Human Anatomy and
Physiology PowerPoint
Meghan Groom
Period 2
August 10, 2012
Question 1: Define anatomy and physiology
and describe their subdivisions.
Anatomy and physiology is the science of the structure of the body
combined with the science of the functions of the body.
Subdivisions of Anatomy:
Subdivisions of Physiology:
•
-Gross Anatomy is the study of
large body structures.
•
-Neurophysiology
•
•
-Endocrinology
-Microscopic Anatomy, which
includes cytology and histology.
•
-Cardiovascular Physiology
•
- “Other” specialized branches,
are pathology and radiographic
anatomy.
•
-Immunology
•
-Respiratory Physiology
•
-Renal Physiology
•
-Exercise Physiology
•
-Pathophysiology
•
-The subdivisions of physiology
are neurophysiology,
endocrinology, cardiovascular
physiology, immunology,
respiratory physiology, renal
physiology, exercise physiology,
and pathophysiology.
Question 2: Name different levels of structural
organization that make up the human body, and
explain their relationships.
•
Levels of Structural Organization:
•
-Chemical
•
-Cellular
•
-Tissue
•
-Organ
•
-Organ Systems
•
-Organism
•
Chemical reactions occur in the cells,
which make up tissue, and organs.
Organ systems are made up of multiple
organs. And, cells, in the form of tissue
and organs, make up the entire
organism.
Question 3: List the 11 organ systems of the body,
identify their components, and briefly explain the
major functions of each system.
•
Eleven Organ Systems:
•
-Integumentary System, includes skin and nails,
helps protect the body from abrasions, ultraviolet
rays, and dehydration.
•
-Muscular System, provides movement and
stabilization, and also generates heat.
•
-Skeletal System, provides support and structure for
the body.
•
-Nervous System, is responsible for communication
throughout the body
•
-Endocrine System, produces hormones that control
growth, metabolism, and sexual development.
•
-Circulatory System, flows blood and oxygen
throughout the body.
•
-Lymphatic System, aids the immune system and
helps get rid of toxins.
•
-Respiratory System, supplies blood cells with
oxygen.
•
-Digestive System, breaks down food in order to
make nutrients and energy.
•
-Urinary System, removes wastes from the body.
•
-Reproductive System, ensures the survival of the
human race.
Question 4: List the functional characteristics
necessary to maintain life in humans.
-Movement- locomotion
-Responsiveness- ability to respond
to stimuli.
-Digestion- breaking down food to be
absorbed into the blood
-Metabolism- maintaining stable
internal conditions
-Excretion -eliminating waste
products from metabolism
-Reproduction- the process of
creating new organisms to keep
the species surviving
-Growth- the ability for cells to
provide, and individuals and
societies to grow as a whole
Question 5: Define homeostasis and explain its
significance.
•
•
-Homeostasis- the selfsustaining mechanisms in
organisms that tries to maintain
stable internal conditions.
-Without homeostasis,
organisms would not be able to
have stable internal conditions,
and therefore would not be able
to survive.
Question 6: Describe how negative and positive
feedback maintain body homeostasis.
•
-Negative feedback is when the
body does the reverse of what
happening to it to reverse the
process.
•
-Positive feedback is when the
body promotes what is happening
to it to reach normal conditions.
•
Both processes cause the body to
go back to normal conditions and
maintain homeostasis.
Question 7: Describe anatomical position.
•
-Anatomical Position is when
the body is standing up with
its feet together, arms by its
side, and the head, eyes and
palms of the hands are facing
forward.
Question 8: Use correct anatomical terms to
describe body directions, regions, and body planes
or sections.
•
-Superior and inferior refer to the placement of body
parts along the long axis of the body.
•
- Anterior/ventral and posterior/dorsal describe body
parts toward the front side or the backside of the
body.
•
-Media and lateral are used to refer to body parts
that are near or away from the midline.
•
-Cephalic refers to the head, whereas caudal refers
to the tail end.
•
-Proximal and distal are used to describe things that
are near or far away from each other.
•
-Superficial and deep are used to describe organs
proximity to the skin.
•
-Sagittal Plane divides the body into left and right.
•
-Frontal Plane, or coronal plane, divides the body
into anterior and posterior.
•
-Transverse Plane divides the body into superior
and inferior parts.
Question 9: Locate and name the major body cavities
and their subdivisions, and list major organs contained
within them.
Dorsal Cavity:
-Subdivisions
*Cranial Cavity
*Spinal Cavity
-Major Organ
*Brain
Ventral Cavity:
-Subdivisions
*Thoracic Cavity
*Pelvic Cavity
*Abdominopelvic Cavity
-Major Organs
*Heart
*Pancreas
*Trachea *Urinary Bladder
*Esophagus*Lower end of the colon
*Lungs
*internal reproductive
*Stomach organs (primarily female
*Intestines
*Liver
*Kidneys
*Spleen
Question 10: Name the serous membranes and
indicate their common function.
•
Serous Membranes:
•
-Pericardium
•
-Pleura
•
-Peritoneum
•
All three are thin layers of tissue
surrounding major organs, such
as the heart, throat, and stomach,
respectively.
Question 11: Name the nine regions or four
quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity and list the
organs they contain.
•
Right Upper Quadrant
(RUQ)
•
•
Left Upper Quadrant
(LUQ)
-Stomach
•
-Liver
•
-Gall Bladder
•
-Spleen
•
-Duodenum
•
-Colon
•
-Pancreas
•
-Colon
•
-Liver
•
Right Lower Quadrant
(RLQ)
•
-Pancreas
•
-Cecum
•
•
-Appendix
•
Left Lower Quadrant
(LLQ)
-Colon
•
-Colon
•
-Right Ovary
•
-Left Ovary
•
-Right Ureter.
•
-Left Ureter
Question 12: Describe major energy forms.
•
Major Forms of Energy:
•
-Chemical Energy is created by
making and breaking chemical bonds.
•
-Electromagnetic Energy is made of
photons.
•
-Heat Energy is the vibration of matter.
•
-Mechanical Energy is the energy of
motion calculated by the equation
E=1/2mv2.
•
-Nuclear Energy comes from decaying
radioactive material.
•
-Potential Energy is energy in a stored
form.
•
-Kinetic Energy is energy in motion.
Question 13: Define chemical element, and list the
four elements that form the bulk of the body.
•
-Chemical Element a pure
chemical with one type of atom.
•
-Four Elements That Form the
Bulk of the Body:
•
*Oxygen
•
*Hydrogen
•
*Carbon
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*Nitrogen
Question 14: Compare solutions, colloids, and
suspensions.
•
Three Major Types of Mixtures:
•
-Solutions, a homogeneous
mixture in which particles are
distributed evenly.
•
-Colloids, a mixture with medium
sized particles that disperse
evenly throughout the mixture.
•
-Suspensions, a mixture in which
solute-like particles eventually
settle into a solvent-like phase.
Question 15: Compare and contrast polar and
nonpolar compounds.
•
Polar Compounds:
•
-When two or more elements with
differences in electronegativity
between 0.5 and 1.7 are bonded.
•
-Electrons are shared unevenly,
causing one side to be slightly
negative and the other to be
slightly positive.
•
Both:
•
-Bonds are covalent, and between
two nonmetals.
•
Nonpolar Compounds:
•
-Have elements with differences in
electronegativity less than 0.5
bonded together.
Question 16: Define the three major types of chemical
reactions: synthesis, decomposition, and exchange.
Comment on the nature of oxidation reduction reactions
and their importance.
•
Major Types of Chemical
Reactions:
•
-Synthesis, when two or more
substances come together to for a
compound.
•
-Decomposition, when a
compound breaks apart to form
two or more separate substances.
•
-Exchange (two types)
•
-The first is when a single
substance replaces one of the
substances in a compound.
•
-The other is when there are two
compounds, and one of the
substances in each switch.
•
-Oxidation is oxygen reacts with
hydrocarbons to make carbon
dioxide and water. Oxidation is a
source of heat, light and power.
Question 17: Explain why chemical reactions in the
body are often irreversible.
•
-Chemical reactions in the body
are often irreversible because
homeostasis creates conditions
that make it so reactions can only
move in the direction that sustains
homeostasis.
Question 18: Explain the importance of water and
salts to body homeostasis.
•
Water
•
-Has a high heat capacity, so it will not
raise its temperature much when it
absorbs heat. This allows the body to
not loose too much heat.
•
-Has a high vaporization point, which
means it takes in a lot of heat when we
sweat.
•
-The universal solvent. A lot of things,
like metabolic waste, can be carried in
it. All of which is good for homeostasis.
•
Salt
•
-An electrolyte that helps with nerve
impulse transitions, muscle
contractions, and water balance, all of
which contribute to homeostasis.
Question 19: Define acid and base, and explain
the concept of pH.
•
-Acid, gives the base a hydrogen
ion.
•
-Base, takes the hydrogen ion.
•
-pH, is the measure of acidity in a
substance.
•
-If the pH is lower than 6, it is an
acid.
-
If the pH is higher than 8, it is a
base.
-
If the pH is 7, then it is neutral.
Question 20: Describe the general mechanism of
enzyme activity.
•
-Enzymes help speed up reactions
in the body.
•
-First, the enzyme is made. It has
anywhere from 100 to 1000 amino
acids in it.
•
-Then, a substrate goes to an
activation site and change’s its
shape to fit that of the substrate.
•
-After that, the reaction occurs and
the activation site releases the
product.
Question 21: List the three major regions of a
generalized cell and indicate the function of each.
•
Three Major Regions of a
Generalized Cell:
•
-Plasma Membrane, controls what
comes in and out of the cell.
•
-Cytoplasm, holds organelles in
their place.
•
-Nucleus, controls what goes on in
the cell and hold’s its DNA.
Question 22: Describe the chemical composition of
the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane
functions.
•
-The plasma membrane is
composed of a phospholipid
bilayer.
•
-The part on the exterior of the
membrane is hydrophilic and the
part in the interior is hydrophobic.
•
-It is polar and nonpolar,
respectively, making it hard for
molecules to enter the cell.
•
-In addition, the plasma
membrane also contains
cholesterol and proteins.
Question 23: Compare the structure and function
of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
•
-Tight junctions, seal epithelia,
sheets of cell that connect masses
of cells and a cavity. They do two
vital things: prevent the passage
of molecules and ions between
the spaces in the cell, and prevent
the movement of integral
membrane proteins.
•
-Gap junctions, are intercellular
channels that allow ions and
molecules to pass through. This
allows changes in membrane
potential to pass from cell to cell.
•
-Desmosomes, are patches of
skin that hold two cells together.
They attach to intermediate
filaments of keratin in the
cytoplasm. They are common in
skin.
Question 24: Relate plasma membrane structure to active
and passive transport mechanisms. Differentiate between
these transport processes relative to energy source,
substances transported, direction, and mechanism.
•
-Passive transport is when ions,
sugars, or amino acids move from
an area of higher concentration to
lower concentration. They rely on
protein carriers to get through the
membrane, and does not use
energy. Diffusion is an example of
passive transport, as well as
osmosis (the diffusion of water).
•
-Active transport is when larger
molecules move from lower
concentration to higher
concentration. They need energy
to get through the plasma
membrane. An example of active
transport is the sodium-potassium
pump.
Question 25: Describe the role of the glycocalyx
when cells interact with their environment.
•
-Glycocalyx is a coating around a
cell that enables it to be
recognized as a healthy cell and
not an intruder.
-
It is a fuzzy coating made of
carbohydrates, glycolipids and
glycoproteins.
-
The only glycocalyx that is the
same is in identical twins;
everyone else has unique
glycocalyx.
Question 26: Discuss the structure and function of
mitochondria.
•
-Mitochondria, organelles that
create energy.
•
-They are an oval shape, with an
inner and outer membrane, a
matrix surrounded by
intermembrane space, and cristas
in the folds of the matrix.
•
-They produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), which is
stored in food.
Question 27: Discuss the structure and function of
ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi
apparatus including functional interrelationships among
these organelles.
•
-Ribosomes are protein builders
found in the cytoplasm or on
endoplasmic reticulum (rough
endoplasmic reticulum). It is
composed of two parts- the 60-S
(the larger part) amd the 40-S (the
smaller part).
•
-Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)rough and smooth. They are both
made of folded membrane, but
smooth ER is a storage unit and
rough ER helps in making
proteins.
•
-Golgi Apparatus, a packaging unit
that looks like rough ER. It takes
small molecules, makes them into
large molecules and then either
stores them or sends them into
the cell for use. They also create
lysosomes.
Question 28: Compare the functions of lysosomes
and peroxisomes.
•
Lysosomes:
•
-Hold enzymes within their
membrane and digest waste in the
cell or dead cells in animal cells.
•
-Hold enzymes that require no
oxygen.
•
Peroxisomes:
•
-Which are in plant cells, also
have a membrane that holds
enzymes, but they hold a different
kind.
•
-Hold enzymes that require
oxygen.
Question 29: Describe the process of DNA
replication.
•
1. DNA starts to unwind itself
•
2. Helicase breaks the hydrogen
bonds between the antiparallel
strands.
•
3. RNA Primer matches up with its
DNA base pairs. This creates two
pairs of DNA.
Question 30: Name two phases of protein synthesis and
describe the roles of DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in each
phase. Compare triplets, codons and anticodons.
•
Transcription:
•
-Information from DNA is encoded
into mRNA.
•
Translation:
•
-mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA work
together to synthesize proteins.
•
-Triplets are sets of three bases
that code for a specific codon,
anticodon, or amino acid
•
-Codons are three bases that form
a genetic code
•
-Anticodons are three bases
complementary to the codon
Question 31: List several structural and functional
characteristics of epithelial tissue.
Epithelial Tissue:
-Covers the surface of the body.
-Made entirely of cells.
-Cells are tightly packed.
-Has distinct upper and lower
surfaces.
-Not supported by blood cells.
-Protects organs and blood vessels.
-Can regenerate.
-Supported by connective tissue.
Question 32: Name, classify, and describe the
various types of epithelia; also include their chief
functions and locations
•
-Squamous cells, or pavement cells, are thin,
flat cells that line the mouth, blood vessels,
heart, and lungs.
•
-Simple cuboidal epithelia are square shaped
with spherical nuclei found in the glands of
kidneys, and the gametes of ovaries and testes.
•
-Simple columnar epithelia are multilayered,
columns that form the lining of the stomach and
intestines, are the sensory receptors on the
nose, ears, and tongue, and secrete mucus in
the mouth.
•
-Cilliated columnar epithelia are like simple
columnar epithelia, but have cillia on them and
are found in the nose and Fallopian tubes.
•
-Columnar epithelia with goblet cells are called
glandular epithelia.they secrete things such as
enzymes and hormones, and are found in the
salivary glands.
•
-Stratified epithelia is multilayered can either be
keratinized or unkeritanized, and are found in
the skin.
•
-All of these have functions such as protection
and absorption.
Question 33: Define gland. Differentiate between
exocrine and endocrine glands and multicellular
and unicellular glands.
•
-Gland, one or more cells that
create a secretion (product). To
do that they chemically synthesize
their product.
•
-Exocrine glands are externally
secreting glands that secrete
things substances onto the body’s
surface or into cavities.
•
-Endocrine glands are mostly
multi-cellular organs that produce
hormones.
•
-Unicellular glands have one cell.
•
-Multicellular glands have multiple
cells with either branched or
unbranched ducts and a sectory
unit.
Question 34: Describe the types of connective
tissue found in the body, and indicate their
characteristic functions.
•
-Loose connective tissues are widely
scattered cells whose matrix is made up
of fibers that are found beneath the skins
surface.
•
-Adipose tissues connect adipose cells,
which are loosely connected store fat.
•
-Blood is loosely connected tissues
whose matrix is plasma, and transports
substances from one part of the body to
another.
•
-Collagen is closely connected tissue,
which can either be regular, like tendons,
or irregular, like the lining of organs.
•
-Cartilage is a connective tissue with a lot
of fibers that can be found in-between
disks, surrounding joints, and in the nose
and ears.
•
-Bone is a connective tissue whose
matrix is fibers coated in calcium sulfate,
and makes up the skeletal system.
Question 35: Describe the structure and function of
cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes.
•
-Cutaneous membrane is the
organ system that covers the
surface of the body. It is made of
keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
•
-Mucous membranes are wet,
moist cells that are adapted for
absorption and secretion. They
line the cavities of the digestion
track.
•
-Serous membranes are made of
simple squamous epithelium on a
thin layer of loose connective
tissue, and are inside closed
ventral cavities. They use
hyaluronic to enrich the fluid
coming into the capillaries.
Question 36: Outline the process of tissue repair
involved in the normal healing of a superficial
wound.
•
1. To repair tissue, injured cells
become inflamed and permeable.
•
2. White blood cells begin clotting
to stop the loss of blood.
•
3. The clot forms, and the excess
waste is removed through the
lymphatic system.
•
4. The clot becomes replaces by
granulation tissue, which becomes
scar tissue.
•
5. As the regenerating epithelium
thickens, the scab detaches.
Question 37: Indicate the embryonic origin of each
tissue class.
•
-Connective tissue, cartilage,
bone, and blood are all descended
from mesenchyme.
•
-Muscle tissue and cardiac tissue
are from the mesoderm.
•
-Nervous tissue is from the
ectoderm.
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•
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•
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•
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•
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•
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•
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•
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>.