk...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
RobertPettersson..........................................................................................................................................................................................................118
RögnvaldurÓlafsson..............................................................................................................................................................................................89,142
RonFisher............................................................................................................................................................................................................................27
RouvenDoran...........................................................................................................................................................................................................93,133
S
SalvadorAnton‐Clavé...................................................................................................................................................................................................101
SandhiyaGoolaup..........................................................................................................................................................................................................126
SannaKyyrä................................................................................................................................................................................................................31,48
SarahBecklake..................................................................................................................................................................................................................46
SeijaTuulentie......................................................................................................................................................................................................103,135
SergeyIlkevich...................................................................................................................................................................................................................64
SharonChang.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
SherryShenghanZhou.................................................................................................................................................................................................114
SigbjørnTveteraas...........................................................................................................................................................................................................39
SoileVeijola......................................................................................................................................................................................................................125
SoyeunKim..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................52
StåleEinarsen....................................................................................................................................................................................................................67
StefanGössling...................................................................................................................................................................................................................49
StianStensland..................................................................................................................................................................................................................54
SusannaHeldt‐Cassel......................................................................................................................................................................................................59
SveinLarsen...............................................................................................................................................................................93,109,112,133,140
SzilviaGyimothy................................................................................................................................................................................................................85
161
T
TagePetersen.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................69
TatianaChekalina............................................................................................................................................................................................................36
TazimJamal........................................................................................................................................................................................................................52
TekB.Dangi........................................................................................................................................................................................................................52
ThorgilsHelgason..........................................................................................................................................................................................................101
TiinaKivelä......................................................................................................................................................................................................................135
TinaRoenhovdeTiller.....................................................................................................................................................................................................33
TobiasHeldt.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................131
TommyD.Andersson.............................................................................................................................................................................................95,114
TorvaldØgaard..........................................................................................................................................................................................109,112,133
TrineKvidal.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................62
U
UlrikaÅkerlund..............................................................................................................................................................................................................107
UrbanGråsjö.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................56
UteWalter........................................................................................................................................................................................................................127
V
VickiPeel...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................115
VilhelmiinaVainikka....................................................................................................................................................................................................124
W
WolframHöpken...............................................................................................................................................................................................................36
X
XuejuanZhang................................................................................................................................................................................................................123
Y
Young‐SookLee.................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
YuhanisAbdulAziz...........................................................................................................................................................................................................98
Z
ZaitonSamdin....................................................................................................................................................................................................................98
ZdenekPatek...................................................................................................................................................................................................................121
ZhanghuiYe........................................................................................................................................................................................................................88
ZulhamriAbdullah............................................................................................................................................................................................................98
162