SCIENCE AS KNOWLEDGE
AND MODE OF INQUIRY
Theme 1 / Lectures #2-4
Main Thesis

Doing science is one possible mode of
knowing. Hence, it produces one particular,
but not privileged type of knowledge. This
sort of knowledge is derived from a very
specific type of methodology (or gathering
data), which has its own set of limitations.
The story of science testifies to this.
Lecture 2
Objectives of the Theme
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To survey the story of science and how it emerges as
a dominant form of knowledge;
To understand the social nature of science and
technology;
To rethink the notion that science is a privileged
type of knowledge cut above the rest of other
forms of knowledge;
To articulate how students view their discipline within
the context of social sciences.
Science and/or Technology
Write a short, (one-paragraph)
essay explaining the relationship
between science and technology.
 Three students will be requested
to read their essay in class.
 Discussion of the essays’ major
points will follow.

Concept Mapping Presentation
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Section EE
Section EC
Section EY
Notes from the Presentation
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S & T related
T is an output of science
S &T help solve / create problems
Technology would not exist without science
Discoveries courtesy of the two
My Notes: Science and Technology
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S & T are not related, hence should not be
used interchangeably.
The two may develop separately without one
influencing the other.
The difference exposed the social nature of
science as knowledge.
But recently, they become so intertwined
reinforcing each other that they are construed
as one and the same.
Some big words first!
Science: Refers to the body of knowledge
that has been produced through and
validated by systematic processes of inquiry
which seek to describe, understand, and
predict natural phenomena.
 Technology: Knowledge that people apply
to the task of living in their surrounding

Science as Knowledge
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From the definitions above, we can safely
conclude that knowledge are processed
information which are generated to understand
nature (science) and ultimately can be used for
practical and applied purposes (technology).
This description of knowledge reflects two
significant features of science as knowledge: (i) it
is socially produced hence cultural and (ii) its
used is largely determined by socio-ecological
forces.
Assignment
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Read articles about how science develop.
Articles that highlights the stories of the pioneer
scientists and “their of science.”
Story of Science
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Science emerges as a philosophical and political
reactions to figures and institutions of authority such
as the Church and the State during earlier periods
from the Enlightenment, to Reformation to
Renaissance.
The story of science is also the story of people who
have personal desires to understand the nature of
nature.
Lecture 3
The Story of Science….cont.
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These personal ambitions where not singlehandedly
pursued by a person. Rather, they gained inspiration
and impetus from the works of others before thema form of fellowship.
Therefore, the biography of science must not be
highlighted by big science personalities themselves,
but by their immediate historical and political
contexts (e.g., Inquisition and the Black Death).
Reformation
th
th
(16 -17
Century)
Challenged the unity of
established religion.
 Led to the
individualization of faith.
 Paved the way for the
secularization of
knowledge different
from religion.

Enlightenment
th
(18
Century)
Focus shifted to the
individual and his/her
reason
 Rationality replaced
revelation as source
of explanation
 Deism—God created
rational humans

The Rise of Science
“Modern” civilization has its foundations on the
scientific and technological achievements of the
past epochs (e.g. Printing Press Era,
Copernican Revolution, Industrial Revolution, et
al).
 This influence and prestige are then extended
to addressing both the mundane and familiar
dimensions of our social existence permeating
the minutest facets of our daily lives.

Scientific Method
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What distinguishes science is not the knowledge that
it is capable of producing.
Rather, it is how it produces such knowledge and
eventually how these knowledge influence
technological innovations.
This way (or method) is technically called scientific
method.
It requires systematic process experimentation, data
recording, and replication.
Observation
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Simple: requires only the senses as tools
Unobtrusive: does not intrude or intervene.
Captures data as they occur (capturing
naturally occuring process).
Convenient: can be executed and repeated
without too much preparation. Simple
recording tools may be used wit caution.
Experimentation
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To determine cause and effect and correlation
relationships of phenomena under study.
Hence, allows researcher to control certain features
of the phenomenon.
Controlling aspect of the method is designed to
calibrate the details (direction/degree) of the
relationship.
Control is a means to predict possible scenarios for
practical intents and purposes.
Science as “Truth”
Science as knowledge is treated as if it contains
the truth or is Truth itself. This scientistic attitude
can be contested by considering other forms of
Truth such as following:
• Faith or belief
• Common agreement
• Experts’ opinion • Science
Habermas’ Critique of Science
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Three types of knowledge
Empirical concerned with the
understanding of the material world.
Hermeneutic/historical—understanding
the meaning, particularly historical texts
Critical knowledge—uncovering
sources of domination.
Science and Other Forms of
Knowledge
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Scientific knowledge is not as real and unchanging
as we conceived them to be. The history of science
itself is replete with examples as to how
malleable and changeable scientific truths can be.
There are questions that cannot be answered by
science with all its analytic might and power.
Scientism or the arrogance of science practitioners
themselves.
Lecture 4
Science and Other Forms
of Knowledge
Insights Discussion
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What insights can you draw from your group
presentations regarding the relationship between
science and other sources of knowledge?
Can we trust the knowledge produced by these
sources? Why and why not?
Are we in a position to evaluate one using the other
as standard?
INTEGRATIVE QUESTION 1
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“Despite glaring commonalities between science and
shamanism, what do you think are the factors that
keep them apart? Can you cite at least three (3)
grounds how the gap can be bridged?”
Max 3 pp., double spaced, 12 font size, Cambria
Due: Oct 20 (MW classes); Oct 21 (TTh classes)
Incomplete information will have points deduction
SOCTEC QUIZ BEE
Challenges to Science
Read John Casti material. The piece discusses the
major philosophical issues in the debates regarding
the nexus of science and other disciplines like
philosophy, biology, chemistry, astronomy, linguistics,
etc.
• Each section will be represented in the Quiz bee
and the winning block will receive points from the ML
and Tutors.
•
Challenges to Science
Major critical challenges raised
against science as a mode of
inquiry and as a process
knowledge production.
Lecture 5
Formal Criticisms of Science
Popper: on the falsifiability of science
 Feyerabend: on the subjectivity of scientific
methods
 Lakatos: on the politics of scientific research
 Longino: on the intersubjectivity of science
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The process of observation is prone to
be limited by subjective selection.
 It is possible for different individuals
to have different observations for a
single phenomenon.
 The process of observation may also
be influenced by what is expected,
even as it cannot be certainly said
that what is observed at one
particular time period is true for other
time periods.
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There are many hidden
structures in society that are
unobservable
 The public manifestation of
human behavior does not
necessarily reflect their true
feelings
 What is visible may not
necessarily be authentic
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