Argumentation-Persuasion
Everyone has experience arguing“You can’t possibly expect me to believe what you are
saying.”
“Look, I know what I’m talking about, and that’s that.”
ButIn writing or oration, it is using clear thinking and logic
to convince audience of the soundness of a particular
opinion, especially on controversial topics.
Differences between…
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Argument- purpose to document objectively
to prove a point
Persuasion- purpose to shake up readers
and motivate them to act
The two are usually combined because most
people respond rationally and emotionally.
Aristotle’s Three Ways to
Persuade
Logos
Ethos
Pathos
What is rhetoric?
Rhetoric is the art of
persuasion.
The goal of
persuasion is to
change others’ point
of view or to move
others to take
action.
Rhetoric
-the art of using language effectively to influence the
thoughts and conduct of an audience
Speaker/Author
Topic/Subject
Audience
Rhetorical strategies
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Literary devices: metaphor, imagery,
alliteration, etc
Language devices: repetition,
connotation, denotation, diction, etc
See “Flowers” of Silva Rhetoricae for
many more…
http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/Silva.htm
What is logos, ethos, and
pathos?
Logos = Logic
Ethos = Ethics, Image
Pathos = Emotions (Passion)
Logos, Ethos, Pathos
Using logos, ethos, and pathos will help you to
master the art of persuasion.
• Through language, you will be able to change the
point of view of others!
• Through language, you will be able to motivate
others to take action!
Logos
Logos is an argument based on facts,
evidence and reason.
Using logos means appealing to the
readers’ sense of what is logical.
Ethos
Ethos is an argument based on character.
Using ethos means the writer or speaker
appeals to the audience’s sense of ethical
behavior. The writer or speaker presents him
or herself to the audience as credible,
trustworthy, honest and ethical.
“I am an ethical expert, so believe what I say.”
Pathos
Pathos = argument based on feelings
Using pathos means appealing to
readers’ emotions and feelings.
Symbols for Logos,
Ethos and Pathos
Logos = Head
Ethos = Hand
Pathos = Heart
Logos
Logos
Ethos
Ethos
Ethos
Ethos
Pathos
Pathos
Pathos
Logos Example
In the following example, note how Ian Ayres
uses evidence from experience (her work
environment, Delta Airlines, the University
of Chicago). This evidence establishes the
precedent that Ayres uses to compare to
the current situation that she argues should
be changed.
Logos Example
We don’t have single-sex toilets at home, and we
don’t need them at the office. Then there’s also
the small question of efficiency. I see my male
colleagues waiting in line to use the men’s room,
when the women’s toilet is unoccupied. Which is
precisely why Delta Airlines doesn’t label those
two bathrooms at the back of the plane as being
solely for men and women. It just wouldn’t fly.
Logos Example
The University of Chicago just got the 10 single-use
restrooms on campus designated gender neutral.
It’s time Yale followed suit. And this is not just an
academic problem. There are tens of thousands
of single-use toilets at workplaces and public
spaces throughout the nation that are wrongheadedly designated for a single-sex. All these
single-use toilets should stop discriminating. They
should be open to all on a first-come, first-lock
basis.
—Ian Ayres, “Looking Out for No. 2”
Ethos Example
In the following example, note how Nancy
Mairs establishes her credibility and
trustworthiness and authority to write
about this subject by being honest. Mairs
admits she is uncertain about her own
motives and shows she understands the
discomfort others’ have with this subject.
Ethos Example
First, the matter of semantics. I am a cripple. I
choose this word to name me. I choose from
among several possibilities, the most common of
which are “handicapped” and “disabled.” I made
the choice a number of years ago, without
thinking, unaware of my motives for doing so.
Even now, I am not sure what those motives are,
but I recognize that they are complex and not
entirely flattering.
Ethos Examples
People—crippled or not—wince at the word
“cripple,” as they do not at “handicapped” or
“disabled.” Perhaps I want them to wince. I
want them to see me as a tough customer,
one to whom the fates/gods/viruses have not
been kind, but who can face the brutal truth of
her existence squarely. As a cripple, I
swagger.
—Nancy Mairs, “On Being a Cripple”
Pathos Example
In the following example from a speech by
Winston Churchill, note the use of
anaphora (repetition of a word or group of
words at the beginning of items in a
series).
This repetition emphasizes the point and
expresses passion and emotion.
Moreover, the repetition affects the
audience emotionally.
Pathos Example
We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the
end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the
seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing
confidence and growing strength in the air, we
shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be,
we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the
landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in
the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall
never surrender.
—Winston Churchill, speech to the House of
Commons, June 4, 1940
Review
Logos = logic
Logos is an argument
based on facts,
evidence and reason.
Using logos means
appealing to the readers’
sense of what is logical.
Review
Ethos = Ethics / Image
Ethos is an argument based on
character.
The writer or speaker presents
him or herself to the reader
as credible, trustworthy,
honest and ethical.
Review
Pathos = argument
based on feelings
Using pathos means
appealing to
readers’ emotions
and feelings.
Pathos, Ethos, Logos
Rogerian Strategy
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Reject the “adversarial approach”
Adopt a respectful, conciliatory posture
Understand opposing viewpoints
Begin with unbiased restatement of
opposing viewpoint
Acknowledge the validity of differing
opinions
Building on the Classical
Argument
THE TOULMIN MODEL
OF RHETORICAL ARGUMENT
Stephen E. Toulmin

Stephen Edelston
Toulmin is a
philosopher and
rhetorical theorist. He
was born in England in
1922 and received his
Bachelor’s degree at
King’s College. After
World War II he
obtained his Master of
Arts and Doctor of
Philosophy degrees
from Cambridge.
Toulmin’s Model

Toulmin’s model provides that there are three
essential aspects to rhetorical argument:
Claim
Data
Warrant
Toulmin’s Model, cont.
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Simply:
A Claim is made.
Data is provided in the form of
supporting facts.
The Warrant connects the Data to the
Claim.
Claim
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Thesis
Proposition
Conclusion
Main Point
Macro-Argument
Controlling Idea
Data
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Evidence, proof
Opinions, information
Reasons, explanation
Examples, facts, data, grounds,
statistics
Personal narratives
Warrant
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Assumptions
General principles
Widely held values
Commonly accepted beliefs
Appeals to human motives
Cultural values
Presuppositions
Unstated premises
Generally accepted truths
For example:
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“I am an American.” (Claim)
“I was born in New York State.” (Data)
Anyone born in New York State is a
legal American citizen. (Warrant)
Toulmin says that the Claim and the Data
cannot hold without a sufficiently strong
Warrant , or, the weakest argument is the
one with the weakest warrant.
Toulmin’s Model cont.

Toulmin also identified other parts to an
argument.
Qualifier
Backing
Rebuttal
Toulmin’s Model cont.
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While the Claim, the Data and the Warrant
are essential parts to an argument, the
Qualifier, the Backing and the Rebuttal are
not.
The Qualifier states the strength of the
claim. In our sample argument about
American citizens, a Qualifier might be
“Some Americans are not born in the
United States. These are naturalized
citizens.”
Qualifier
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Establishes probabilities in an argument.
Allows exceptions.
Words like may be, might, many, some,
a few, probably, possibly.
Toulmin’s Model cont.
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The Backing provides extra strength to
the Warrant, especially if the Warrant is
not widely accepted or understood.
The Backing defends the Warrant.

The Rebuttal is an exception to the
claim and considers counter-arguments
much like the Classical model.
Backing
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To make warrants more acceptable to
an audience, particularly if the audience
does not happen to share them with the
author.
Additional evidence to “back up” a
warrant, whenever the audience is in
danger of rejecting it.
Rebuttal
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Establishes what is wrong, invalid, or
unacceptable about an argument.
Presents counterarguments or new
arguments that represent entirely
different perspectives or viewpoints on
the issue.
Fallacies
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A fallacy is an error
in reasoning
Distort evidence
Can be used
intentionally or
unintentionally
Can weaken or
strengthen argument
depending on their
use
Fallacies
1.
2.
3.
ad hominem: Occurs when the writer
personally attacks his or her opponents
instead of finding fault with their argument
ad populum: Arguers use this tactic to
appeal to the prejudices of the crowd. An
appeal to patriotism/nationalism is often the
case of this fallacy.
appeal to tradition: The arguer assumes
that what has been good for the past is also
good for the present and future, that
tradition should be preserved.
Fallacies
4. either-or-reasoning: Occurs when the
writer reduces the issue to only two
alternatives that are polar opposites
5. post hoc, ergo propter hoc: Occurs when
the writer implies that because one event
follows another, the first causes the second.
Chronology is not the same as causality.
6. non sequiter: a conclusion is drawn that has
no logical connection to the evidence cited.
Fallacies
7. red herring: Occurs when a writer raises an
irrelevant issue to draw attention away from
the central issue
Fallacies
8. slippery slope: Occurs when the writer
argues that taking one step will lead
inevitably to a next step, one that is
undesirable.
9. begging the question/ failing to accept the
burden of proof: Occurs when the writer
asserts a claim but provides no support for it.
Fallacies
10. appeals to questionable or faulty
authority: when sources are not named or
identified; using phrases like some sources
say, studies show, experts claim, etc.
11. false analogy: wrongly implies that
because two things share some
characteristics, they are therefore alike in all
respects.